Local (Minor) Head Losses
➢Local head losses are the “loss” of energy at point
where the pipe changes dimension and/or direction.
• Pipe Expansion
• Pipe Contraction
• Entry to a pipe from a reservoir
• Exit from a pipe to a reservoir
• Valve (may change with time)
• Orifice plate
• Tight bends
➢ They are “velocity head losses” and are represented
by 2
u
hL = k L
2g
Value of kL ?
For junctions and bends we need experimental
measurements (values).
kL may be calculated for
➢ Expansion
➢ Contraction
❖ That is Using continuity, momentum and
Bernoulli equations.
Losses at an Expansion
Turbulence
and losses
• Velocity reduces (continuity)
• Pressure increases (Bernoulli)
• Turbulence is induced and head loss occurs.
Value of kL for Expansion ???
A2
A1
1 2
( u1 − u2 ) 2
hL = - Borda-Carnot Equation
2g
• Using the continuity equation again
A1
u1 A1 = u2 A2 u2 = u1
A2
2 2
A1 u 2
A1
hL = 1 − 1
k L = 1 −
A2 2 g A2
Losses at Contraction
• Flow converges as the pipe contracts
• Convergence is narrower than the pipe
➢ Due to vena contractor
• Experiments show for common pipes
• Can ignore losses
between 1 and 1’
➢ Because
Convergent flow is
very stable
Losses at Contraction
• Apply the general local head loss equation
for expansion between 1’ and 2
( u1 − u2 ) 2
hL =
2g
• And using Continuity
A2 u2 = A1 u1 = A2C c u1
u2
u1 =
Cc
u 1 2 The value of k depends
hL = ( − 1) 2
2
on A2 A
2 g Cc 1
2
u
hL = k k 0.5
2
In general
2g
Losses: Junctions
Losses: Sharp bends
kL values
Bell mouth Entry
T-branch
kL= 1.5
kL= 0.1
kL Sharp
Value Entry/Exit
kL= 0.5
s
Bellmouth entry 0.1
Sharp entry 0.5
Sharp exit 0.5 T-inline
90o Bend 0.4
kL= 0.4
90o Tees
flow in line 0.4
to line Branch 1.5
Pipeline Analysis
• Bernoulli Equation
➢ Equal to a constant: Total Head, H
pA u A2
+ zA + = H = const
2g
• Applies from one point to another (A to B)
➢ But with head losses
2 2
pA uA pB uB
+ zA + =H = + zB + + hL + h f
2g 2g
Bernoulli Graphically
2
• Reservoir pA
+ zA +
uA
=H
2g
• Pipe of Constant diameter
• No Flow
A
Bernoulli Graphically
2
• Constant Flow pA uA
+ zA + =H
2g
• Constant Velocity
• No Friction
A
Bernoulli Graphically
2
pA uA
• Constant Flow + zA + =H
2g
• Constant Velocity
Change of Pipe
• No Friction Diameter
A
Bernoulli Graphically
pA u A2 pB uB 2
+ zA + =H = + zB + + hL + h f
• Constant Flow 2g 2g
• Constant Velocity
• With Friction
A
Reservoir Feeding Pipe Example
5.0m
Reservoir Feeding Pipe Example
• Apply Bernoulli with head losses
2 2
pA uA pC uC
+ zA + = + zC + + hL + h f
2g 2g
2 2 2 pA=pC = Atmospheric
uC u fLu
z A − zC = + 0.5 + uA = negligible
2g 2 g 2 gd
u2 0.08 15
4= 1.5 +
2 9.81 0.1
u = 2.41m/s
• Find pressure at B: Apply Energy Equation A-B
2 2
pA uA pB uB
+ zA + = + zB + + hL + h f
2g 2g
2 2 2
pA= Atmospheric
pB u u fLAB u
− = + 0.5 + + ( z B − z A ) u = u = 2.41 m/s
g 2 g 2g 2 gd B
− pB 2.412 0.08 5.0
= 1.5 + + 1.5
1000 9.81 2 9.81 0.1
Negative
pB = −30.69 10 N / m
3 2
i.e. less than Atmospheric pressure
Pipes in series
• Consider the situation when the pipes joining two
reservoirs are connected in series
1 2
• Total head loss for the system is given as
H loss = hL,entry + h f 1 + hL,expansion + h f 2 + hL,exit
Q1=Q2=Qn=Q A1U1=A2U2=AnUn=Q
• Apply the energy equation. A-B
2 2
pA uA pB uB
+ zA + = + zB + + hL + h f
2g 2g
z A − z B = hL,entry + hL,exit + hL,expansion + h f 1 + h f 2
Pipes in Series Example
• Two reservoirs, height difference 9 m, joined by a
pipe that changes diameter. For P1, L=15m d=0.2
m then for P2, L=45 m, d=0.25 m. f = 0.01 for both
lengths.
• Use kL,entry= 0.5, kL,exit = 1.0. Treat the joining of the
pipes as a sudden expansion.
• Find the flow between the reservoirs.
• Apply Bernoulli A-B
2 2
pA uA pB uB
+ zA + = + zB + + hL + h f
2g 2g
z A − z B = hL,entry + hL,exit + hL,expansion + h f 1 + h f 2
u12 Q2 1
hL,entry = k L,entry = k L,entry
2g 2 g A12
u22 Q2 1
hL,exit = k L,exit = k L,exit
2g 2 g A22
2 2
A1 u 2
A1 Q 2 1
hL,expansion = 1 − = 1 −
1
2
A2 2 g A2 2 g A1
z A − z B = 9 m hL,entry = 25.82Q 2 hL,exit = 21.15Q 2
hL,expansion = 6.69Q 2 ; h f = h f 1 + h f 2 = (56.25 + 153.6)Q 2
9 = ( 25.82 + 21.15 + 6.69 + 56.25 + 153.6)Q 2
Q = 0.157 m 3 / s
Pipes in parallel
• The head loss across the pipes is equal
h = hf 1 = hf 2 = hf 3
• Diameter D, Friction factor, f, length L, Q, and u
may differ
• Total flow is sum in all pipe
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
1. Knowing the head loss, the discharges in each pipe
can be obtained
2
L1U1
H = hf 1 = f
D1 2 g
2
L2U 2
H = hf 2 = f
D2 2 g
2
L3U 3
H = hf 3 = f
D3 2 g
• The values of U1, U2 and U3 may be obtained
from the above equations and hence the
discharges Q1, Q2 and Q3 are obtained.
2. Given the discharge Q, the distribution of discharge
in different branches is required
• The discharges Q1, Q2, Q3 can be expressed in
terms of H
2
L1U1
H = f1
D1 2 g
2 gH
u1 =
f1 ( L1 / D1 )
2 gH 2g
Q1 = A1u1 = A1 = A1 H
f1 ( L1 / D1 ) f1 ( L1 / D1 )
2g
Q1 = K1 H Where K1 = A1
f1 ( L1 / D1 )
Similarly
Q2 = K 2 H
Q3 = K 3 H
Therefore:
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= K1 H + K 2 H + K 3 H
Q = ( K1 + K 2 + K 3 ) H
As the discharge is known, and K1,K2 and K3 are
constants, the value of H is obtained and the discharge
in individual pipes obtained
Pipes in Parallel Example
• Two pipes connect two reservoirs which have a height
difference of 10 m. Pipe 1 has diameter 50 mm and
length 100 m. Pipe 2 has diameter 100 mm and length
100 m. Both have entry loss kL,entry = 0.5 and exit loss
kL,exit =1.0 and Darcy f of 0.008.
• Find Q in each pipe
• Find Diameter D of a pipe 100 m long and same f that
could replace the two pipes and provide the same
flow.
Apply Bernoulli for each pipe separately
Pipe 1:
2 2 2 2 2
pA vA pB vB u fLu u
+ zA + = + zB + + 0.5 + + 1.0
1 1 1
g 2 g g 2g 2 g 2 gd1 2g
fL u12
z A − z B = 0.5 + + 1.0
d1 2g
0.008 100 u 2
10 = 1.5 + 1
0.05 2 9.81
d12
u1 = 3.35m / s Q1 = u1 = 0.0066m 3 / s
4
Pipe 2:
2 2 2 2 2
pA vA pB vB u fLu u
+ zA + = + zB + + 0.5 + + 1.02 2 2
g 2 g g 2g 2 g 2 gd 2 2g
fL u22
z A − z B = 0.5 + + 1.0
d2 2g
0.008 100 u22
10 = 1.5 +
0.1 2 9.81
d 22
u2 = 4.54m / s Q2 = u2 = 0.036m 3 / s
4
Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 = 0.043m / s 3
• Flow required in new pipe = Q = 0.043m / s
3
pA vA
2
pB vB
2
u2 fLu 2 u2
+ zA + = + zB + + 0.5 + + 1.0
g 2 g g 2g 2 g 2 gd eq 2g
fL u 2
z A − z B = 0.5 + + 1.0
d 2g
eq
0.008 100 u 2
10 = 1.5 +
d 2 9.81
eq
0. 8 2
196.2 = 1.5 + u
d
eq
• Replace u using continuity
Q 4Q 0.1704 0 = 6757.1d eq5 − 1.5d eq − 0.8
u= = 2 =
A d eq d eq2 Must solve iteratively
• Must solve iteratively for D
• Get approximate answer by leaving the 2nd term
0 = 6757.1d − 1.5d eq − 0.8
5
eq
0.8
d eq = 5 = 0.164
6757.1
f (d eq) = 6757.1 0.164 − 1.5 0.164 − 0.8
5
= −0.244
• Increase deq a little, say to 0.170 f (0.170) = −0.096
• … a little more … to 0.174 f (0.174) = 0.017
So d eq 0.174
Flow through a by-pass
• A by-pass is a small diameter pipe connected in
parallel to the main pipe
Meter By-pass
q
Q+q Q Main pipe
The ratio of q in the by-pass, to the total discharge is
known as the by-pass coefficient.
q
by-pass coefficient
Q+q
• Head loss in main pipe = head loss in by-pass
L U2 l u2 u2
f = f +k
D 2g d 2g 2g
u2 Minor losses in the by-pass due to bends and
k
2g the meter etc
2g
Multiply equation by
f
k
L 2 l 2 l 2 k =
U = u + k u = + k u
2
f
D d d
Implies U2 D l
= +k
u 2
Ld
Using continuity equation
Q= D 2U q= d 2u
4 4
Q2
D 4 = D l + k
q2 Ld
d4
Q 2
D l 5
Q D 5 l + dk
= 4 + k = 5
q 2
d Ld q d L
Adding one on both sides
D l + dk
5
Q
+1 = 1+
q d L
D l + dk
5
Q+q
= 1+
q d L
q 1
= By-pass coefficient
Q+q D l + dk
5
1+
d L
• Knowing the by-pass coefficient, the total
discharge in the main pipe can be determined
Thank you for your attention
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