PENG 305: DRILLING ENGINEERING I

LECTURE NOTES

Lecturer: Justice Sarkodie-Kyeremeh

Office: Lab 4
Telephone: +233 (0)503671146
E-mail: justice.sarkodie-kyeremeh@uenr.edu.gh
 COURSE OUTLINE
 Drilling Terminologies
 Overview of the Drilling Operation
 Drilling structures
 Drilling Equipment and Systems
 Well Planning and Data Collection
 Predicting Formation Pressures
 Fracture Gradient Determination
 Casing Setting Depth Selection
 Oil Well Cementing
 Drill Bit
 Drilling fluids
 Directional Drilling
 Drilling Problems
 Well Control
Cementing
➢Cement is used as an impermeable seal between casing and
the borehole that bonds the casing to the formation.

Functions of oil well cement

➢To prevent the movement of fluids from one formation to
another or from the formations to surface through the annulus
between the casing and borehole.
➢support the casing string
➢To protect the casing from corrosive fluids in the formations

➢The process of pumping cement down through the casing and

displace around the casing shoe into the annulus is known as
primary cementing.
➢Another type of cement job that is performed in oil and gas
well operations is called a secondary or squeeze cement job.
This type of cement job may have to be done at a later stage in
the life of the well.
➢A secondary cement job may be performed for many reasons
but are generally part of remedial work on the well
➢(e.g.
➢Sealing off water producing zones
➢repairing casing leaks)
➢Repair faulty or inadequate primary cement job
➢abandon a non-productive or depleted zone
➢These cement jobs are often called squeeze cement jobs
because they involve forcing cement through holes or
perforations in the casing into the annulus.
➢ Cement is made from calcareous and
argillaceous rocks such as limestone, clay and
shale and any other material containing a
high percentage of calcium carbonate.
➢ The cement slurry which is used in the primary
or secondary operations is made up from:
cement powder, water and chemical
additives.
➢ The water used may be fresh or salt water. The
chemical additives alter the properties of both
the cement slurry and the hardened cement.
➢ There are many different grades of cement
powder manufactured and each has
particular attributes which make it suitable for
a particular type of operation
Classification Of Oil Well Cement
 There are several classes of cement powder
which are approved for oilwell drilling
applications, by the American Petroleum
Institute - API.
 Each of these cement powders have different
properties when mixed with water.
 The difference in properties of slury produced by
the cement powders is caused by the
differences in the distribution of the four basic
compounds which are used to make cement
powder; C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF
 Classes A and B - These cements are generally cheaper
than other classes of cement and can only be used at
shallow depths, where there are no special requirements.
 Class B has a higher resistance to sulphate than Class A.
 Class C - This cement has a high C3S content and
therefore becomes hard relatively quicker.
 Classes D, E and F - These are known as retarded
cements since they take a much longer time to set than the
other classes of cement powder.
 This retardation is due to a coarser grind. These cement
powders are however more expensive than the other
classes of cement and their increased cost must be justified
by their ability to work satisfactorily in deep wells at higher
temperatures and pressures.
 Class G and H - These are general purpose cement
powders which are compatible with most additives and
can be used over a wide range of temperature and
pressure.
 Class G is the most common type of cement and is used
in most areas. Class H has a coarser grind than Class G
and gives better retarding properties in deeper wells.
 There are other, non-API, terms used to classify
cement. These include the following:
 Pozmix cement - This is formed by mixing Portland
cement with pozzolan (ground volcanic ash) and
2% bentonite.
 This is a very lightweight but durable cement. Pozmix
cement is less expensive than most other types of
cement and due to its light weight is often used for
shallow well casing cementation operations.
 Gypsum Cement - This type of cement is formed by
mixing Portland cement with gypsum. These cements
develop a high early strength and can be used for
remedial work.
 They expand on setting and deteriorate in the presence
of water and are therefore useful for sealing off lost
circulation zones.
 Diesel oil cement - This is a mixture of one of the basic
cement classes (A, B, G,H ), diesel oil or kerosene and a
surfactant.
 These cements have unlimited setting times and will only
set in the presence of water. Consequently they are
often used to seal off water producing zones, where they
absorb and set to form a dense hard cement.
Mixwater Requirements
The water which is used to make up the cement slurry is
known as the mixwater.
The amount of mixwater used to make up the cement
slurry is shown in Table below.
These amounts are based on :
The need to have a slurry that is easily pumped.
The need to hydrate all of the cement powder so that a
high quality hardened cement is produced.
The need to ensure that all of the free water is used to
hydrate the cement powder and that no free water is
present in the hardened cement.
 The amount of mixwater that is used to make up the cement
slurry is carefully controlled.
 If too much mixwater is used the cement will not set into a
strong, impermeable cement barrier.
 If not enough mixwater is used :
 The slurry density and viscosity will increase.
 The pumpability will decrease
 Less volume of slurry will be obtained from each sack of
cement
 The quantities of mixwater quoted in Table above are
average values for the different classes of cement.
 Sometimes the amount of mixwater used will be changed to
meet the specific temperature and pressure conditions
which will be experienced during the cement job.
 Cement Slurry Properties
 Compressive Strength
 Compressive strength determines the tensile strength and
elastic properties of set cements. High compressive strength
preserves cement structure and extends service life.
 For cement to efficiently support the casing string, a
compressive strength of 500 psi is generally enough
including a safety factor for field practice. The casing shoe is
not drilled out until cement attains the 500psi strength
known as ‘waiting on cement’ (WOC).
 Compressive strength development is a function of
temperature, pressure, amount of mixwater added and
elapsed mixing time.
 Thickening Time (pumpability)
The time during which the cement slurry can be
pumped and displaced into the annulus before it
hardens is known as the thickening time.
Usually, slurry requires 2-3 hours of thickening time
including a safety factor to allow for mixing,
pumping, placement, delays and interruptions in
the cementing operations before it sets and
hardens.
However, thickening time is greatly affected by
wellbore conditions. High temperature, increased
pressure and fluid loss reduce the thickening time.
 Slurry density
Slurry densities are usually between 11-18.5 ppg.
However, these standard densities may be
changed to suit well conditions.
For example, a weak formation may not be able to
withstand cement density of about 15ppg. Density
of such cement in a low strength formation will
definitely be altered.
Slurry densities are altered by varying the mixwater
or by the addition of some special additives.
Water Loss
 Cement setting and hardening after placement is
due to the drying out of water from the slurry.
 Slurry’s pumpability is lowered when enough
water is lost during the cementing operation and
the cement may not reach the intended position
before setting.
 This lost water may invade water sensitive
formations and cause severe well problems.
 Slurry’s water loss tolerance is dependent on the
type of cement job that is being carried out.
 For instance, during squeeze cementing
operation, low water loss is acceptable because
the cement must be squeezed before the cement
hardens up and blocks the perforations.
Permeability
 After the cement has hardened, the permeability
should be lower than the producing formation,
usually less than 0.1 millidarcy.
 If during setting, cement is disturbed by
conditions such as gas intrusion, then high
cement permeability between 5 and 10darcies
may develop.

Corrosion resistance
 Formation water contains certain corrosive
elements which may cause deterioration of the
cement sheath.
 Two compounds which are commonly found in
formation waters are sodium sulphate and
magnesium sulphate.
 These will react with lime and C3S to form large
crystals of calcium sulphoaluminate.
 These crystals expand and cause cracks to
develop in the cement structure.
 Lowering the C3A content of the cement
increases the sulphate resistance. For high
sulphate resistant cement the C3A content should
be 0 - 3%
Cement Additives
 Additional chemicals are used to control slurry
density, rheology, and fluid loss, or to provide
more specialized slurry properties.
 Additives modify the behavior of the cement
slurry allowing cement placement under a wide
range of downhole conditions.
 There are many additives available for cement
and these can be classified under one of the
following categories:
Accelerators
 chemicals which reduce the thickening time of a slurry and
increase the rate of early strength development. They are
usually use in conductor and surface casing to reduce
waiting on cement time (WOC). Calcium chloride (CaCl2),
sodium chloride (NaCl) and sea water are commonly used
as accelerators.
Retarders
 Retarders are chemicals which hinder the setting time
(extend the thickening) of a slurry to aid cement placement
before it hardens. These additives are usually added to
counter the effects of high temperature. They are used in
cement slurries for intermediate and production casings,
squeeze and cement plugs and high temperature wells.
 Typical retarders include: sugar; lignosulphonates,
hydroxycarboxylic acids, inorganic compounds and
cellulose derivatives.
 Retarders work mainly by adsorption on the cement
surface to inhibit contact with water and elongate the
hydration process; although there are other chemical
mechanisms involved.
Extenders(Lightweight Additives)
 Extenders are materials which lower the slurry density and
increase the yield to allow weak formations to be cemented
without being fractured by the cement column.
 Examples of extenders include: water, bentonite, sodium
silicates, pozzlans, gilsonite, expanded perlite, nitrogen
and ceramic microspheres.
Weighting Agents
 They are materials which increase slurry density
including barite and haematite.
Dispersants(Friction reducing additives)
 Dispersants are chemicals which lower the slurry
viscosity and may also increase free water by
dispersing the solids in the cement slurry.
 Dispersants are solutions of negatively charged
polymer molecules that attach themselves to the
positively charges sites of the hydrating cement grains.
 The result is an increased negative on the hydrating
cement grains resulting in greater repulsive forces and
particle dispersion.
Fluid-Loss Additives
 Excessive fluid losses from the cement slurry to the
formation can affect the correct setting of cement.
 Fluid loss additives are used to prevent slurry
dehydration and reduce fluid loss to the formation.
 Examples include: cationic polymer, nonionic
synthetic polymer, anionic synthetic polymer and
cellulose derivative.
 The most common types of lightweight additives are:
 Bentonite (2 - 16%) - This is by far the most common
type of additive used to lower slurry density. The
bentonite material absorbs water, and therefore
allows more mixwater to be added. Bentonite will also
however reduce compressive strength and sulphate
resistance.
 Pozzolan - This may be used in a 50/50 mix with the
Portland cement. The result is a slight decrease in
compressive strength, and increased sulphate
resistance.
 Diatomaceous earth (10 - 40%) - The large surface
area of diatomaceous earth allows more water
absorption, and produces low density slurries (down
to 11 ppg).
Heavyweight additives
 Heavyweight additives are used when cementing
through overpressured zones. The most common
types of additive are:
 Barite (barium sulphate) - this can be used to attain
slurry densities of up to 18ppg. It also causes a
reduction in strength and pumpability.
 Hematite (Fe2O3) - The high specific gravity of
hematite can be used to raise slurry densities to 22
ppg. Hematite significantly reduces the pumpability of
slurries and therefore friction reducing additives may
be required when using hematite.
 Sand - graded sand (40 - 60 mesh) can give a 2 ppg
increase in slurry density.
 Primary Cementing
 The objective of a primary cement job is to place the cement
slurry in the annulus behind the casing. In most cases this
can be done in a single operation, by pumping cement down
the casing, through the casing shoe and up into the annulus.
 However, in longer casing strings and in particular where the
formations are weak and may not be able to support the
hydrostatic pressure generated by a very long column of
cement slurry, the cement job may be carried out in two
stages.
 The first stage is completed in the manner described above,
with the exception that the cement slurry does not fill the
entire annulus, but reaches only a pre-determined height
above the shoe.
 The second stage is carried out by including a special tool in
the casing string which can be opened, allowing cement to
be pumped from the casing and into the annulus.
 This tool is called a multi stage cementing tool and is placed
in the casing string at the point at which the bottom of the
second stage is required. When the second stage slurry is
ready to be pumped the multi stage tool is opened and the
second stage slurry is pumped into the casing, through the
stage cementing tool and into the annulus, as in the first
stage.
 When the required amount of slurry has been pumped, the
multi stage tool is closed. This is known as "Multi-stage
Cementing Operation" or a "Two-stage Cementing
Operation"
 Calculate Annular Capacity
 Annular capacity is the area of the space between two
diameter of cylindrical objects. This topic demonstrates
how to calculate annular capacity between casing and
hole and casing and casing.
 There are several formulas as shown below to calculate
annular capacity depending on unit of annular capacity
required.
Dh is bigger ID and Dp is smaller OD. The examples below will
show the Dh as hole size and Dp is casing OD
 Calculate inner capacity in bbl/ft
 Inner Capacity in bbl/ft = (ID in.)2 ÷1029.4
 Example: Determine inner capacity in bbl/ft of a 6-
1/8 in. hole:
Inner Capacity in bbl/ft = 6.1252÷1029.4
Inner Capacity in bbl/ft = 0. 0364 bbl/ft
 Example: Determine inner capacity in ft/bbl of 6-1/8
in. hole:
 Inner Capacity in ft/bbl = 1029.4 ÷ (ID in.)
Inner Capacity in ft/bbl = 1029.4 ÷ 6.1252
Inner Capacity in = 27.439 ft/bbl
 Calculate inner capacity in gal/ft
 Inner Capacity in gal/ft = (ID in.)2 ÷24.51
Example: Determine inner capacity in gal/ft of 6-1/8
in. hole:
Inner Capacity in gal/ft = 6.1252÷ 24.51
Inner Capacity in = 1.53 gal/ft
 Calculate inner capacity in ft/gal
 Inner Capacity in ft/gal = 24.51 ÷ (ID in.)2
Example: Determine inner capacity in ft/gal of 6-1/8
in. hole:
Inner Capacity in ft/gal = 24.51 ÷ 6.1252
Inner Capacity in ft/gal = 0.6533 ft/gal
 Determine the volume of mud to fill up the inner of
the cylindrical objects by the following equation.
 Inner Volume = Inner Capacity x Length
 Example: Inner capacity = 0. 0364 bbl/ft
 Length = 3000 ft
 Volume = 0. 0364 x 3,000 = 109.2 bbl.
 Calculate annular capacity in bbl/ft
 Annular capacity in bbl/ft= (Dh2 – Dp2)÷ 1029.4
 Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.
Pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in bbl/ft = (6.1252 – 3.5 2) ÷1029.4
Annular capacity = 0.0245 bbl/ft
 Calculate annular capacity in ft/bbl
 Annular capacity in ft/bbl = 1029.4 ÷ (Dh2 – Dp2)

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in ft/bbl = 1029.4 ÷ (6.125 2 – 3.5 2)
Annular capacity = 40.743 ft/bbl
 Calculate annular capacity in gal/ft
 Annular capacity in gal/ft = (Dh2 – Dp2) ÷ 24.51

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in gal/ft = (6.125 2 – 3.52) ÷24.51
Annular capacity = 1.031 gal/ft
 d) Calculate annular capacity in ft/gal
 Annular capacity, ft/gal = 24.51 ÷ (Dh2 – Dp2)

Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.

Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in ft/gal = 24.51 ÷ (6.125 2 – 3.5 2)
Annular capacity in ft/gal = 0.97 ft/gal

 These calculations will form the basis of the cementing
programme. They should be performed in this sequence
as will be seen below.
1. Cement Slurry Requirements :
Sufficient cement slurry must be mixed and pumped to fill up
the following:
A - the annular space between the casing and the borehole
wall,
B - the annular space between the casings
C - the openhole below the casing (rathole)
D - the shoetrack
 The volume of slurry required will dictate the amount of dry
cement, mixwater and additives that will be required for the
operation.
Number of Sacks of Cement

Mixwater Requirements

Additive Requirements
 A 13-3/8”, 72 lb/ft casing string is to be cemented at 8,000 ft. The
20” casing has been set and cemented at 1,200 ft. The following
data are given:

Total hole depth 8,030 ft

Open hole size, gauge hole 17-1/2”
Previous casing 20” / 133 lb/ft
20” casing ID 18.85”
Setting depth 1,200 ft
Shoe track 120 ft
13-3/8”, 72 lb/ft casing 12.347” ID
Mud weight in hole 14.5 ppg
Top of Cement (TOC) 800 ft
Top of tail slurry 7,500 ft
Lead slurry density 14.6 ppg
Lead slurry yield 1.43 ft3/sack
Mix water required for the lead slurry 6.96 gal/sack
Tail slurry density 15.8 ppg
Mix water requirement for tail slurry 5.0 gal/sack
Tail slurry yield 1.15 ft3/sack
Weight of 1 sack of cement 94 lb
US gallons per barrel 42
 Represent the above information on a diagram
 Calculate the quantities of cement required for the tail cement
slurries.
 Calculate the volume of water required to mix the tail slurry.
 Assignment Due 15 – 11-2019
 After drilling the 12 ¼’’ hole to 1600m, the forward plan is to set the
9.625’’ casing (ID: 8.681’’) and drill ahead to well TD.
 Using the data given below:
 Hole section TD: 1600m
 Previous casing shoe: 500m
 Previous casing size 13.375’’ (ID: 12.415’’)
 Cement type: class G
 Tail slurry: 15.8 ppg (1.15 ft3/sack)
 Mix water: 5 gal/sack
 Top of tail slurry: 200m above shoe
 Lead slurry: 12.5 ppg (1.22 ft3/sack)
 Mix water: 5.49 gal/sack
 Top of lead slurry 100m into previous shoe
 Rate of mixing cement: 25 sacks/min
 Rate of cement displacement: 300gpm
 Shoe track: 24m
 Draw a diagram representing the above information
 Calculate the quantity of cement (sack) required for the lead
and tail slurry.