Orkustofnun, Grensasvegur 9, Reports 2014

IS-108 Reykjavik, Iceland Number 17

WELL DESIGN, CEMENTING TECHNIQUES AND

WELL WORK-OVER TO LAND DEEP PRODUCTION CASINGS
IN THE MENENGAI FIELD

Abraham Wamala Khaemba

Geothermal Development Company, Ltd.
P.O. Box 17700-20100
Nakuru
KENYA
akhaemba@gdc.co.ke

ABSTRACT

Drilling has been ongoing at Menengai high temperature field since 2011. The wells
are of regular well design with a 20" surface casing set at 60-70 m, 13⅜" anchor
casing set at about 400 m depth and 9⅝" production casing set at between 800-1400
m. The intent is to drill the wells to a total depth of 2500-3000 m, with slotted 7"
liners run to the bottom. All the casings used are grade K55, with threaded couplings.

Data from offset wells drilled earlier have helped design the depth of the production
casing in order to avoid cold inflows into the wells. Wells located at the centre of
the field, which is at a higher elevation, have production casings set at about 850 m,
while the production casings for other wells have been designed to be set deeper,
down to 1400 m.

With a good number of wells at the Menengai field having the production casing
being set at 1400 m, this paper looks at: designing wells with a 9⅝" K55 production
casing, slurry design and the most effective method for cementing the casings.
Cementing methods that will be discussed include cementing with a cement head
and plugs, two stage cementing, cementing with C-Flex RPL from the peak using
the inner string method, reverse circulation cementing with an inner string and flap
gate valve collar, and foam cementing.

The paper looks at a number of wells which have already been completed. Pressure
and temperature logs are analysed as well as the borehole geology to identify the
cold inflow zones in wells already drilled. The remedial mechanisms available for
sealing off the cold zones in completed wells are then researched and the most
effective method to be applied at the Menengai field identified. The methods include
use of External casing packer (ECP) and tie back design.

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper will use data from the first twenty wells drilled at Menengai. All the wells are vertical and
of standard size.
295
Khaemba 296 Report 17

The design of Menengai wells, the drilling fluid program and the geology are shown in Figure 1. The
wells are designed as follows:

 The conductor casing of diameter 30" is driven to ground at about 3 m.

 A 26" diameter hole is drilled to 80 m, then cased with 20" surface casing and cemented back
to the surface.
 A 17½" diameter hole is drilled to a depth of 400 m. The 13⅜" anchor casing is run and
cemented back to the surface.
 A 12¼" diameter hole is drilled to between 800-1400 m; the 9-5/8" production casing is run and
cemented back to surface.
 An 8½" production section is drilled to TD (total depth) of 2500-3000 m. A slotted 7" liner is
then placed at the bottom of the 9 5/8” casing with a liner hanger which stretches down to the
bottom of the production section.

The location of wells that have

already been drilled in Menengai is
shown on the geological map in
Figure 2. The Menengai caldera is
an elliptical depression with minor
and major axes measuring about 11.5
km and 7.5 km, respectively. As per
Mungania (2004), the circular rim of
the caldera ring fault is well
preserved with a vertical cliff at
some places measuring up to about
400 m. The ring structure has only
been disturbed by the Solai graben
faults on the NE end and one fracture
at the SSW end. The caldera floor is
covered with post caldera lavas such
that it is not possible to estimate the
collapse depth or any structures that
may mark the caldera floor.
However, most of the caldera infill
lavas are fissure eruptions that prefer
fracture openings. The floor of the
Menengai geothermal prospect area
depicts extensional tectonics with
the main trough trending N-S north
of Menengai and NNW-SSE for the
section south of Menengai. This
sharp trend change is associated with
the extent of Cambrian
craton/orogenic belt contacts.

FIGURE 1: Menengai well cross-section with Wells located at the center of the
expected geology field have their production casing
depth between 800 m and 1100 m
(Table 1). In most of these wells the casing has been sufficient to isolate cold zones. Wells drilled on
the edge of the field have a deeper production casing set, from 1100 m to 1400 m, to isolate cold zones
which could be as deep as around 1300 m.

The presence of cold zones below the production casing shoe indicates that the production casing has
been set at a shallow depth.
Report 17 297 Khaemba

FIGURE 2: Map of Menengai showing drilled wells

TABLE 1: Wells data showing location, production casing depth and total drilled depth

Location Production casing depth Depth

Well
Easting Northing Elevation (m) (m) (m)
MW-01 171847 9977684.9 2064 842 2206
MW-02 171599.63 9979477.57 1898 802.04 3200
MW-03 177332 9977854.9 2032 1096.46 2117
MW-04 177331.4 997607 2085 1105.66 2096
MW-06 172853 997676.1 2095 1100.59 2202.96
MW-07 170488.1 9977450.9 1924 1179 2118
MW-08 173231.3 9978225.3 2015 928.05 2355
MW-09 172848 9977442.1 2105 867 2088
MW-12 172433.5 9976892.7 2106 854.5 2054.15
MW-11 172374 997536.1 1993 888.29 1842.37
MW-05A 173688 99777481 2052 862.64 2095.65
MW-15 175197.39 99777481.5 1959 946.27 1679.62
MW-13 172464 9977193 2081 856.34 2012.11
MW-16 171196 9978355 1965 1167.03 2414
MW-17 171275 9975756 2060 1004.57 2218.17
MW-19 172629 9977753 2085 847 2501.4
MW-20 172017 9977442 2105 1199.2 2461
MW-21 171473.52 9977800 2131.4 1302.85 2730
MW-22 172080 997780.79 2055 1329 2762
MW-10A 172016.79 9977442.1 2085 845 2161.45
Khaemba 298 Report 17

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Well design

Conditions to consider while designing wells include: sub surface conditions to be encountered,
equipment to be used, material performance and the recognition of drilling practices needed to ensure
performance. Design steps necessary to drill a deep well safely include:
I. Taking geological and reservoir engineering advice on likely sub surface rock and fluid
properties;
II. Determining depths for casing and well completion;
III. Selecting casing diameters, thicknesses, cementing materials and cementing programs;
IV. Deciding on drilling fluids, drill string assemblies and well heads; and
V. Nominating necessary equipment, tools, materials, support facilities and site requirements.

Particular geological information required for well design include:

I. Rock type or formation, and the location of any specific stratigraphic marker beds;
II. Compressive strengths and the degree of consolidation;
III. Faulting, fracturing and gross permeability; and
IV. Effects of drilling activities on formation like swelling of water sensitive clays.

The depth of all casings and liners are chosen to ensure safety and to safely contain well conditions from
surface operations.

2.2 Casing design

The design of casings should include the effects of pressure and temperature changes that may occur at
any time or depth during drilling or operation of the well. For each of the stress regimes, calculations
should be done to establish that there is an adequate margin of strength in the casing string at all depths.
Casing specifications should be selected or well conditions restricted to ensure that the minimum design
factors are met. Information needed for the casing design include: mud weights, formation pressures,
fracture gradients, casing seats, casing sizes, directional plans, cement program, temperature profiles
and produced fluid chemical composition. Casing strings that are normally run include:

Conductor pipe: Run from the surface to shallow depths to protect near surface unconsolidated
formations, seal off shallow water zones, provide protection against shallow gas flows and protect the
foundation platform.

Surface casing: Run to prevent caving in of weak formations that are encountered at shallow depths. It
should be set in competent rock. It provides protection against shallow blow outs and should be deep
enough to support the BOP for drilling to the anchor casing shoe depth. This casing is used to case off
poorly consolidated soil and loose material.

Anchor casing: Set in a transition zone, below or above an over pressurized zone to seal off a severe
loss zone and protect against problematic formations. This casing protects surface aquifers against
contamination during drilling and acts as a second pressure barrier during the life of the well. This
casing supports the BOP and later the final production well head. Casing should be deep enough to
allow for the well to be killed while drilling to the production casing depth.

Production casing: Run to isolate producing zones and provide reservoir fluid control. The casing is
chosen on the basis of the expected depth and the temperatures of fluids to be included and isolated. It
conveys steam and water to the surface.
Report 17 299 Khaemba

Liner casing: string of casing that does not run to the surface but hangs inside the production casing.
Can be slotted or perforated to allow reservoir fluid to flow into the well. Types of liners include:
drilling liners, production liners, tie back liner, scab liner, scab tie back liner.

2.3 Casing diameter selection

The inside diameter of the casing should be selected to accommodate:

a) Downhole equipment, liners and test gear required to complete the well;
b) Drilling tools and fluids to drill the remainder of the well to completion;
c) Sufficient annular clearances to run and cement concentric casing strings;
d) Use of casing sizes which are standard and readily available on the market; and
e) The geothermal fluid that flows to the surface during testing and production.

Note: While drilling the next whole section, it should be possible to achieve acceptable flow velocities
inside the casings without high pressure losses. Drift diameters should be larger than the outside
diameters of any tools and other equipment to be run through the casings. Casing pipe diameters are
selected from API SPEC 5CT which specifies:

I. Process of manufacture;
II. Chemical composition;
III. Mechanical properties;
IV. Testing procedures;
V. Dimensions, weights and lengths;
VI. Threading and coupling;
VII. Inspection; and
VIII. Markings.

2.4 Casing depth selection

The depth of production casing is determined

by the depth at which fluids from the colder
formations need to be isolated from entering
the hole. One of the main determinants is the
minimum depth for safety reasons.
Government regulations at times specify
minimum casing depth. From a technical
point of view, the four main criteria used are:

I. In the New Zealand code of practice the

criteria is that the pressure from the
overburden (soil) at the last casing shoe
shall exceed the pressure from a steam
filled well. Once the final depth of the FIGURE 3: The New Zealand method to determine
well has been decided, hydrostatic minimum casing depth (Hossein-Pourazad, 2005)
pressure for the Boiling point-depth
curve (BPDC) is drawn to that depth. Minimum depth of casing according to the (NZS, 1991)
method is then found by extending the bottom hole pressure up the well until it intersects the
overburden line. This will be the minimum production casing depth. By repeating the procedure,
casing depths for the anchor and surface casings can be determined as shown in Figure 3.

II. In Iceland, a BPD is assumed for new fields. From well simulation the pressure profile for a flowing
well is determined assuming inflow at the bottom. Liquid will immediately be transformed into a
Khaemba 300 Report 17

two phase flow up the well. Minimum

casing depth is determined by how
long a column of heavy mud 1.4g/cm³
is required to balance this pressure,
shown in Figure 4.

III. Another criterion is to use the actual

downhole temperature and pressure
measurements. Typically, fluid turns
to two phase flow halfway up the hole.
This pressure profile is balanced by
pure water only. Pumping only water
into the well ensures the drill string
can be retrieved, even if there is an
underground blow out in the well, as
shown in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5: Icelandic method of determining casing

2.5 Casing materials depth using mud as a blowout preventer
(Hossein-Pourazad, 2005)
Steel casings are selected from API SPEC
5CT or 5L. Where gases are present, casing
materials are selected to minimize
possibilities of failure by hydrogen
embrittlement or by sulphide stress
corrosion cracking.

Where axial strength is important, casing

joints shall be API buttresses with proven
strength in both tension and compression.
The casing design should allow for changes
in casing properties at elevated
temperatures including tensile yield and
ultimate strengths. The effects of plastic
yield and of stress relaxation with time
should be considered when programming
casing settings, well operation procedures FIGURE 5: Icelandic method to determine the
and workovers. minimum depth of casing using pure water as a blow
out preventer (Hossein-Pourazad, 2005)
2.6 Casing service conditions and failure modes

According to Hole (2008), the effects of elevated temperatures on well components such as casings
include:

 Change in the length of unrestrained casing;

 Compressive stress due to restriction (cemented casing);
 Reduction in steel strength; and
 Destruction in material competence, particularly flexible seals.

Factors affecting casing loading during different operations are shown in Table 2.
Report 17 301 Khaemba

TABLE 2: Factors affecting casing loading (Southon, 2005)

Stress Installation Injection Production

Collapse Cement column outside and Biaxial load Trapped water in
water inside the casing; uncemented sections in
Biaxial tension annulus
Burst Surface pressure to lift Injection pressure; Gas Well head pressure
cement; Gas accumulation accumulation and depression
of water table
Tension/ Cooling load; support of own Axial load due to cooling Thermal expansion
compression weight

The different factors lead to primary modes of failure which are divided into axial and radial failures.

2.6.1 Axial stress conditions

Axial stress occurs due to:

 Casing self-weight;
 Temperature effects - Expansion and contraction; and
 Restraint from surrounding cement and connection of well head or hanger at the bottom.

Axial loading before and during cementing

Tensile force at any depth includes the weight of casing in air minus the buoyant effect of any fluid in
the well until the annular cement sets:

Fp (1)

where Fp = Tensile force at surface from casing weight;

= Depth of casing;
= Unit weight of casing;
= Depth of water level in the well;
= Cross-sectional area of pipe;
= Mean specific volume of hot fluid; and
= Acceleration due to gravity.
The design factor applied is 1.8.

Axial loading after cementing

Thermal stresses can be calculated by imagining that casing expands outwards and then is forced back
to its original length by axial compression (using the modulus of elasticity). The total axial stress in a
cemented string varies continuously with depth and also with differences in temperature.

The compressive force due to temperature rise when the casing is constrained both longitudinally and
laterally by cement is:
Fc 2 1 (2)
where 200 ∗ 12 ∗ 10 6 2.4 /° ;
Fc = Compressive force due to heating;
= Thermal stress constant for casing steel;
1 = Neutral temperature (time cement sets);
2 = Maximum expected temperature;
= Cross-sectional area of pipe;
= Modulus of elasticity; and
= Coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
Khaemba 302 Report 17

The tensile loading, as calculated for the pre-cementing axial loading, remains in the casing after the
cement sets up (ignoring stress relaxation with time); the resultant axial force (Fr) after cement set up
and heating will be:
Fr Fc Fp (3)
where Fr = Resultant axial force

The design factor utilised will be the minimum compressive strength/resultant compressive strength.
The design factor should not be less than 1.2. The minimum strength refers to the lesser strength of the
pipe body or connection.

Axial loading with buckling and bending

This section applies to the setting of liners. Liners are either hung in tension using a liner hanger or sit
on the bottom of the well; in this case the liner is in compression. The liner is not cemented so it is not
radially supported or constrained. The liners are subjected to axial self-weight compression and helical
buckling, analysed for extreme fibre compressive stress:
1
Fc (4)
2
where Fc = Total extreme fibre compressive stress due to axial and bending forces;
= Length of liner;
= Nominal unit weight of casing;
= Acceleration due to gravity;
= Cross-sectional area of pipe;
= Pipe outside diameter;
= Eccentricity (actual hole diameter minus D); and
= Net moment of inertia of pipe section, allowing for slotting or perforation.
The design factor should not be less than 1.

2.6.2 Radial stress conditions

Radial (Hoop or circumferential) loadings are applied primarily by internal and external fluid pressures.
The ability of casings to resist the resultant differential pressures is listed in the API standards.
Consideration must be given to:
 The differential pressures that occur before and during cementing operations
 Well fluid pressures in static conditions or when producing or reinjecting

Internal yield – Bursting

The design must ensure that adequate safety margins exist against internal yield or burst from high
internal fluid pressure caused by a range of situations during and after cementing. Maximum differential
burst pressures usually occur near the casing shoe or stage cementing collar ports and will apply when:
 The casing is filled with high density cement;
 The annulus is either completely filled with water back to the surface or partially filled with water
as controlled by formation pressure;
 A restriction within the casing, such as a blocked float valve or a cementing plug which will hold
differential pressure.

This is the worst case scenario; the hydrostatic pressure inside the casing at the shoe is caused by cement
slurry and applied pressure minus the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus caused by the head of water in
the annulus:
Pi (5)
Report 17 303 Khaemba

where Pi = Maximum differential internal pressure;

= Height above casing shoe of the cement column;
= Cement slurry density;
= Applied pumping pressure;
= Height above casing shoe of water column in the annulus;
= Mean density of water in the annulus.
Design factor = Casing internal yield pressure/Differential burst pressure and should not be less than
1.5.

Collapse
The casing design should ensure a sufficient margin of safety against collapse due to external pressure
from entrapped liquid expansion, applied pressure during pumping or static pressure from a dense liquid
column such as cement slurry. Maximum differential external pressure occurs at the completion of
displacement. The annulus is completely filled with high density slurry while the inside of the casing is
filled with water.
Pz (6)
where Pz = Maximum differential external pressure;
= Height above casing shoe of water column inside the casing;
= Mean density of water inside the casing;
= Applied pumping pressure;
= Height above casing shoe of cement slurry column in annulus;
= Mean density of cement slurry in annulus;
The design factor = Casing collapse strength/net external pressure and shall not be less than 1.2.

2.7 Cement slurry design

Casings are cemented the full length to the surface to minimize casing expansion, especially during
production. Slurry design depends on well information from logs and drilling operations such as:
I. Temperature measurements. They provide valuable information for cementing such as in the
determination of hole temperature, the location of aquifers and loss zones, the cross flow between
aquifers, and locating the top of the cement. Both the bottom hole circulating temperature
(BHCT) and bottom hole static temperature (BHST) should be determined. The temperature
measured should be similar to conditions at the time of cementing.
II. Caliper log. Measures well diameter; usually with 4 arms to investigate cavities, the amount of
cement needed for cementing, and used in order to determine the location of packers.
III. Cement bond logs. Done after cementing to determine the top of the cement, cement quality, and
bonding of the cement to the casing and hole wall.

The design of cement slurry for a geothermal well considers a careful choice of cements, retarders, fluid
loss additives, dispersants, silica flour, extenders, bentonite, mica flakes, friction reducer, calcium
chloride, defoamers and mix water. Slurry should also be correctly placed in the annulus. Mainly
Portland cement is used in the Menangai area. Slurry properties considered before cementing include:
I. Slurry density (SG);
II. Slurry yield (m³/mT);
III. Thickening time at bottom hole circulating temperature and bottom hole static temperature;
IV. Fluid loss (mL);
V. Free water composition (%);
VI. Test pressure;
VII. Compressive strength (MPa); and
VIII. Filtration.
Khaemba 304 Report 17

The slurry properties should be adequately tested in the laboratory to ensure the slurry meets stated
conditions. The cement slurry should be monitored and measured during cementing to ensure that the
concentrations of solids and additives are maintained as close as possible to design values. Use of high
strength microspheres (HSM) is used to make low specific gravity slurries that can withstand high
pressures. These slurries maintain low density at high pressures and still develop high compressive
strength over a broad temperature range. There are new slurry techniques to improve the quality of
slurry such as:

 Fibre reinforced cement slurry - Fibre improves cement toughness as a result of improved
interfacial shear strength between the hydrated cement and fibre. Fibre reinforced cements are
able to withstand higher tensile stresses than conventional cements and increases tensile strength
and strain capacity, flexural and shear strength, ductility, toughness and resistance to cracking
induced by thermal effects, shrinkage or other causes.
 Hollow microsphere slurry – Has a low specific gravity and can withstand high pressures. This
allows for the use of cement designs that can maintain low density at high pressures and still
develop relatively high compressive strength over a broad temperature range.
 Foamed cement slurry – Mixture of cement slurry with foaming agents and gas, usually nitrogen
which is injected at high pressure into the base slurry and incorporates a foaming agent and foam
stabilizer. The small, fine foam bubbles promote stronger cement walls around the bubbles and
promote the setting of cement with increased integrity. The process creates stable lightweight
slurry with low permeability and relatively high compressive strength.

2.8 Cement placement methods

2.8.1 Single stage cementing

Single stage cementing is the most common cementing operation used in geothermal drilling. The
procedure, as shown in Figure 6, involves:
 Casing string with all the required cementing accessories such as float collar, guide/float shoe and
centralizers are lowered in the well, with a few metres of rat hole left at the bottom.
 Cementing head is connected at the top of the casing. Cement plugs should be correctly placed
in the cementing head.

FIGURE 6: Single stage cementing procedure (Bett, 2010)

Report 17 305 Khaemba

 The casing is circulated clean before cementing and thoroughly cooled.

 Bottom plug is released to wipe the casing clean and to form a barrier between the spacer and the
drilling fluid in the casing, followed by a spacer and then cement slurry. When the bottom plug
reaches the float collar, the diaphragm ruptures, allowing the spacer and slurry to flow through
the plug, around the shoe, and then up the annulus.
 The top plug is released and displacing fluid is pumped. When the plug reaches the float collar,
it lands on the bottom plug and stops the displacement process.

2.8.2 Inner string (Stinger) cementing

Inner string cementing allows large

diameter casing to be cemented
through the drill pipe or tubing that
is inserted and sealed in floating
equipment. Inner string cementing
requires the installation of a stab in
the casing string. A float collar with
a sealing sleeve is usually installed
two joints from the bottom of the
casing string.

Casing is run into the well the normal

way; then the inner string is run with
a sealing adapter made up on the
lower end and stabbed into the
floating equipment to provide
sealing/bore receptacle for the inner
string sealing adapter. After stabbing
in, water is circulated around the
system to ensure that the stinger and FIGURE 7: Inner string cementing and reverse cementing
annulus are clear of any debris and to (Nelson, 1990)
cool down the well. This is followed
by a spacer before slurry is pumped. The inner string cementing set up is shown in Figure 7.

Displacement of the slurry can be done with or without a plug. Inner string cementing has these
advantages:

I. Reduces the risk of cement slurry setting within the casing since cement reaches the annulus much
faster than in conventional cementing methods;
II. Does not require large diameter cementing plugs;
III. Reduces cement contamination;
IV. Reduces the amount of cement that has to be drilled out of large diameter casing;
V. Decreases cementing displacement time; and
VI. Allows cement slurry to be pumped until returns are obtained on the surface.

2.8.3 Reverse circulation cementing

Reverse circulation cementing is mainly used in well bores where loss of circulation is encountered.
Slurry is pumped down the annulus, displacing the drilling fluid back up through the casing. The float
equipment, differential fill up equipment and well head equipment must be modified. Reverse
circulation can provide the following advantages:
Khaemba 306 Report 17

I. Reduces hydraulic horse power of cement

slurry pumping equipment since
gravitational flow works in favour of the
slurry flow;

II. Reduces the fluid pressure (Equivalent

circulating density-ECD). ECD is
calculated at the shoe by combining the
effects of hydrostatic pressure and
frictional fluid induced pressures in the
casing. This is because the heavier and
more viscous cement slurry is not
circulated back to the surface through the
casing;

III. Enables shorter slurry thickening time

since little or no retarders are used; and

IV. Takes a shorter time to execute since no FIGURE 8: Reverse cementing (Nelson, 1990)
displacement is required.

The main disadvantage of this method is that it is hard to ensure good cementing at the shoe. Reverse
cementing is shown in Figure 8.

2.8.4 Two stage cementing

Two stage cementing makes use of a stage cementing collar in addition to the conventional cementing
equipment (guide shoe and float). The procedure for conducting a two stage cementing operation is
shown by Nelson (1990).

Cementing the First stage

Mixing and pumping of spacers and slurries during the first stage is similar to a single stage operation.
After slurry mixing, the first stage plug is dropped and displaced until a positive indication of its landing
in the float occurs. Some operators, when cementing production casings, displace the first stage using
two fluids, leaving the casing below the stage collar filled with completion fluid and the upper casing
filled with drilling mud. This mud is subsequently used to circulate the hole through the stage collar
ports. Some types of stage collars allow the use of first stage wiper plugs.

Cementing Second stage

After the first stage is completed, the opening bomb is dropped and allowed to fall via gravity to the
lower seat in the stage collar. Once the bomb is seated, pressure is applied until the retaining pins are
sheared, forcing the lower sleeve to move downwards and uncover the ports. Usually a pressure of 1200
to 1500 psi will shear the retaining pins. A sudden drop in surface pressure indicates the opening of the
ports. Once the ports of the stage collar have been opened, the well must be circulated until the mud is
conditioned for the second stage. For cementing the second stage, spacers and slurries are mixed as in
any single stage job. The closing plug is dropped after slurry mixing and is displaced to its seat in the
stage collar. After the plug has seated, a minimum of 1500 psi above the second stage displacing
pressure is required to close the stage-collar ports. Pressure is released from the casing after the ports
are closed. Most second stages of two stage jobs are performed using low density filler slurries to allow
circulation to the surface. Tail slurries are rarely used even if an open hole section is to be cemented.
For the protection of the weakest part of the casing string, the stage collar is improved by increasing the
density of the last portion of the cement slurry. Two stage cementing is shown in Figure 9.
Report 17 307 Khaemba

FIGURE 9: Two stage cementing procedure (Bett, 2010)

3. ANALYSIS OF MENENGAI WELLS

From temperature profiles of wells drilled at Menengai, from completion tests, during heat up and after
discharge, the temperature along the wells can be noted and feed zones identified. This study takes a
look at two wells: Menengai MW02, located on the edge of the field, with a production casing at 802.04
m, and Menengai MW19 at the centre of 0
WELL MW-02: HEATING PROFILES

the field with a production casing at 847 200

m. The two wells have production 400
casings set at a shallow depth than other 600
wells in the field. 800

1000

1200
3.1 Menengai MW02 1400
Depth (m)

1600
Menengai well MW02 was completed on
1800
1st May 2011. Aquifers in MW02 were
2000
observed in zones shown by changes in
2200
the temperature logs. In addition, they
2400
were also characterised by an increase in
2600
circulation losses of drilling fluid, an
2800
increased proportion of high-temperature
hydrothermal alteration minerals and 3000

changes in the penetration rates. Well 3200

MW02 encountered aquifers with 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature (oC) / Press (Bars)
relatively low temperature (<80°C) at
400-600 m and 1100-1300 m. Four
aquifers were notable at 500 m (~75°C),
1200 m (~80°C), 2300 m (~90°C) and
3200 (~120°C). Figure 10 shows
temperature and pressure plots for well FIGURE 10: Menengai Well MW02 Temperature-
MW02 during heating up after drilling. pressure profiles
Khaemba 308 Report 17

The well is located right at the western promontory fault, almost at the edge of the caldera floor, as
shown in Figure 2. The rock formations in the well are heavily fractured and pyritized with partial
circulation losses all through the well column. There is a sudden inflow of warm water into the well at
2300 m. There is an increase in temperature at 3100 m, implying a hot geothermal reservoir beneath
the massive intrusion.

Temperature logs show an increase at about 1100 m of slightly hotter water flowing into the well. At
about 1300 m, cold water flows into the well and, at about 2250 m, hot water (probably only just above
100°C) flows in and mixes with the cold water. At about 3000 m, the water flows out of the well. The
rock formation between 1300 and 2250 m seems relatively cold but significantly hotter below 3000 m,
according to Njue (2013).

3.2 Menengai well MW19

Menengai well 19 (MW19) was completed on the 12th December 2013. In well MW19, high temperature
alteration minerals epidote, wollastonite and actinolite, indicating temperatures of 250°C, appear from
a depth of 1464 m. Wollastonite is noted from depths of 1464 m to 1504 m. The well has several feed
zones. The upper feed zones are at 500 m, 900 m and 1300 m. These feed zones have a cold zone up
to 1300 m, thus the well needed to be cased off and the deeper feed zones in the well utilized. After 14
days of heating up, the upper reservoir
between 800 m and 1000 m had
temperatures up to and above 170°C
while, after 1 day of discharge, the
temperatures at the bottom of the well
reached 280°C, as shown in plots in
Figure 11.

Data from the two wells shows the

presence of more than one aquifer in
Depth (m)

the wells. There is an upper aquifer

and a lower aquifer with a cold zone
between them from 1000-1300 m in
both wells. The presence of a cold
zone which has not been cased off has
had an effect on the production of the
wells, resulting in the need to land
deep production casings up to a depth
of 1400 m and to cement the casing for
an effective and durable well
(Lopeyok, 2014).

Because of the relatively low

temperature in the upper zone,
production has led to the precipitation
of calcite in some wells, leading to a
decrease in production and, hence, to
costly workovers.
FIGURE 11: Menengai MW19 well profile after drilling
Report 17 309 Khaemba

4. MENENGAI PRODUCTION CASING DESIGN AND CEMENTING

4.1 Casing design calculations

Grade K55 casings are used. K55 casing properties are shown in Table 3, while standard parameters
for calculating casing loading are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 3: K55 Casing properties

Casing size (inches) 20 13⅜ 13⅜ 9⅝ 7

Grade K55 K55 K55 K55 K55
Weight, PPF 94 54.5 68 47 26
Inside diameter, Inches 19.124 12.615 12.415 8.681 6.276
Drift diameter, Inches 18.936 12.459 12.259 8.525 6.151
Collapse, PSI 520 1130 1,950 3,880 4,320
Burst, PSI 2,110 2730 3,450 4,720 4,980
Burst with 1.1 DF PSI 1918 2482 3136 4291
Tensile, KLBS 1,480 853 1,069 746 415
Thread type BTC BTC BTC BTC BTC

TABLE 4: Parameters used to calculate production casing loading

Parameter Parameter
Size 9.625 inches Casing capacity 38.18 l/m
Depth 1400 m Gravity 9.810665 m/s²
Casing wall thickness 0.472 inches Density of water 1 SG (1000 kg/m³)
Casing weight 47 pounds/foot Density of cement 1.8 SG (1800 kg/m³)
Casing grade API-K55 Thermal stress constant for steel 2.4 Mpa/°C
Collapse resistance 26.8 MPa Pipe body strength 332 daN * 10³
Internal yield 32.5 MPa Casing cross sectional area 8756 mm²

Axial loading before and during cementing will be calculated using Equation 1. The worst case
theoretical axial load when cementing is when the casing is full of cement and the annulus is full of
water.
TABLE 5: Conversion constants
Total axial load = Casing self-weight + Weight of casing
– Buoyancy Conversion factors
m to feet 3.28084
For calculations in standard units, the conversion factors are daN to lbf 2.2482014
shown in Table 5. kgf to daN 0.9810665
inches to cm 2.54
Tensile inches to m 0.0254
Tensile loading during primary cementing, while the casing is full N to daN 0.1
of cement, is found using Equation 1:

i.e. Fp (Tensile loading at the surface from casing weight)

.
Casing self-weight = Depth * Weight ( ) daN
.

= 1400 * 47 * 1.4593 = 96,023.10 daN

Weight of cement = Depth * Capacity * Density = 1400 * 38.19 * 1.8 = 96,238.8 daN
Khaemba 310 Report 17

Buoyancy Force = Density of Fluid * Volume displaced (Cross-sectional Area * Depth) *

. ∗ . ∗ .
Acceleration due to gravity = 1400 * [ ] * 1000 * 0.981 = 64,478.087 daN

Total axial load = Casing self-weight + Weight of cement – Buoyancy

= 96,023.10 + 96,238.8 - 64,478.087 = 127,783.813 daN

K55 casing body yield strength = 332,000 daN (Gabolde and Nguyen, 2014)
,
Safety Factor = = 2.598
, .

With the safety factor at the recommended minimum of 1.8, it is safe to run 9⅝", grade K55, 47 lb/ft.
Casing to 1400 was recommended by Hole (2008).

Yield
Internal yield pressure while cementing to 1400 m (Burst) is calculated using Equation 5:
The maximum differential pressure= 1400 ∗ 1800 1400 ∗ 1000 9.81= 10.987 MPa.

Design limit for 9⅝", grade K55, 47 lb/ft. casing is 32.5 MPa (Gabolde and Nguyen, 2014).

.
Safety factor = = 2.96, above the design Factor of Safety as shown in Hole (2008).
.

Collapse
Collapse during cementing using Equation 5:
The maximum differential pressure= 1400 ∗ 1000 1400 ∗ 1800 9.81= -10.987. The pressure
could be less depending on pumping pressure while displacing.

Design collapse resistance for 9⅝", grade K55, 47 lb/ft. casing is 26.8 Mpa (Gabolde and Nguyen, 2014).
.
Safety factor = = 2.43
.

It is safe to run 9⅝", grade K55, 47 lb/ft. casings to 1400 m, since the factor of safety is above the design
factor of safety of 1.2 from Hole (2008).

All the casings have Buttress thread connections. They have a longer thread and coupling run out and
the threads are squarer resulting in a stronger connection than the strength of the casing body. The
connection is stronger, 445 and 416 *10³ for buttress standard and buttress special clearance,
respectively (Gabolde and Nguyen, 2014), thus the connection is safe to run K55, 9⅝", 47 ppf casing to
1400 m. A thread compound should be used to provide a sealing mechanism.

Rig capacity
There are two types of rigs in use at Menengai, the 2,000HP rig with a hook load capacity of 450 tons
(Bomco, 2011), and an Atlas Copco rig with a hook load capacity of 91 tons (Atlas Copco, 2011).

K55, 9⅝", 47 lb/ft. casings have a nominal weight of 69.944 kg/m; running the casings to a depth of
1400 m, the total weight of the casings will be 97,921.6 kg. Since the total weight of the casings is
beyond the limit of the predator rig, the casings can only be run using the 2,000 HP rigs.

4.2 Effective cementing method

In Menengai only single stage cementing has been used. Casings are run with shoe and float placed one
joint off the bottom. The wells are circulated to clear the annulus and cool down the wells before the
Report 17 311 Khaemba

cementing lines are pressure tested to 1500 psi (10 MPa). Pre-flush fluid is pumped at 1.00 SG, then
the spacer at 1.5 SG. The lead slurry is mixed in the cementing equipment and pumped at about 1.72
SG with the tail slurry being pumped at 1.85 SG. The density is checked using a pressurized mud
balance on the cementing unit.

The wiper plug is bumped then displaced with the casing capacity volume. Pressures are recorded while
displacing and before bumping the plug. If returns are not received on the surface, the annulus is flushed
with water and then the cement top fill is done after 8 hours. Top jobs are done until cement returns are
received on the surface. The
cementing procedure that has
been in use at Menengai is
illustrated in Appendix I.
Cement bond logging has not
been done, but the top of the
cement is noted before
commencement of drilling the
next hole section. Instances
have been recorded where the
plug is tagged at a specific
depth but there is no cement
between the plug and the shoe.
In Figure 12, the graph shows
that in most cases the
cementing was not effective
since cement was tagged at a
greater depth than the
expected top of the cement
depth. This could be an
indication that the cement was
not properly displaced. FIGURE 12: Graph showing comparison of actual top of cement
and expected top of cement depths inside the production casing
Using inner string cementing to the loss zone is a more appropriate cementing method. While using
single stage cementing, displacing the cement has been a challenge. While displacing the cement in the
large diameter casings, in most instances water separates from the cement and free water has been found
below the top plug used while displacing the cement. An inner string cementing method is more
appropriate since cement is displaced more effectively as the displacement capacity of the drill pipes is
a lot less than in the casings, thus we can displace faster. Water should be pumped through the annulus
at a constant rate to ensure the loss zone remains open; then cement should be pumped to the loss zone.
The primary cementing job should be followed immediately with a backfill targeted to fill up the annulus
to the surface while the annular rams on the BOP are closed. The inner string method is more
advantageous as it is faster to circulate and cool the well since circulation is done through drill pipes
(capacity of 9.05 l/m) (Gabolde and Nguyen, 2014), while in single stage cementing circulation is done
through the 9⅝" casing (capacity of 38.18 l/m) (Gabolde and Nguyen, 2014), which takes more
circulation time and has less annular pressure for lifting cuttings that may have dropped below the shoe.
Due to the differences in the capacities, it takes shorter time to perform inner string cementing.

Cement test results, as shown in Appendices II and III, confirm that the cement slurry is suitably
designed to for cementing deep production casings with high formation static temperatures of ~ 150°C.

Cement should be tagged after 6 hours. If the cement level has dropped, the cement should be filled up
to the surface by pumping via the kill line.

After the cement has set, a cement bond log should be carried out to evaluate the quality of the cementing
job and to ascertain if any remedial work must be done before drilling the next hole section.
Khaemba 312 Report 17

5. CASE STUDY OF DEEP PRODUCTION CASINGS

5.1 Krafla geothermal field and the IDDP-1 well

5.1.1 Krafla field

Krafla geothermal field is located within the northeast volcanic zone of Iceland. The Krafla fissure
swarm, which is presently active, extends from Tjörnes Fracture Zone in the Öxafjördur bay in the north
and some 100 km to the south. Its width is approximately 5 km but varies considerably along the swarm.
The high temperature geothermal field is located within the Krafla caldera, elongated in an EW-NS
direction.

Drilling of exploratory wells in Krafla started in 1974. In some of the wells a temperature of 310° C
was measured and it was assumed that the temperature of the system was close to the boiling point
curve. Two distinct zones exist in Krafla: a lower zone, (1100 – 1300 m to at least 2200 m), is the up
flowing zone which feeds the upper zone (extending down to 1100 m depth). The upper zone is water
dominated and has a mean temperature of 205°C, whereas the lower zone is a two-phase system with
temperatures ranging from 300°C to 350°C. Because of the relatively low temperature in the upper
zone, production from this level caused calcite precipitation in the wells. As a result, production in
Krafla has mostly been limited to the lower zone (Stefánsson and Steingrímsson, 1980). The first signs
of boiling in the wells can be found during the warming up period. Boiling aquifers usually recover
faster than other parts of a well and boiling begins in the aquifers in a well. This boiling initiates
convection in the well and heats up the column above the boiling aquifer until the temperature aligns to
the boiling point curve. Some of the wells, for instance well KJ-11, had two modes of flow. One mode
was where only the liquid-dominated zone contributed to the flow, and the other mode was where both
zones were active. This contributes to considerable cooling in the well. Well IDDP-1 was designed to
tap steam from supercritical geothermal systems for wells with higher temperatures and more pressure
for higher electric power output.

5.1.2 IDDP-1 well design

The drill plan for well IDDP-1 is shown in

Figure 13 for a standard hole. Actual
drilling of the well was done from 2008 to
2009. The surface and intermediate casings
were set as per plan. However, a 13⅜"
anchor casing was set at 1957 m instead of
the planned 2400 m due to drilling
problems like a stuck string, twist offs,
unsuccessful fishing attempts and side-
tracking 3 times. The well was completed
with a cemented 9⅝" sacrificial casing and
a 9⅝" slotted liner set a few meters above
quenched magma. The well was drilled to
2104 m. It was deemed not feasible to
continue drilling well IDDP-1 (Elders and
Fridleifsson, 2010).
FIGURE13: IDDP-1 initial well design
5.1.3 IDDP-1 casing design (Thórhallsson et al., 2010)

Casing strings
Two casing programmes of different diameters were evaluated, as shown in Figure 13. The design used
casings available in the industry for both the standard hole and slim hole wells.
Report 17 313 Khaemba

Design loads
Casings were designed to contain extreme conditions of a flowing well as well as a closed well. Design
loads for these casings were calculated. Design factors considered were selected casing depths, highest
temperature range and the saturation pressure at the highest temperature.

Internal yield pressure

Internal yield pressure was calculated in accordance with Section 4.1.1 of the API (1994); the findings
are shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6: Internal yield pressure and well head shut in pressure

Units Well profile A Well profile B

Anchor casing In/lb/ft. 13⅜"/68 10-3/4"
Production casing In/lb/ft. 9⅝"/47 7⅝"/33.7
Internal yield pressure bar 238 326 278 352
Shut in pressure bar 221 250/267 221 250/278
Ratio 1.08 1.3/1.22 1.26 1.41/1.27

Collapse pressure
Collapse pressure was
calculated in accordance to
the collapse pressure of API
(1994), depicted in Figure 14.
Collapse resistance was
plotted as a function of
temperature for casing sizes
considered for the project.
The temperature range for the
design was 20-500°C.

Heating or cooling strain

Temperature changes of the
casing cause strain (tension or
compression) due to hindered
thermal expansion. The
effects of plastic yield and of
stress relaxation with time
were considered when setting
the casings and for well
operation procedures and FIGURE 14: Collapse resistance of casing vs Diameter/Thickness
down hole workovers to ratio and effect of Temperature (Thórhallsson, et al., 2010)
ensure thermal cycling was
kept to the minimum.

5.1.4 IDDP well cementing

A Peak C-Flex RPL valve was used to carry out cementing but the seals melted due to high temperatures.
A C-flex RPL is a sleeve-based cementing valve that allows access to the casing to casing annulus
without reducing integrity of the casing string. By installing the C-Flex RPL, casing OD and ID are
maintained. When the operation is completed, the C-Flex can be permanently locked in position.
Cementing and displacing using a C-flex RPL is shown in Figure 15. The Peak C-Flex RPL is a
mechanically operated valve which is operated by using a cementing tool attached to the drill pipe. The
cementing tool is equipped with two latching dogs that match the latching profile inside the C-Flex RPL.
Khaemba 314 Report 17

When the C-Flex RPL is operated,

the cementing tool is latched into the
C-Flex RPL and a force of 12-14
tons is set down to the valve, which
opens leaving access to the annulus
for cementing. Once the operation is
done, 6 tons over-pull is applied to
the cementing tool and the C-Flex
RPL will close. When the valve
closes it can be set in a permanent
position by adding a force of 45 tons
over-pull. The process is illustrated
in Figure 14. The temperature rating
for the C-Flex RPL is 130°C, but the
seal can be changed to a more
temperature resistant seal
(Thórhallsson, et al., 2010). During
cementing of the IDDP wells, the
seals melted due to the very high
temperatures.

Well IDDP-1 was drilled down into

molten magma; it was possible to set
a steel casing in the bottom; FIGURE 15: Inner string cementing with C-Flex RPL
superheated, high pressure steam procedure (Thórhallsson, et al., 2010)
blew for months at temperatures
exceeding 450°C.

6. WELL WORK-OVER

The production casing string in a geothermal well can be subject to internal and external corrosion from
the production or reinjection fluid on the inside of the casing and from the reservoir fluid on the outside
of the casing. The casing can also be damaged by mechanical wear, particularly if the production casing
is deviated from the vertical. Casing implosion can have a marked effect on the productivity of a well,
immediately after the first discharge; severe cases can choke the well. Failures have the potential of
allowing fluid to escape from the well into the surrounding formation or breeching to the surface. Causes
of casing failure are:

I. Casing can part while running in hole or part due to excessive pull when stuck;
II. Excess pressure while bumping the plug too hard while cementing can cause burst failure;
III. Wear caused by drilling below the casing or casing damage while fishing inside the casing;
IV. Movement of plastic formations during completion operations;
V. Internal or external corrosion or rod wear during producing life of a well; and
VI. Subtle failure, undetected failure.

General classes of casing failures are divided into:

Casing leaks: these commonly occur with most failures. Major causes are improper make up during
running, drill pipe wear, corrosion failure, and mechanical wear during the producing life of a well.

Split or burst casing: Caused by applying excess internal pressure, directly caused by operations or
indirectly caused by inadequate design. Casing can also burst because of structural defects including
Report 17 315 Khaemba

slag inclusions in the casing wall and uneven wall thickness. Split or burst casing due to mechanical
action during operations may be due to faults in the program design. Casing may be split by jarring a
packer loose with a malfunctioning slip segment. Casing may split when long heavy liners are set.

Parted casing: Always occurs at a connection, especially for special connections where the strength of
the connection is less than the strength of the pipe body. Casing failures due to parting can be caused
by design, operation or mechanical failure due to improper construction. Other causes of parted casings
are pulling casing apart while working a stuck casing, bumping the plug too hard and during cementing.

Collapsed casing occurs while squeezing or treating below a packer set in the casing. This can occur
when there is a poor cement job outside the casing (cement channelling), and the tubing casing’s annulus
is insufficiently pressurized. The pressure below the packer communicates outside the casing and up to
the section above the packer.

Once the casing has failed due to one of the above reasons, reconstruction has to be done in order to
continue using the well. Different repair methods exist for reconstruction of casings and the method to
be selected depends on:

I. How does the casing failure affect current and future operation;
II. Is the internal diameter of the casing restricted;
III. Is the casing worthy of recovering;
IV. Can the failure be repaired in the normal course of future operations;
V. Can an extra string of casing be run;
VI. Can the string be patched or packed off;
VII. Can casing be plugged or repaired later; and
VIII. Is the point of failure inside another casing string?

Possible mechanisms for production casing failures are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7: Production casing failure mechanism (Southon, 2005)

Casing failure
Conditions Likely depth
mechanism
Casing implosion ΔT and casing to casing entrapment of Anywhere above shoe of the
fluids outer casing (s)
Compression failure in ΔT and rapid heat up. Also an added High temperature fields and
casing or couplings condition is severe doglegs shallow where ΔT is greatest
Sulfide stress cracking Temperatures below 80°C and high Shallow with cold shut in
stress areas conditions
Early (< 2 years) Sections with worn (thinned) casing or For aggressive fluids the first
corrosion or casing holing wells with very aggressive (low pH) sign of problems is corrosion at
(internal) production fluids the well head
Delayed corrosion (3-5 Condensate level in shut in wells At the water gas interface of
years)- Internal shut in wells
Corrosion evidence after Corrosive fluid penetrating along micro Any depth on the production
5 years (external) fractures in casing cement casing
Khaemba 316 Report 17

6.1 Ways of determining casing failures

6.1.1 Video record

Using downhole video cameras, casing failures

can be readily identified by the deformation being
segmented to one side of the casing
circumference. Figure 16 shows a casing break,
at a depth of 310.9 m, inside the buttress thread
coupling. Video cameras can also show a non-
symmetric collapse, probably a reflection that
fluid is trapped in liner streaks rather than as a full
annular slug of fluid during cementing. Collapse
is normally located in the body of the casing and
not near the couplings. At the couplings of the
production casings, the trapped fluid occupies less
annular space. Video cameras also show heavy
scale build up on the casings and sections which
have thinned out. Some videos of casing collapse
have revealed relatively minor inward bulging of FIGURE 16: Casing break at 310.9 m
the casing wall, indicating a relatively small (Thórhallsson S., 2003)
pocket size of trapped fluid

6.1.2 Cement bond logs

A cement bond log (CBL) uses an acoustic

amplitude curve to indicate cement bond
integrity. CBL uses conventional sonic log
principals of refraction to make its measurements.
Sound travels from the transmitter, through mud
and refracts along the casing mud interface and
back to the receivers. The amplitude is recorded
on the log in millivolts or as attenuation in
decibels/foot or as a bond index. A travel curve
is also presented. The actual value measured is
the signal amplitude in millivolts. Attenuation is
calculated by the service company based on its
tool design, casing diameter and transmitter.
Good cement is indicated by low amplitude, high
attenuation and a high bond index. In a casing
that is still unbonded (high amplitude railroad
tracks on early arrivals on the VDL), amplitude
curve reads high, BUT: late arrivals on VDL have
shape and track porosity log shape. Figure 17 FIGURE 17: Cement bond output
shows high amplitude variation at depths with (Steingrímsson, 2014)
casing problems and inadequate cementing.

6.1.3 Caliper logs

Calipers are electronic tools equipped with several arms to measure the diameter of casing. Arms
centralize the tool in the hole. An electrical motor inside opens and closes the tool, controlled at the
surface through the cable. The positions of the arms are detected through a variable resistor. Figure 18
shows a calliper log with a casing break at 175 m and the calliper tool, respectively.
Report 17 317 Khaemba

Caliper logs are used to (Steingrímsson, 2014):

 Evaluate depositions in casings: calcite or silica

 Evaluate casing corrosion
 Evaluate casing damages

The practical solution for casing implosion is to take all

necessary measures to avoid fluids, including unset
cement getting into the well bore (Southon, 2005).

6.2 Casing reconstruction techniques

Tie back casing design

Run at the bottom of the tie back stub liner or casing, the
tie back sealing nipple has multiple packing elements
which provide a seal against the polished surface of the tie
back sleeve. Tie back casings are usually cemented by
conventionally circulating the slurries. The job is
performed before landing the seal nipple into the tie back
sleeve. However, the cementing may also be conducted
with the tie back casing in place, using a stage collar FIGURE 18: Caliper log
located above the sealing nipple. Tie back liners must be (Steingrímsson, 2014)
cemented after their liner hangers have been set with the
seal nipple landed into the sleeve. A stage collar can be
run on top of the seal nipple, in the open position. The
liner wiper plug must be able to land on the upper seal
and close the collar ports. Apart from the special
procedures given above, the considerations applicable to
all cement jobs equally apply to tie back liner cementing.
In most cases, hydrostatic pressures are not significant
because cementing is done between casings and usually
with extended slurries. The use of washes ahead of
cement slurries will prevent mud or cement
contamination and help to remove the mud from the
annular space. This is especially important in tie back
liner cementing, where no bottom plug is used to
separate the mud from the cement inside the liner. If a
completion fluid is in the hole, compatibility with the
cement must be checked or large volumes of fresh water
pumped ahead of the slurry. Salts used in completion
brines may drastically affect a cement slurry´s
thickening time, causing a premature set or, conversely,
resulting in excessively long times for the development
of early compressive strength. Figure 19 shows tie back
liner cementing. Tie back casing design has these
advantages when applied to geothermal wells:
I. Casing worn thin due to drilling can be covered
over with new casing (tie back) at the end of
drilling a well.
FIGURE 19: Tie back casing design
(Nelson, 1990)
Khaemba 318 Report 17

II. It provides the opportunity for a perfect cement job in the critical casing to casing section of the
well.

The tie back design has some drawbacks which are:

I. The connection between the tie back and the liner will invariably leak down the lap during the
productive life of the well.
II. The tie back string is short and invariably lighter than a single production casing. If pre-tensioning
is not imparted to the tie back, the tie back will yield in compression if the change in temperature
(ΔT) is sufficiently large. For tie backs with buttress threads, this yielding will result in a loss of
pressure containment. This yielding can be prevented if the maximum heat-up temperatures are
known beforehand and the tie back is pre tensioned before cement sets. This will necessitate the
use of latch down slip assemblies in the tie back receptacle or above the receptacle (Nelson, 1990).

For cementing the tie backs, a drillable bridge plug is required to be set in the liner to isolate the newly
drilled production hole. The plug should be located immediately below or close to the tie back receptacle
to avoid any fluid contamination of the slurry. A thick gel with a relatively high density should be used
to prevent the heavy tie back cement slurry from falling through the liquid column.

Casing wear is more concentrated on built up sections of a deviated well. A tie back casing can be run
in wells that have already been completed by first using the casing cutter to cut the liners up to just
below the cold zone in the well. A drillable bridge plug should be located immediately below or close
to the tie back receptacle to avoid any fluid contamination of the slurry.

6.2.2 Cement squeeze

If a casing has parted or there is casing damage and the

casing is out of position, the casing can be milled before
a cement squeeze job is done to secure the casing. If
there is an obstruction while going in the hole, the string
should be pulled out of the hole. An impression block is
run in the hole to locate the casing damage. The
impression block is pulled out, then a milling tool, either
a taper mill or a water melon mill, is then run in the hole
to mill the hole section clear. The hole is cleaned prior
to running a bridge plug to a section below the casing
damage depth. The bridge plug (drillable isolation tool)
should be able to hold firmly inside the casing and
should not allow cement below. Sand is put on top of
the bridge plug to avoid its direct contact with the
cement slurry. Cement is pumped down and forced
through the leaking casing, as shown in Figure 20, until
FIGURE 20: Cement squeeze job set up
the damage is sealed.

Other methods that have been used for casing repair are:
I. Running a blank sleeve inside the casing to seal off the damage. This option will have to be
weighed with position reduction in well output due to a drop in mass flow inside the new casing.
Liner breaks have been known to occur in some wells due to corrosion, material failure or
inadequate liner design. This can be addressed by running a liner sleeve which would protect
the well from collapse (Malate, 2003).
II. Near surface damage can be repaired by excavating a pit around the well and replacing the bad
casing with a new one. Excavations as deep as 12 m have been dug in Iceland to replace to
replace a full length of casing down to the first threaded connection (Thórhallsson, 2003).
III. Milling the damaged casing and squeezing cement behind the casing.
Report 17 319 Khaemba

6.3 Reconstruction for Menengai wells

Tie back casing-Menengai well MW02

Menengai well MW02 has its production
casing set at 790.8 m, as shown in Figure
21. The well has a cold inflow at 1300 m.
A cemented casing needs to be run to a
depth of 1400 m to seal off the cold
inflow. The procedure will involve:

I. Run in-hole a casing cutter and cut

the liners at a depth below 1400 m.
II. Run in-hole plain 7" casings with a
bridge plug at the bottom.
III. Run the casings with an
expandable casing packer (ECP) as
part of the casing string.
IV. After running in-hole, inflate the
ECP by pressurizing the casing.
V. Once the ECP is inflated, cement
the annulus through slots in the
non-return valve above the ECP.
VI. Wait for the cement to set.
VII. Drill out the cement and the bridge FIGURE 21: Tie back casing reconstruction for
plug to access the 7" slotted liners Well MW02
below. Figure 22 shows
cementing of the tie back casing using ECP.

Scab liners
Another approach used for casing reconstruction is the use of scab liners or straddle packer assemblies.
These approaches are more reliable and are longer-term solutions than cement squeezes, but they are
somewhat limited in the length of damage that can be covered. In addition, they result in a greatly
reduced hole size, which can severely affect both the productive capacity and access for subsequent
remediation. This method is mostly applicable in the oil and gas industry.

7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

For the Menengai wells, it is feasible to run 9⅝" K55 production casing to a setting depth of 1400 m to
safely seal off shallow upper feed zones. Setting the production casing at deeper depths of up to 1400
m will help prevent scaling, which is a common problem in the Menengai field due to production from
the shallow reservoirs. Caliper logs should be run before casings are run to accurately determine the
amount of cement to be pumped.

To cement the production casings effectively, an inner string method of cementing should be used to fill
up the cement during the primary cement job. For wells with major losses, temperature logs should be
run to determine the location of the loss zone. Primary cementing should be done to the loss zone, then
an immediate top job done. An inner string cementing method provides a more accurate way of
determining the cement slurry volumes to be pumped and takes less time to displace the cement since
less displacement capacity is used. Inner string cementing takes less time to execute and there is less
chance of cement contamination by water. Cement bond logs should be done as part of the cementing
process to evaluate the effectiveness of the cementing job; where it is noted that the cementing is not
done properly, remedial cementing should be done before proceeding and drilling the next phase.
Khaemba 320 Report 17

FIGURE 22: Cementing tie back with an External casing packer in the casing string
(Nelson, 1990)
Completed wells that have a cold inflow below the production shoe can be worked-over by installing an
extra casing string and cementing in order to seal the cold inflows. This can be done most effectively
using the tie back casing design. The tie back casing design, with an external casing packer (ECP) as
part of the string, provides better sealing to the formation once the packer has been inflated and
cementing is done. For wells with high downhole temperatures that exceed the limit set for the ECP, a
bridge plug with a cementing plug set on top is used to isolate the lower zone before running the new
casing. The design can also withstand high temperatures and high pressures in geothermal conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere appreciation goes to UNU-GTP, the Government of Iceland and Geothermal Development
Company Limited, Kenya for awarding me an opportunity to study in Iceland. I wish to specially thank
Mr. Lúdvík S. Georgsson, Director, and Mr. Ingimar G. Haraldsson, Deputy Director. Many thanks to
María S. Guðjónsdóttir, Thórhildur Ísberg, Málfríður Ómarsdóttir, Markús A.G. Wilde and Rósa S.
Jonsdottir and all the staff of Orkustofnun and ISOR for facilitating my academic endeavours and stay
in Iceland. To all, your commitment is humbling. Cheers for the 2014 UNU-GTP fellows for the
amazing time we had together.

I am indebted to my supervisor, Mr. Arnar Bjarki Árnason, for his valuable input, fruitful ideas, critical
comments and encouragement during my project work, to Mr. Sverrir Thórhallsson for advice during
project work, and my colleague, Francis Wanjohi, for providing me with invaluable data.

My deepest gratitude to my family for the support I have received: my dear mom, Irene Naliaka
Khaemba, and my two brothers for being my source of strength.
Report 17 321 Khaemba

REFERENCES

API, 1994: Bulletin 5C3 on formulas and calculation for casing, tubing, drill pipe properties. American
Petroleum Institute, Exploration and Production Dept.

Atlas Copco, 2011: The predator drilling system. Atlas Copco Oil and Gas Rigs, website:
www.atlascopco.com/images/ac_predator_brochure_lores_tcm45-3526711.pdf.

Bett, E.K., 2010: Geothermal well cementing, materials and placement techniques. Report 10 in: Geothermal
Training in Iceland 2010. UNU-GTP, Iceland, 99-130.

Bomco, 2011: Bomco VFD AC rig 2000HP. World Oil and Gas Central, website:
www.worldoils.com/marketplace/equipdetails.php?id=668.

Elders, A., and Fridleifsson, G.Ó, 2010: The science program of the Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP):
Study of supercritical geothermal resources. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali
Indonesia, 9 pp.

Gabolde, G. and Nguyen, J.P., 2014: Drilling data handbook (9th edition). Editions Technip, Paris, 576 pp.

Hole, H., 2008: Geothermal well design - casing and wellhead. Petroleum Engineering Summer School,
Workshop 26, Dubrovnik, Croatia, June 2008.

Hossein-Pourazad, H., 2005: High temperature geothermal well design. Report 9 in: Geothermal training in
Iceland 2005. UNU-GTP, Iceland, 111-123.

Lopeyok, T., 2014: Borehole geology of Menengai well MW-19. GDC, Kenya, unpublished report.

Malate, R.C.M., 2003: Well intervention techniques. In: Fridleifsson, I.B., and Gunnarsson, M.V. (eds.),
Lectures on the sustainable use and operating policy for geothermal resources. Short course prior to the
International Geothermal Conference, IGC 2003. UNU-GTP, Iceland, 219-244.

Mungania, J., 2004: Geological studies of Menengai geothermal prospect. KenGen Ltd., Kenya internal
report, 18 pp.

Nelson, E.B., 1990: Well cementing. Schlumberger Educational Services, Texas, 487 pp.

Njue, L., 2013: Borehole geology of Menengai well MW-02. GDC, Kenya, unpublished report.

NZS, 1991: Code of practice for deep geothermal wells. Standards Association of New Zealand, Wellington,
NZ, New Zealand Standard 2403, 93 pp.

Southon, J.N.A., 2005: Geothermal well design, construction and failures. Proceedings of the World
Geothermal Congress 2005, Antalya, Turkey, 6 pp.

Stefánsson, V., and Steingrímsson, B., 1980: Production characteristics of wells tapping two-phase
reservoirs at Krafla and Námafjall. Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering,
Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 49-59.

Steingrímsson, B., 2014: Geothermal well logging, cement bond logs and caliper logs, UNU-GTP Iceland,
unpublished lecture notes.

Thórhallsson, S., 2003: Geothermal well operation and maintenance. In: Fridleifsson, I.B., and Gunnarsson,
M.V. (eds.), Lectures on the sustainable use and operating policy for geothermal resources. Short course
prior to the International Geothermal Conference, IGC 2003. UNU-GTP, Iceland, 195-217.

Thórhallsson, S., Pálsson, B., Hólmgeirsson, S., Ingason, K., Matthíasson, M., Bóason, H.A., Sverrisson, H.,
2010: Well design and drilling plans of the Iceland deep drilling project (IDDP). Proceedings of the World
Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia, 8 pp.
Khaemba 322 Report 17

APPENDIX I: Menengai production casing cementing design

Report 17 323 Khaemba

APPENDIX II: Laboratory report for 9⅝" cement slurry

Khaemba 324 Report 17

APPENDIX III: 9⅝" cement slurry compressive test plot