Chapter-III :BIOMOLECULES

ATE
 Carbohydrates - Amino acids & Proteins - Lipids Dr. A.D.NAVEEN KUMAR
 CARBOHY CHMS

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates possess the general formula - (CH2O)n.
The name carbohydrate literally means ‘hydrates of carbon' since they are having H and O in 2:1 ratio.
Some of the carbohydrates e.g. Rhamnohexose (C6H12O5), Deoxyribose (C5H10O5) do not satisfy the
general formula but can be considered as carbohydrates.
The term saccharide refers to sugar that are soluble in water and sweet in taste.
Carbohydrates can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones compounds.
Carbohydrates are the important dietary sources and can be considered as dietary staple.

Functions of Carbohydrates :
 Carbohydrates participate in a wide range of functions in organisms.
 They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4 Cal /Gram).
 Polysaccharides like Starch and Glycogen can serve as Storage / Reserve compounds in plants
and animal respectively.
 Cellulose and Chitin will mediate structural role in Cell walls of plants and fungi respectively.
 Some of the sugar derivatives are Ascorbic acid (Vitamin-C), Antiobiotics- Erythromycin,
Streptomycin.
 Uronic acid is the oxidative product of Glucose produced at Liver involves in the detoxification
of toxic pigment bilirubin produced from the breakdown of Hemoglobin of RBC in humans.
 Glycoconjugates like Glycoproteins and Glycolipids plays an important role in cellular and
metabolic activities.
 Hetero polysaccharides or Glycosaminoglycans are essential for the formation of Extracellular
matrix (ECM) in the connective tissues of animals.
Classification of Sugars : Sugars are broadly classified into three major groups monosaccharides,
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. This classification is based on the number of sugar units.

Monosaccharides :
Monosaccharide are the simplest group of carbohydrates and are often referred to as simple sugars. They
have the general formula Cn(H2O)n, and they cannot be further hydrolysed. The monosaccharides are
divided into different categories, based on the functional group and the number of carbon atoms.
The monosaccharides are divided into different categories, based on the functional group and the number
of carbon atom.
Aldoses : When the functional group in monosaccharidesis an aldehyde (-CHO) are known as aldoses
e.g. Glyceraldehyde- Aldotriose, Glucose - Aldo hexose: Blood sugar, Grape sugar, Sugar of life.
Ketoses: When the functional group is a keto group, they are referred to as ketoses e.g. dihydroxyacetone.
Fructose - (Keto hexose): Fruit sugar, Honey sugar, Sweetest sugar

Based on the number of carbon atoms, the monosaccharides are regarded as trioses (3C), tetroses (4C),
pentoses (5C) and hexoses (6C). These terms along with functional groups are used while naming
monosaccharides.

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Oligosaccharides : Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide molecules which are liberated on
hydrolysis. Based on the number of monosaccharide units present, the oligosaccharides are further
subdivided to disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides etc.

Polysaccharides : Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide units (hundreds to thousands of

monosaccharide units) with high molecular weight. General formula – (C6H10O5)n.
They are usually tasteless ( non-sugars) and insoluble or slightly soluble in water. The polysaccharides
are of two types: homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.

Stereoisomerism in Sugars :
Stereoisomerism is an important character of monosaccharides. Stereoisomers are the compounds that
have the same structural formulae but differ in their spatial configuration.
D & L- Conformations :

D & L conformation are proposed by Fischer by taking the Glyceraldehyde as model.

Sugars are more stable in D-forms than L-forms.

A carbon is said to be asymmetric when it is attached to four different atoms or groups.

The number of asymmetric carbon atoms (n) determines the possible isomers of a given compound which
is equal to 2n. Glucose contains 4 asymmetric carbons i.e. 24 and thus has 16 isomers.

Anomers :
Anomers are the compounds that differ from each other in the configuration only around C1 known
(anomeric carbon).α and β cyclic forms of D-glucose are considered as anomers. They differ from each
other in their -OH group arrangement at C1.

Epimers :
Epimers are the compounds that differ from each other only around a single carbon atom but other than
C1. Biologically important epimers are Glucose and Mannose - C2 epimers
Glucose and Galactose - C4 epimers

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Optical activity of Sugars :
Optical activity is a characteristic feature of compounds with asymmetric carbon atom. When a beam of
polarized light is passed through a solution of an optical isomer, it will be rotated either to the right or left.
The term dextrorotatory (+) and levorotatory (-) are used to compounds that respectively rotate the
plane of polarized light to the right or to the left. Glucose is dextrorotatory compounds hence it is called
dextrose and the Fructose is levorotatory compounds hence it is considered as levulose.

Chemical reactions of Sugars : Oxidation of sugars produces carboxylic acids, Reduction of sugars
produces Alcohols. Eg: Reduction of Glucose gives Sorbitol, Mannose gives Mannitol, Fructose give
Sorbitol & Mannitol, Galactose produces Dulcitol.
In diabetes patients excess of Dulcitol is produced at cornea of eye and causes Cataract which leads to
Vision loss.

Disaccharides :
Disaccharide consists of two monosaccharide units (similar or dissimilar) held together by a glycosidic
bond.
They are crystalline, water-soluble and sweet in taste. The disaccharides are of two types
1. Reducing disaccharides with free aldehyde or keto group e.g. Maltose, lactose, Cellulose
2. Non-reducing disaccharides with no free aldehyde or keto group e.g. Sucrose, Trehalose

Maltose : Maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units held together by α 14 glycosidic bond. It is
present in plant seeds hence it is called Malt sugar. The free aldehyde group present on C1 of second
glucose answers the reducing reactions.

Lactose : Lactose is more commonly known as milk sugar since it is the disaccharide found in milk.
Lactose is composed of α-D-galactose and β-D-glucose held together by β 14 glycosidic bond.
Lactose of milk is the most important carbohydrate in the nutrition of growing children. It is hydrolysed
by the intestinal enzyme lactase to glucose and galactose.

Cellobiose : Cellobiose is made up of two units of β-D-glucose units and are connected by β 1- 4
glycosidic bond. Cellobiose can be obtained from the hydrolysis of plant cell wall polysaccharide
cellulose.

Sucrose : Sucrose is called cane sugar and mostly produced by sugar cane and sugar beets.
Sucrose is made up of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose. The two monosaccharides are held together by
α, β 12 glycosidic bond between C1 of glucose and C2 of fructose. The reducing groups of glucose and
fructose are involved in glycosidic bond, hence sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose, as such is
dextrorotatory, when hydrolysed, sucrose becomes levorotatory. The process of change in optical rotation
from dextrorotatory (+) to levorotatory (-) is referred to as inversion.

Trehalose : Trehalose is nonreducing disaccharide consists of two α-D-glucose units which are
connected together by α 11 glycosidic bond. It is present in hemolymph of insects and functions as
reserve sugar.
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Reducing action of Sugars :
The reducing action of sugars is depending o the availability or presence of functional groups either
–CHO or –C=O. The reducing property is attributed to the free aldehyde or keto group of anomeric
carbon. In laboratory, Benedict's test, Fehling's tests are employed to identify the reducing action of
sugars. Benedicts test is frequently used to determine the reducing and non reducing nature of sugars.

Benedicts Reagent and its principle : Chemically benedicts reagent is Alkaline Copper sulfate (Alakilne
CuSO4). When benedicts reagent is added to the given sugar solution followed by heating first sugar will
be converted to 1,2-enediol in alkali which reduces the Cupric ions (Cu2+) to Cuprous ions (Cu+) by
donating electrons, which forms a yellow precipitate of cuprous hydroxide then to red precipitate of
cuprous oxide. It confirms the presence of reducing sugar.

All Monosaccharides and Disaccharides except Sucrose and Trehalose gives positive test with Benedicts
reagent. Polysaccharides don’t react with benedicts reagent. Clinically benedict’s reagent is used to
identify the sugars (Glucose) present in the urine of Diabetes mellitus patients.

Polysaccharides :
Polysaccharides (glycans) consist of repeat units of monosaccharides or their derivatives, held together by
glycosidic bonds. They are primarily concerned with two important functions-structural and storage of
energy. Polysaccharides are linear as well as branched polymers. This is in contrast to structure of
proteins and nucleic acids which are only linear polymers. Polysaccharides are of two types
Homopolysaccharides – These are made up of single type of sugar units and upon hydrolysis yield only
a single type of monosaccharide. Examples : Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Inulin, Chitin

Starch : Starch is a branched polymer of α-D-glucose and functions as plant storage carbohydrate.
It is the most important dietary source for higher animals, including man. High content of starch is found
in cereals, roots, tubers, vegetables etc. Starch consists of two polysaccharide components they are water
soluble-amylose (15-20%) and a water insoluble-amylopectin (80-85%). Starches are hydrolysed by
amylase (pancreatic or salivary) to liberate dextrins, and finally maltose and glucose units.
Starch produces blue colour with Iodine.

Glycogen : Glycogen is the carbohydrate reserve in animals, hence often referred to as animal starch.
It is a branched polymer of α-D-glucose. In animals it is present in high concentrations in liver and
muscle. The structure of glycogen is similar to that of starch but with more number of branches.

Cellulose : Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant
kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of plant cell wall. Cellulose is totally absent in animal body.
Cellulose is an unbranched poymer of β-D-glucose units linked by β 14 glycosidic bonds.
Cellulose cannot be digested by humans due to lack of the enzyme Cellulase. Certain ruminants and
herbivorous animals contain microorganisms in the gut which produce cellulases that can cleave
β-glycosidic bonds. Hydrolysis of cellulose yields a disaccharide cellobiose, followed by β-D-glucose.

Chitin : Chitin is a unbranched polymer of β-D-N-acetyl glucosamine units held together by β 14
glycosidic bonds. It is a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of some invertebrates.
e.g. insects, crustaceans and also present in the cell walls of some fungi.

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Inulin : Inulin is a fructosan and it is an unbranched storage polysaccharide made up of β-D-Fructose
uints. It occurs in dahlia bulbs, garlic, onion etc. Inulin is not utilized by the body. Cliniclly inulin is used
for assessing kidney function through measurement of glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

Heteropolysaccharides : These are heteroglycans composed of two different types sugar or sugar
derivatives. These are also called as Glycosaminoglycans and are anionic in nature i.e. negatively charged
due to the presence of sulfate groups (SO42-). These are very important for tissue formation and stability
in animals but heteroglycans are not present in plants.

Types of Heteropolysaccharides (Glycosaminoglycans) :

AMINOACIDS & PROTEINS

Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of living systems and serves as building blocks of cells.
Proteins are Nitrogenous organic compounds having 17% of Nitrogen in addition to C, H and O.
Proteins are the polymers of Amino acids connected together by Peptide bonds.
Amino acids:
Amino acids are the monomers and the building blocks of Proteins.
Amino acids are a group of organic compounds containing two functional groups they are amino and
carboxyl.
The amino group (-NH2) is basic while the carboxyl group (-COOH) is acidic in nature.

R- refers to the side chain of Amino acids and based on side chain amino acids can be classified.

All naturally occurring amino acids are L-α-Amino acids but D-α-Amino acids such as D-Alanine,
D-Iso glutamate present in the cell walls of bacteria and in some peptide antibiotics like Actinomycin-D,
Valinomycin.
Classification of Amino acids: There are generally 20 standard amino acids are present in Proteins
called Proteinogenic amino acids and two more new amino acids were discovered these includes
Selenocysteine-21st & Pyrrolysine-22nd Amino acids.
Classification of Amino acids based on side chain :
1. Aliphatic side chain containing Amino acids :
Glycine (G), Alaline(A), Valine (V), Leucine (L) and Isoleucine (I)
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 Glycine is the simplest amino acid among all and it is optically inactive due to the absence of
asymmetric carbon atom in its structure.
Valine, Leucine and Isoleucine having branched side chains (R) – Branched chain Amino acids
2. Aromatic side chain containing Amino acids : Contains aromatic ring in their side chains.
Phenyl alanine(F), Tyrosine(Y) and Tryptophan(W)
Tryptophan contains Indole side chain in its side chain.
3. Hydroxyl group containing Amino acids : Contains –OH group in their side chain
Serine(S) and Threonine(T)
4. Sulfur containing Amino acids : Cysteine(C) and Methionine(M)
5. Acidic Amino acids : These amino acids contains an additional –COOH group in their side chain
and posses negative charge (anionic). Asparti acid(D) and Glutamic acid(E)
6. Basic Amino acids : These amino acids contains an additional –NH2 group in their side chain and
posses positive charge (cationic). Lysine(K), Arginine(R) and Histidine(H)
Lysine contains epsilon amino group(ε- NH2) in ist side chain, Arginine contains guanidine group
and Histidine contains Imidazole groups in their side chains.
7. Amide group containing Amino acids : They contains amide group (-C-NH2) in their side chain.
Asparagine(N) and Glutamine(Q)
8. Imino acid (Cyclic amino acid) : Proline(P), It don’t have free amino group and cyclic in nature.
 All amino acids can be detected by Ninhydrin regaent. Except Proline all amino acids produces
Purple colour with Ninhydrin reagent but Proline produces yellow colour with Ninhydrin.
Classification of Amino acids based on Polarity : Based on the tendency to interact with H2O,
amino acids are categorized into Polar(Hydrophilic) and Non polar(Hydrophobic) amino acids.
Polar Amino acids (12) :
a) Polar Charged Amino acids (5) : Asp(D), Glu(E) - Negatively Charged
Lys(K), Arg(R), His(H) - Positively Charged
b) Polar Uncharged Amino acids(7) : Gly(G), Tyr(Y), Ser(S), Thr(T), Cys(C), Asn(N), Gln(Q)
Nonpolar Amino acids (8) :
Ala(A), Val(V), Leu(L), Ile(I), Phe(F), Trp(W), Met(M), Pro(P)

Nutritional Classification of Amino acids : The twenty amino acids are required for the synthesis of
variety of proteins, besides other biological functions. However, all these 20 amino acids need not be
taken in the diet. Based on the nutritional requirements , amino acids are grouped into two classes-
Essential (Indispensable) and Nonessential (Dispensable) amino acids.
Essential Amino acids : The amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore,
need to be supplied through the diet are called essential amino acids. They are required for proper growth
and maintenance of the individual. The ten amino acids listed below are essential for human.
Met(M), Arg(R), Thr(T), Trp(W), Valine(V), Ile(I), Leu(L), Lys(K), Phe(F), His(H)
Nonessential Amino acids :
The body can synthesize the remaining 10 amino acids to meet the biological needs, hence they need not
be consumed in the diet.
Semi essential Amino acids : The two amino acids namely Arginine and Histidine can be synthesized by
adults and not by growing children, hence these are considered as semi-essential amino acids.

Non standard Amino acids: These are not observed in proteins and are called as Non proteinogenic
amino acids.
β-alanine: They found in coenzyme-A ; Taurine: They found in bile acids
Ornithine and citrulline: They are intermediates in Urea cycle
Thyroxine (T4) and Tri-iodo Thyronine (T3): Thyroid hormones synthesised from tyrosine.
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA): A neurotransmitter produced from glutamic acid.
δ-aminolaevulinic acid (δ-ALA): These are intermediate in Heme synthesis.
S-adenosyl methionine (SAM): These are methyl donor formed from L-Methionine.
3, 4-dihydroxy phenyl alanine (DOPA): A precursor of melanin pigment.
Homo cysteine : Intermediate in Methionine metabolism and a risk factor in Coronary heart diseases.
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Isoelectric Point (pI) : Amino acids contain both acidic (-COOH) and basic (-NH2) groups. They can
donate a proton or accept a proton, hence amino acids are regarded as ampholytes. The amino acids
rarely exist in a neutral form with free carboxylic (-COOH) and free amino (-NH2) groups. In strongly
acidic pH (low pH), the amino acid is positively charged (cation) while in strongly alkaline pH (high pH),
it is negatively charged (anion). Each amino acid has a characteristic pH at which it carries both positive
and negative charges and exists as zwitterions and that pH is referred as Isoelectric pH or point. At pI
amino acids are insoluble or least soluble.
Example : Isoelectric point(pI) of Glycine :

pI = pKa +pKb = 2.34+9.60 /2 pKa= Dissociation constant of –COOH group

-------------- = 5.97 pKb= Dissociation const.ant of –NH2 group
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Classification of Proteins based on their function :
Based on the functions they perform, proteins are classified into the following groups.
1. Structural proteins : Keratin of hair and nails, collagen of bone.
2. Catalytic proteins: Hexokinase, Pepsin (Enzymes) .
3. Transport proteins: Hemoglobin, serum albumin.
4. Hormonal proteins: Insulin, Growth hormone.
5. Contractile proteins : Actin, Myosin.
6. Storage proteins: Ovalbumin, Glutelin.
7. Defense proteins : Immunoglobulins (Antibodies), Blood clotting factors.

Classification of Proteins based on complexity:

This is a more comprehensive and popular classification of Proteins. It is based on the amino acid
composition, structure, shape and solubility properties. Proteins are broadly classified into 3 major groups
1) Simple proteins : They are composed of only amino acid residues.
Examples: Albumins, Globulins, Glutelins, Prolamines, Protamines, Histones, Sclero proteins
(Fibrous proteins)
2) Conjugated proteins: Besides the amino acids, these proteins contain a non-protein moiety known as
prosthetic group.
Examples: Glycoproteins- contains 4% of carbohydrates (Mucoproteins- >4%), Lipoproteins,
Phospho proteins, Metallo proteins, Chromo proteins (Heme containing) – Hemoglobin &
Myoglobin

3) Derived proteins: These are the denatured or degraded products of simple and conjugated proteins
obtained during hydrolysis.
Primary derived Proteins : These can be obtained from the early stage of hydrolysis.
Proteans, Metaproteins and Coagulated Proteins
Secondary derived Proteins : These are obtained from the later stage of hydrolysis.
Proteoses, Peptones and Peptides.
 Proteins can be detected by Biuret reagent
Protein Structure : Proteins are the polymers of L-α-amino acids.
The structure of proteins is rather complex which has 4 levels of organization.
They are Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary Structures.
Primary Structure :
Primary structure is defined as the linear sequence of amino acid connected by covalent bonds called
Peptide bonds.
Peptide Bond : When the amino group of an amino acid combines with the carboxyl group of another
amino acid, a peptide bond is formed. Note that a dipeptide will have two amino acids and one peptide
(not two) bond. Peptide bond was elucidated by Linus Pauling.

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 Peptide bond is strong bond, rigid, amide in nature and showing partial double bond character since its
bond length is 1.32 A0 which is near to double bond length.
A typical Polypeptide chain contains > 50 amino acids and the Protein (or) Polypeptide chains can be
read in N-terminal to C-terminal direction.
Secondary Structure : It was elucidated by Linus pauling and Robert Corey.
It is defined as the spatial arrangement of polypeptide chain into helix, coil or sheet like structures.
Two types of Secondary structures are present in proteins. They are α-Helix and β-Sheet.
α-Helix : It is coil like arrangement and can be arranged in right handed (αR) and left handed (βR)
manner. Right handed alpha helical structure is most stable and abundant. α-Helical structure is
stabilized by Intra molecular hydrogen bonds formed between the successive peptides.
Examples: α-Helix present in Hair, Nails, Horns, Hoof…etc

β-Sheet : β-sheets are composed of two or more segments of fully extended peptide chains. In the
β-sheets, the hydrogen bonds are formed between the neighbouring segments of polypeptide chains.
The polypeptide chains in the β-sheets may be arranged either in parallel (the same direction) or anti-
parallel (opposite direction). β-sheets are stabilized by Intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
Examples : Silk fibroin, Spiders web.

Tertiary Structure : The tertiary structure of the protein Myoglobin was first elucidated by
J.C.Kendrew. Tertiary structure refers to the three dimensional arrangement of Proteins and is defined as
the further folding and bending of secondary structure elements into tight, rigid and globular like
structure is called Tertiary structure. It confers or adapts biological activity to the protein. Teritary
structure is stabilizied by the important forces called Disulfide bonds or bridges(-S-S-) formed between
the sulfahydral side chains (-SH) of Cysteine residues. The other noncovalent forces that stabilizes the
tertiary structure includes – Hydrogen bonds, Hydrophobic bonds, Electrostatic bonds and Vanderwal
forces.
During tertiary structure formation the polar amino acid residue side chains placed outside where as the
side chains of non polar amino acid side chains are located at the inside region of protein structure and
forms hydrophobic core or region.

Quaternary Structure : A great majority of the proteins are composed of single polypeptide chains.
Some of the proteins, however, consist of two or more polypeptides or protein subunits which can be
identical or unrelated. Such proteins are termed as Quaternary structure. Quaternary structure is two types
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous structure.

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Homogenous quaternary structure: It is made up of similar type of protein subunits.
Example: Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is multi subunit isoenzyme consists of H (Heart) &
M(Muscle) subunits. H4 & M4 are Homogeneous quaternary structure and H3M, H2M2, HM3 are
Heterogeneous quaternary structure.
Hemoglobin(Hb) is the example of heterogeneous quaternary structure consists of 4 subunits they are
α2β2 subunits.

Protein denaturation : Destabilization of protein native conformation by physical and chemical agents
is called protein denaturation. Physical agents- High temperature, Vigorous shaking, UV rays, X-rays,
Chemical agents- Acid, Alkali, Salts, Urea. Denaturated protein lost its biological activity.
During denaturation process protein lost its tertiary structure followed by its secondary structure but not
its primary structure. Denaturation increases the protein digestibility, decreases protein solubility,
increases viscosity of protein.

LIPIDS
Lipids are of great importance to the body as the chief concentrated storage form of energy besides their
role in cellular structure and various other biochemical functions.
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds includes fats, oils, waxes, fatty acids, triglycerides,
sterols.
Lipids can be regarded as organic substances relatively insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents
(alcohol, ether etc.), actually or potentially related to fatty acids and utilized by the living cells.

Functions: They are the concentrated fuel reserve of the body (triacylglycerols).
Lipids are the constituents of membrane structure and regulate the membrane permeability
(phosphol ipids, glycolipids and cholesterol ) .
They serve as a source of fat soluble vitamins -A D, E and K.
Lipids protect the internal organs, serve as insulating materials and give shape and smooth appearance to
the body.
In animals Cholesterol is the precursor of important compounds such as Steroid hormones, Vitamin-D3.

Classification of Lipids : Bloor classified the Lipids into three major classes.
1). Simple lipids: Fats and Waxes
2). Compound lipids: Phospho lipids, Glycolipids and Lipoproteins
3). Derived lipids: Fatty acids, Glycerol and its derivatives- Diacyl & Monoacyl glycerol, Sterols,
Ketone bodies, Terpenes(Plants).

1). Simple lipids : Esters of fatty acids with alcohols. These are mainly of two types
(a) Fats and oils (triacylglycerols / triglycerides): These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
The difference between fat and oil is only physical. Thus, oil is a liquid while fat is a solid at room
temperature. Triglycerides are the most abundant fat stored in adipose tissue and are neutral lipids.

(b) Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher alcohols other than glycerol. Cetyl alcohol and Myricyl
alcohols most commonly found in waxes.

2) Compound lipids: These are esters of fatty acids with alcohols containing additional groups such as
phosphate, nitrogenous base, carbohydrate, protein etc. They are further divided as follows
a) Phospho lipids: They contain phosphoric acid (Po42-) and frequently a nitrogenous base in addition
to glycerol and fatty acids. These are two types. Glycero phospholipids and Sphingo phospholipids.
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All Glycero phospholipids are produced from a common precursor called Phosphatidic acid [Glycerol +
Fatty acids (2 molecules) + Phosphate]. Phospholipids are amphiphilic in nature i.e. having both polar
and nonpolar groups in their structure.

Glycero phospholipids:
 Lecithins (Phosphatidylcholine): These are the most abundant group of phospho lipids in the
cell membranes. It consists of Glycerol + Fatty acids(2 molecules) + Phosphate + Choline (Nitrogenous
base). Dipalmitoyl lecithin is an important phosphatidyl choline found in lungs. It is a surface active
agent and prevents the adherence of inner surface of the lungs due to surface tension and can acts as
surfactant. Respiratory distress syndrome in infants is a disorder characterized by the absence of
dipalmitoyl lecithin.
 Cephalins (Phosphatidyl ethanolamine) : It consists of Glycerol + Fatty acids(2 molecules) +
Phosphate + Ethanolamine. It is also important constituent of cell membrane along with Lecithin.
 Phosphatidylinositol : It consists of Glycerol + Fatty acids(2 molecules) + Phosphate + Inositol.
It generates second messengers during signal transduction process.
 Phosphatidylserine: The amino acid serine is present in this group of glycerophospholipids.
It consists of Glycerol + Fatty acids (2 molecules) + Phosphate + Serine
 Cardiolipin : It is so named as it was first isolated from heart muscle. Structurally, a cardiolipin
consists of two molecules of phosphatidic acid held by an additional glycerol through phosphate
groups. lt is an important component of inner mitochondrial membrane. Cardiolipin is the only
phosphoglyceride that possesses antigenic properties.

Sphingo phospholipids :
Sphingomyelins: This group of phospholipids contains Sphingosine instead of glycerol.
It consisits of Sphingosine+ Fatty acid+Phosphate+Choline. Sphingosine and fatty acid is acid called
Ceramide.
Sphingomyelins are important constituents of myelin sheet and are found in good quantity in brain and
nervous tissues. Accumulation or storage of shingomyelins at brain leads to a CNS disorder Niemann
Picks Disorder.
b) Glycolipids :
Cerebrosides :Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids) are important constituents of cell membrane and nervous
tissues ( particularly in brain). They contain Sphingosine +Fatty acid+Sugars (Glucose or Galactose).
Glycolipids are two types Glucocerbrosides having Glucose and Galactocerebrosides having Galactose
respectively. Accumulation of cerebrosides at brain leads to a disorder called Gauchers Disease.
Gangliosides : These are predominantly found in ganglion cells of brain and are the most complex form
of Glycosphingolipids. They contain sphingosine, fattyacid and one or more molecules of Glucose,
Galctose, N-Acetyl galactosamine and Sialicacid (N-acetylneuraminicacid (NANA)). Accumulation of
gangliosides causes a CNS disorder called Taysachs disease.
c) Lipoproteins : Lipoproteins are molecular complexes of lipids with proteins. They are the transport
vehicles for lipids in the circulation. There are five types of lipoproteins, namely Low density lipoproteins
(LDL), High density Lipoproteins (HDL), Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), Chylomicrons.
LDL contains high amount of cholesterol fat and saturate hence it is called Bad cholesterol, HDL
contains low amount of cholesterol and high amount of unsaturated fat and it is considered as Good
cholesterol.

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  Lipids that possesses both Hydrophilic or polar and Hydrophobic or nonpolar groups are known
as Amphiphatic. These includes Fatty acids, Phospholipids, Shpingolipids, Bile salts and
Cholesterol.
Derived Lipids : Derived lipids can be obtained from the chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis of simple
and compound lipids. These include Glycerolderivtives-Diacylglycerol, Monoacylglycerol,Fatty acids,
Sterols, Ketone bodies, Terpenes(Plants). Sterols such as Cholesterol, Ketone bodies are not obtained
from the hydrolysis of Simple and Compound lipids and these are synthesized from the two carbon unit
molecule called Acetyl coenzyme-A (catabolite products of Fatty acids oxidation) hence these two
molecules are considered as the derivatives of acetyl coenzyme-A.

Hydrolysis of Triglyceride in presence of chemicals or enzyme (Lipase) liberates Diacylglycerol,

Monoaylglycerol and Fatty acids.
Triglyceride Diacyl glycerol + Fatty acid Monoacyl glycerol + Fatty acid

Glycerol + Fatty acid

Fatty acids : Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chain (R-COOH). They are the
simplest form of lipids. Fatty acids mainly occur in the esterified form as major constituents of various
lipids. They are also present as free (unesterified) fatty acids.
Classification of Lipids : Most of the fatty acids that occur in natural lipids are of even carbons (usually
14C - 2OC). This is due to the fact that biosynthesis of fatty acids mainly occurs with the sequential
addition of 2 carbon units. Palmitic acid (l6C) and Stearic acid (l8C) are the most common. Among the
odd chain fatty acids, Propionic acid (3C) and Valeric acid (5C) are well known.
Fatty acids with less than 10 carbons are considered as Lower fatty acids where as more than 10 carbons
containing fatty acids are termed as Higher fatty acids.
Saturated & Unsaturated fatty acids :
Saturated fatty acids do not contain double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more
double bonds. Both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids almost equally occur in the natural lipids.
Fatty acids with one double bond are mono unsaturated and those with 2 or more double bonds are
collectively known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
Saturated Fatty acids general formula – Cn H2n+1COOH.
Example : Palmitic acid (C16) - C15H31COOH, Stearic acid - (C18) - C17H35COOH

Mono unsaturated Fatty acids: General formula – Cn H2n-1COOH.

Example : Oleic acid – C18:1; ∆9 ----> CH3-(CH2)7-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH -- C17H33COOH
Oleic acid can be synthesized from Stearic acid in our body and can be considered as Non essential fatty
acids.
Poly unsaturated Fatty acids: They contain two or more double bonds generally. They can be
categorized into diethenoid, triethenoid and tertraethenoid fatty acids having 2, 3 and 4 double bonds
respectively. These fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, should be supplied in the
diet are known as essential fatty acids (EFA). Chemically, they are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely
Linoleic acid (18 : 2; ∆9&∆12), Linolenic acid (18 : 3; ∆9,∆12&∆15) and Arachidonic acid (20 : 4; ∆5,
∆8, ∆11& ∆14).
General formula of Diethenoid fatty acids: CnH2n-3COOH - Lionleic acid - C17H31COOH
General formula of Triethenoid fatty acids: CnH2n-5COOH- Lionlenic acid - C17H29COOH
General formula of Tetraethenoid fatty acids: CnH2n-7COOH -Arachidinoic acid - C19H31COOH
 The deficiency of essential fatty acids results in phrynoderma or toad skin and Eczema in infants.

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Functions of Essential Fatty Acids: Essential fatty acids are required for the membrane structure and
function, transport of cholesterol, formation of lipoproteins, prevention of fatty liver etc. They are also
needed for the synthesis of another important group of compounds, namely eicosanoids – Prostaglandins
(Local hormones).

Sterols: Sterols are the compounds containing a cyclic steroid nucleus (or ring) namely
cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene(CPPP). It consists of a phenanthrene nucleus (rings A, B and C)
to which a cyclopentane ring (D) is attached. There are several steroids in the biological
system. These include cholesterol, bile acids, vitamin D, sex hormones, adrenocortical hormones.
Cholesterol : Cholesterol, exclusively found in animals, is the most abundant animal sterol. It is widely
distributed in all cells and is a major component of cell membranes and lipoproteins.
The molecular formula of Cholesterol is C27H45OH. It has one hydroxyl group at C3 and a double bond
between C5 and C6. Due to the presence of an -OH group, cholesterol is weakly amphiphilic.

As a structural component of plasma membranes, cholesterol is an important determinant of membrane

permeability properties. The occurrence of cholesterol is much higher in the membranes of sub-cellular
organelles. Cholesterol is found in association with fatty acids to- form cholesteryl esters (esterification
occurs at the OH group of C3). It is present in abundance in nervous tissues. It appears that cholesterol
functions as an insulating cover for the transmission of electrical impulses in the nervous tissue.
Cholesterol performs several other biochemical functions which include its role in membrane structure
and function, in the synthesis of bile acids, hormones (sex hormones and adrenal corticosteroid hormones)
and Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol).

Ergosterol : It occurs in plants. It is also found as a structural constituent of membranes in yeast

and fungi. Ergosterol (C28H43OH) is an important precursor for Vitamin D2 (Ergocalciferol).

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