Carbohydrates:- Polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones or compounds on hydrolysis give
carbohydrates. general formula Cx(H2O)y
Classification of carbohydrates: On the basis of hydrolysis
Monosaccharides (a) Simplest carbohydrates (b) It cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds (c) Examples – Glucose, mannose Oligosaccharides (a) Carbohydrates which gives 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis (b) They are further classified as: i) Disaccharides. Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give two molecules of same or different monosaccharides are called disaccharides Examples 1. sucrose – gives one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose on hydrolysis 2. maltose – gives 2 molecules of glucose on hydrolysis 3. lactose – gives one unit of glucose and one unit of galactose on hydrolysis ii) Trisaccharides – give three molecules of same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Example – raffinose (C18H32O16) gives glucose, fructose and galactose on hydrolysis Polysaccharides (a) Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide units. (b) Examples – Cellulose, starch
On the basis of Taste
Sugars Non-sugars 1. Sweet in taste 1. Tasteless 2. Crystalline in nature 2. Amorphous in nature 3. Soluble in water 3. Insoluble in water 4. Eg . Glucose, fructose, 4. Eg. Starch, cellulose, glycogen sucrose
On the basis of Reducing Behaviour.
Reducing sugars Non-reducing sugars
Carbohydrates which are capable of Carbohydrates which are unable to reduce Tollen’s Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s reagent and Fehling’s solution are called solution are called reducing sugars. Non-reducing sugars Eg. Glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose etc. Eg; sucrose All monosaccharides and disaccharides except Starch, cellulose and glycogen also do not reduce Sucrose are reducing sugars. Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution. Biomolecules
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Ketoses : Monosaccharides containing a keto (>C=O) group are called ketoses.
Eg ; fructose. Aldoses : Monosaccharides containing aldehyde (-CHO) group are called aldoses. Eg. Glucose galactose Ribose Monosaccharides are further classified as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses etc. depending on the number of carbon atoms they contain. Glucose is an aldohexose i.e. it is monosaccharide containing an aldehyde group and six carbon atoms Fructose is a ketohexose i.e. it is a monosaccharide with a keto group and six
D and L CONFIGURATION
A molecule is assigned D- configuration, if the -OH group attached to the carbon atom adjacent to the –CH2OH(last chiral carbon atom) group is on the right hand side. a molecule is assigned L-configuration, if the -OH group attached to the carbon atom adjacent to the –CH2OH(last chiral carbon atom) group is on the left hand side.
Most of the naturally occurring sugars are of
D-configuration. D and L do not represent dextro rotatory or laevo rotatory The carbon atom of an aldose is numbered from the –CHO group and that of ketose is numbered from that end which is closest to the ketonic group. Monosaccharide molecules contain one or more chiral/asymmetric carbon atoms and therefore they are optically active. Biomolecules
GLUCOSE (C6H12O6)
Glucose is an aldohexose. Glucose correctly named D(+)glucose. D represents configuration and + represents dextro rotatory. Therefore it is also known as dextrose. Starch, cellulose and glycogen are polymers of glucose. It has an aldehyde group, one primary alcoholic group and four secondary alcoholic groups.
This structure of glucose was assigned on the basis of following evidences.
Heating with HI : When heated with hydroiodic acid and red phosphorus, forms n- hexane. This indicates that all the six carbon atoms are linked in a straight line.
Reaction with hydroxyl amine
Glucose react with HCN form Cyanohydrin. This indicates the presence of a carbonyl group(>C=O)
Reaction with bromine water.
Bromine water oxidises glucose to gluconic acid. This indicates that carbonyl group present is –CHO group.
Reaction with acetic anhydride
Glucose react with acetic anhydride in the presence of Biomolecules
anhydrous ZnCl2 to form glucose pentaacetate/penta acetyl glucose. This indicates the presence of five –OH groups in glucose molecule.
Reaction with Nitric acid
Nitric acid oxidises glucose to saccharic acid/glucaric acid. This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic group in glucose.
Glucose does not give Schiff’s test and does not react with sodium bisulphite and NH3. Pentaacetyl glucose does not react with hydroxyl amine. This shows the absence of ----- -CHO group and hence the presence of ring structure.
Cyclic structure of glucose:
Haworth representation of glucose:
The two cyclic hemiacetal forms
of glucose differ only in the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon. α-form and β-form, are called anomers. The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure Biomolecules
Chemical test to differentiate between glucose and fructose
When glucose is oxidized with bromine water gluconic acid is formed. In this reaction red/reddish brown colour of bromine water disappears. Fructose does not react with bromine water . Thus glucose decolourises bromine water, fructose does not.
FRUCTOSE – FRUIT SUGAR – (C6H12O6)
Fructose contains a keto(>C=O) group at C2 position
It has six carbon atoms arranged in a straight chain as in case of glucose. It belongs to D-series and is laevorotatory. Therefore it is also called laevulose. Its name is written as D(-) fructose. It is a pentahydroxy ketone. It contains two primary alcoholic group and three secondary alcoholic group.
Cyclic structure of fructose:
Haworth representation of fructose
Biomolecules
Glycosidic linkage: The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule when two monosaccharides are joined together through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
Sucrose (invert sugar):
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the
two monosaccharide units are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of α- glucose and C2 of β-fructose Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it gives dextrorotatory & laevorotatory and the mixture is laevorotatory.
Maltose:
Maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose
units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4 of another glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.
Lactose (Milk sugar):
It is composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-
glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar. Biomolecules
Starch: It is a polymer of -glucose and consists of two components Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose:It is a water soluble component
It is a long unbranched chain polymer It constitutes about 15-20% of starch It contains 200 – 1000 α-D-(+)- glucose units held by α– glycosidic linkages involving C1 – C4 glycosidic linkage
Amylopectin It is a water insoluble component It is branched chain polymer It forms chain by C1 – C4glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1 – C6glycosidic linkage It constitutes about 80-85% of starch Cellulose: It occurs exclusively in plants. It is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of β-D-glucose units which are joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit.
Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to Amylopectin. It is present in liver, muscles and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose
AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
AMINO ACIDS Amino acids are organic compounds containing both amino group(-NH2) and carboxyl group(-COOH). All naturally occurring amino acids are α- amino acids. ie they contain amino group on α- carbon atom ( carbon next to –COOH group). Biomolecules
α-Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
All naturally occurring amino acids belong to L-series which have –NH2 group on the left. There are 20 natural amino acids found in proteins. Except glycine, all other α-Amino acids contain asymmetric carbon atom and are optically active. The general structure α-amino acids is given below
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS :
Depending on the number of amino groups and carboxyl groups amino acids are classified as: 1. Neutral amino acids – They contain equal number of amino groups and carboxyl groups. Examples: Glycine, valine, alanine etc 2. Acidic amino acids – They contain more number of carboxyl group than amino groups. Eamples: aspartic acid, glutamic acid and proline. 3. Basic amino acids - They contain more number of amino group than carboxyl groups. Examples: lysine, arginine
ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.
The amino acids which human body cannot synthesize and must be supplied in the diet are called essential amino acids. Human body can synthesize 10 out of 20 amino acids found in proteins. Examples: Valine, leucine, lysine etc. NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS: The amino acids which are synthesized by human body are called non-essential amino acids. We do not require these in our diet Examples: glycine, alanine, glutamic acid etc.
Physical properties of amino acids:
They are colourless crystalline solids. They are soluble in water and have high melting points. Biomolecules
They behave like ionic salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This is due to the existence of amino acids as zwitter ion/internal salt/dipolar ion. Zwitter ion - Due to the presence of basic amino group and acidic carboxyl group in amino acid molecule, the proton from the carboxyl group is taken up by amino group( internal neutralization) to form a dipolar ion. This is called zwitter ion/internal salt
Zwitter ion is neutral but contains both positive and negative charges. + In amino acids acidic character is due to –NH3 group and basic character is due to –COO- group. PEPTIDES, POLYPEPTIDES AND PROTEINS
Peptides: The compounds formed by the condensation of two or more same or different amino acids are called peptides. Peptide bond/ peptide linkage. When two amino acid molecules combine, the carboxyl group of one amino acid condense with amino group of the other amino acid with the elimination of a water molecule. The resulting –CO-NH- linkage is called peptide linkage or peptide bond and the product formed is called dipeptide.
POLYPEPTIDES and PROTEINS
If a large number of α-amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, the resulting polyamide is called polypeptide. Proteins are actually polypeptides. However there is no clear line of demarcation between polypeptides and proteins Polypeptides having molecular mass greater than 10000amu are referred to as proteins Biomolecules
Thus proteins are regarded as long polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Proteins are complex nitrogenous molecules which are essential for the growth and maintenance of life. These perform a wide variety of biological functions.
Primary structure of proteins: The sequence of amino acids is said to be the primary structure of a protein.
Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long
polypeptide chain can exist. Two different types of structures
1. α– Helix: It was given by Linus Pauling in 1951 It exists when R- group is large. Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H – bonded to – C = O of adjacent turn of the helix. 2. β– pleated sheet: It exists when R group is small. In this conformation, all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held together by hydrogen bonds.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTIENS ON THE BASIS OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
FIBROUS PROTIENS GLOBULAR PROTIENS This type of proteins consist off linear In this type of proteins, polypeptide chains thread like molecules lie side by side to are folded in such a way as to give form fibres. spheroidal shape to the protein molecule These are insoluble in water. These are insoluble in water. They are stable towards moderate change They are very sensitive towards changes in in pH and temperature. temperature and pH. They are stabilized by strong They are stabilized by comparatively weak intermolecular hydrogen bonding. hydrogen bonding. Examples: Myosin, fibroin, collagen, Examples: haemoglobin, albumin, keratin etc. hormones, enzymes
Denaturation of Proteins : The process that changes the physical and biological properties of proteins without affecting the chemical composition of protein is called denaturation. Biomolecules
Denaturation is caused by (1). changes in pH( by adding concentrated acids), (2). change in temperature ( by heating), (3). addition of heavy metal salts such as HgCl2, AgNO3 etc, (4) adding alcohol, (5) radiations such as x-rays or ultraviolet rays. Proteins lose their biological activity on denaturation. Denaturation is generally irreversible. During denaturation globular proteins becomes fibrous. Denaturation does not change the primary structure (sequence of amino acids). It changes secondary and tertiary structure (arrangement of polypeptide chains and overall shape)of proteins. Examples of denaturation: (1).Boiling of egg (2).Curdling of milk (3).Preparation of cheese from milk etc.
NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleic acids are biologically important polymers which are present in all living cells. The monomer unit present in nucleic acids is called nucleotides. Therefore they are known as polynucleotides. There are two types of nucleic acids: i) DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid ii) RNA - Ribonucleic acid. Structure of Nucleic acids A nucleotide consists of three chemical components: i) a pentose sugar ii) a heterocyclic nitrogen base iii) a phosphate group.
i) Pentose Sugar. There are two types of sugars present in nucleic acids. The sugar present in DNA is deoxyribose (β-D-2-deoxyribose) and the sugar present in RNA is ribose (β-D-ribose)
ii) Nitrogen bases.
There are two different types of nitrogen bases. These are known as purines and pyrimidines Purine bases are: (i) Adenine and (ii) Guanine Pyrimidine bases are: (i) cytosine (ii) thymine and
(iii) uracil The bases present in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. (A, G, C, T) Biomolecules
The bases present in RNA are adenine, guanine cytosine and uracil. (A, G, C, U) The base which is not present in DNA is uracil The base which is not present in RNA is thymine.
iii) Phosphate group
This group is responsible for linking nucleotides together in a nucleic acid molecule.
Nucleosides and Nucleotides
Nucleosides. The Base-sugar unit present in a nucleic acid is called nucleoside. Base + Sugar = nucleoside Depending upon the type of sugar unit present, nucleosides are of two types. They are Deoxyribonucleosides(which contains deoxyribose) and ribonucleosides(which contains ribose)
Nucleotides. The Base-Sugar-Phosphate unit present in nucleic acid is called nucleotide. Base + Sugar + Phosphate = nucleotide Depending upon the type of sugar unit present, nucleotides are of two types. They are i) deoxyribonucleotides(which contains deoxyribose) and ribonucleotides(which contains ribose) Nucleic acids are polynucleotides. During the formation of nucleic acid molecule, thousands of nucleotides join together to form polynucleotide chains(strands) The nucleic acid back bone consists of alternating sugar-phosphate units. Each sugar unit is attached to a base unit.
Structure Of DNA (Watson and Crick model)
According to James Watson and Francis Crick DNA
molecule consists of two right handed helical polynucleotide chains coiled together in the form of a double helix. The two polynucleotide chains(strands) are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases present on their back bones. The hydrogen bonds are highly specific and are formed between a purine and a pyrimidine base pair. Biomolecules
Adenine is linked to thymine with two hydrogen bonds and guanine is linked to cytosine with three hydrogen bonds. Thus the base sequence of one polynucleotide chain automatically fixes the base sequence of the other polynucleotide chain. Hence the two polynucleotide chains are complimentary to each other.
STRUCTURE OF RNA: The structure of RNA is
similar to DNA except that it is a single stranded structure.
Differences Between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA 1. It has double stranded helix structure. 1. It has a single stranded helix structure. 2. The sugar present is deoxyribose 2. The sugar present is ribose. 3. Nitrogen base uracil is not present. 3. Nitrogen base thymine is not present
