CITY UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

DIVISION OF BUILDING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Course: BST20541 Piped Services
Chapter 3 - Sanitary Appliances

1. Introduction

Sanitary wares will normally be installed in every building for the collection of water
supply for general ablution, consumption for drinking, flushing and functional usage for
manufacturing, production, health care and general cleansing purposes. Other water supply
systems as mentioned in the previous chapter demanding for water supply such as
humidifier and air-conditioning did not require for any sanitary ware installation.
Therefore, it reviews that the type of water supply system was preliminary determined by
the type of sanitary wares installed.

A plumbing system shall include the water supply distribution system, the fixtures and
fixture traps, the associated drainage system covering soil, waste and vent piping, the
house underground drain and its connection to external sewer or sewage treatment plant,
the other associated storm (surface) water drainage system with their devices,
appurtenances and connections within the structure and adjacent premises. This
statement outlines the plumbing and drainage system principle concept. Considering
together with the sanitary wares, it outlines the significance of understanding the
requirements from the wares.

The fixtures may sometimes be termed as sanitary fixtures or fitments, sanitary wares or
appliances, or even named as plumbing fixtures.

2. Requirement on the different water supply systems

It can be concluded that every single piece of wares and equipment demanding for
different types of water supply.

Wares demanding for cold water supply are:

2.1 Wash hand basin (Figure 1)

2.2 Sink (Figure 2)
2.3 Bath or shower unit (Figure 3 & 4)
2.4 Laboratory sink units (Figure 5)
2.5 Bidet (Figure 6)
2.6 Plaster sink unit (Figure 7)
2.7 Jacuzzi bath (Figure 8)
2.8 Whirl pool (Figure 8)
2.9 Kitchen equipment demanding for water supply
2.10 Eye wash (Figure 9)
2.11 And other manufacturing equipment
2.12 Drinking fountain (Figure 10)

All of them will demand for hot water simultaneously but the provision will rely on the
end user’s final decision. If the budget is not too tight, hot water provision should be

Chapter 3 Page 40
 allowed.

Wares demanding for flushing water supply are:

2.13 Water Closet (Figure 11 ~ 18)

2.14 Urinals (Figure 19~ 21)
2.15 Services Sink for general cleansing purpose (Figure 23)
2.16 Flush valves for water closets (Figure 18a, b, & c)
2.17 Slop hopper (Figure 24)

Now, it reviews that the water supply system had a close relationship to the sanitary
wares provision. The type of wares installed firstly confirms the demand for a particular
type of water supply system.

3. Applications and design requirements

The type, quantity and arrangement of plumbing fixtures is usually the prerogative of the
architect, but the engineer must evaluate and advise the architect as to type and
arrangement and, particularly, space requirements. The type and quantity of fixtures to
be installed in a building is predicated upon the number of people served and the type of
building occupancy. These requirements are clearly delineated in every building code.
Separate facilities must be provided for male and female personnel and these facilities
must be within easy access from any floor of the building. "Easy access" has been
interpreted to mean within one floor distance so that a person never has to walk more
than one floor up or down.

Emphasis must be stressed on the local building regulation requirement which will be
discussed in the following sections.

There are two basic terms used in the local regulation & industry to determine the
application areas namely soil fitments and waste fitments.

Soil fitments mean for a water closet fitments, trough (squatting) water closet, urinal,
slop sink, bidet or any similar fitment which may be used to convey the excrement form
human to be disposed.

Waste fitments mean for a bath, lavatory basin or sink which will convey the general
wastewater to be disposed.

In the sanitary fitment production lines, there are more products other than the above
two main categories. Those two main types are the commonly used in the local market
and defined in the local regulations. Besides, there are hundreds of accessories in
accompanying these products used in residential, industrial, commercial and institutional
building. When fitments used in prison, hospital and other industrial manufacturing,
they are entirely different from the common products. Enquiry to the specialist supplier
is recommended.

Architect, engineers and developer cannot determine the minimum numbers of wares to
be provided for a building except the Building Regulation Cap 123 Part I. The
regulations stated the minimum requirement and leaving the planners (architect and

Chapter 3 Page 41
 engineer) finally design to allow meeting or providing more than the minimum.
Consideration of the space factor will be the job of the architect. The services provision
cover water supply and drainage are the responsibility of a Building Services Engineer.
In general, inside a building, the sanitary wares provision will just meet the building
regulation requirement without additional provision unless it is a high-class or luxury
building. It is simply because the initial cost and running cost for maintaining the
installation will be very expensive.

4. Sanitary Accommodation

As mentioned in section 3, the provision of sanitary wares depends mainly on the local
regulation. In the appendix, an abstract from the local Building Regulation CAP 123
Section I is attached for reference. The followings are some recommendations given by
the experience designer for good design basis.

4.1 In normal office buildings, as a result of investigations of the subject,

recommend approximately 1-1/2 times the code minimum for really adequate
water closet, urinal, and lavatory facilities. Figures should be based on the legal
population of the space and not the actual population.

4.1.1 Obtain anticipated population split between male and female from the
architect and/or the owner. In the absence of this information, use 50/50
or preferably 60/60 to allow for future changes.

4.1.2 Encourage the architect to design double-ended public toilets so that the
changing population ratio can easily be accommodated by moving the
partition between the men's and women's toilets.

4.2 Insurance companies tend to install even more fixtures with the toilet rooms on
each floor designed to the actual population.

4.3 Provide plumbing fixtures for the handicapped as required by code.

5. Materials Used in the Sanitary Fixture

Materials most commonly used in the manufacture of fixtures are enamelled cast-iron,
enamelled pressed steel, vitreous china, vitrified earthenware and stainless steel.
Additionally, plastics, aluminium and stone compositions have been used.

The type of material depends mainly on the application areas, where in different area of
different requirement the selected material may be based mainly on the reasons of
convenient, suitability and maintenance free. For Example, in prison, the sanitary ware
should be anti-vandal type of stainless steel material. For hospital, vitreous China and
stainless steel material are very common.

The following is a brief description of sanitary fitment materials:

5.1 Ceramics

The strength and degree of impermeability of the materials depends upon the

Chapter 3 Page 42
 composition of the clay mixture and the temperature at which they are fired.

5.1.1 Glazed earthenware

This produces appliances of good colour, lends itself well to the

formation of complicated shapes and is relatively cheap. It is used mainly
for sinks and W.C. pans.

5.1.2 Glazed fireclay

This produces a tough appliance which is resistant to knocks and hard

wear. Fireclay appliances such as urinals, sinks and W.C. pans are often
specified for use in schools and factories.

5.1.3 Glazed stoneware

This produces a tough appliance which is resistant to knocks and hard

wear, but, unlike earthenware and fireclay, the material is non absorbent
even when it is unglazed. It is mainly used for channels, sinks and urinal
stalls.

5.1.4 Vitreous china

This lends itself to fine detail and good finish, but is not as strong as
fireclay and is therefore unsuitable for buildings where hard wear is
expected, such as schools and factories. It is, however, used extensively
in houses and hotels. The material does not absorb water even when the
glaze is broken and can be used for the manufacture of almost all types of
appliances, in which various colours may be obtained.

5.2 Pressed metal

Mild steel, stainless steel and monel metal sheets are moulded in a press to form
one-piece units. Mild steel should be galvanised or enameled to protect the metal
form corrosion and it is used for troughs and sinks where cheapness is of
paramount importance. Stainless steel is used for sinks, urinals, washbasins,
W.C. pans and draining units. It is rather expensive but has a good appearance
and is highly resistant to hard wear. Monel metal has many of the properties of
stainless steel, but does not have quite as good an appearance. It is used for sinks
and is generally cheaper than stainless steel.

Note: Stainless steel and monel metal bar sinks are more resilient and therefore
breakage of glass does not occur as frequently as in the case of ceramic sinks.

5.3 Acrylic plastic (perspex)

This is produced in many colours, is light in weight and relatively cheap. It takes
a hard gloss finish and has an excellent appearance. Hot water, however, tends to
soften the material and baths made from it must be supported with metal cradles.

Chapter 3 Page 43
 5.4 Glass-reinforced polyester

This material is more expensive than acrylic plastic, but is much stronger. A
good gel coat finish is essential to protect the reinforcing fibres and various
colours may be obtained.

Note: Baths made from acrylic plastic or glass-reinforced polyester have a

lower thermal conductivity than baths made from cast iron and therefore tend to
feel warmer to the touch.

5.5 Cast iron

This is used mainly for large appliances such as baths, which would be too heavy
if made in ceramics. The material is strong but heavy and may have either a
white or a coloured vitreous enamel finish fired on. It is a very cheap material
which is also used extensively for sink and washbasin brackets.

5.6 Terrazzo

The manufacture of small sanitary appliances from the material is very difficult
and uneconomical, but it is often used for large appliances formed in situ. In
special circumstances washing fountains, sunken baths and shower trays may be
formed on site to the architect's design.

6. Fixture Selection

When evaluating fixtures, the following characteristics should be carefully checked:

6.1 Strength
6.2 Durability
6.3 Corrosion resistance (acid proof)
6.4 Abrasion resistance
6.5 Absence of defects
6.6 Adequate performance for the service intended (materials, installation
requirements & etc.)
6.7 Concealed fouling surfaces

7. Sanitary Wares Introduction

7.1 Wash Basins & Washing Trough

There are a variety of types and shapes of washbasin ranging from a small hand
rinse basin to a surgeon's basin. The standard basin consists of a bowl, soap tray,
weir overflow and holes for taps. The basin may be supported on cast iron brackets
screwed to the wall, a corbel which is an integral part of the basin and is built into
the wall, or a pedestal which conceals the pipework.
Basins are made from vitreous china, glazed fireclay, plastic or enamelled cast iron.

A washing trough may be installed as an alternative to a range of washbasins. The

trough may have draw-off taps.

Chapter 3 Page 44
 The trough saves on space and takes less time to install than a range of basins. It is
also very hygienic.

Figure 1

7.2 Sinks

Chapter 3 Page 45
 Stainless steel type sink bowls will be installed for pantries in office buildings,
kitchens, canteen, food preparation areas, and other food services areas. Vitreous
china, glazed fireclay, plastic and synthetic plastic are the common materials. For
general ablution purposes, sinks installation is very hygienic and easy for
cleaning. Care for grease and food making allowance will decline the choice of
other materials except for stainless steel.

Figure 2

7.3 Baths or Shower units

A shower is quicker to use than a bath, is more hygienic, takes up less space and
uses only about one third of the water used for a bath.

The mixer for shower and bath may be non-thermostatic or thermostatic but the
latter type should be recommended to avoid the risk of scalding.

The shower tray may be made from plastic or enamelled fireclay.

The minimum head of water above the shower outlet should be 1 m.

Modern thermostatic shower mixers do not require an outlet valve or non-return

valves on the hot and cold supplies.

Although a shower is a more hygienic and efficient method of washing than a bath,
many people find a bath more relaxing.

Baths are made from acrylic sheet reinforced glass fibre, enamelled pressed steel or
enamelled cast iron. The acrylic sheet bath is very popular and has the advantage of
cheapness. It is also very light in weight and may be produced in various colours.
The bath, however, must be supported across metal cradles.

The corner type bath may be regarded as a luxury and the mixer taps may be placed
at one corner so as to make it easier to enter or leave the bath.

The Seat bath has a stepped bottom to form a seat. It may be used where space is
limited or for the elderly.

Chapter 3 Page 46
 Figure 3 Bath

Figure 4 Shower tray

7.4 Laboratory sink units

They are quite similar to kitchen sinks but applied in the laboratory areas. In
order to prevent acidic or other chemical attacked, vitreous china of fire clay
sinks are more suitable.

Chapter 3 Page 47
 Figure 5
7.5 Bidet

The fitment is used for washing the excretory organs but it may also be used as a
foot bath.

The hot and cold supplies are mixed at the correct temperature for the ascending
spray. For greater comfort, the rim of the fitment may be heated from the mixed
hot and cold water supplies.

Because the spray nozzle is below the spill level of the fitment, there is a risk of
wastewater being syphoned back into other draw off points. So, In Hong Kong, an
independent cold and hot water supply system will be provided.

Figure 6

Chapter 3 Page 48
 7.6 Plaster sink units (Hospital)

They are used for dentist for tooth repair. The sink units are similar kitchen sinks
except with a bigger bowl size. The suitable materials are vitreous china, glazed
fireclay and stainless steel.

Figure 7

7.7 Jacuzzi bath or whirl pool

They are large capacity bath units which equipped with a small pump to jet up the
water for washing together with massaging purposes. The difference in name can be
defined by the capacity. Baths are comparatively smaller than the pools. Capital
cost is higher than common baths. A larger floor space is requested. Mechanical
equipment will demand for frequent maintenance.

Materials suitable for are enamelled cast iron, acrylic, and glass fibre.

Chapter 3 Page 49
 Figure 8 Whirl pool Jacuzzi bath

7.8 Eye Wash

It is planned for the laboratory use for acid or chemical spillage into the eyes.
Shower type of bowl type for dilution by cold water. The pressure requirement and
flow requirement will depend on the manufacturer supply information.

Materials suitable for the eye wash bowls and shower will be cast iron, stainless
steel but not of vitreous china or fireclay in considering the safety reasons.

Figure 9

Chapter 3 Page 50
 7.9 Drinking fountain

Drinking facilities are equipped in all types of buildings. Drinking fountain will be
installed together with a ultra-violet sterilizer for potable drinking purpose. It is not
permitted by the local authority to fit with a sterilizer unless a separate supply
system will be provided. Therefore, the water supply system will be an independent
one. Pressure losses through other equipment are very significant. Stainless steel
and vitreous china are very popular material for a drinking fountain.

Figure 10

For those sanitary wares require a flushing water supply, they are outlined in the following:

7.10 Water Closet (Figure 11 ~ 18)

For the water supply to a water closet, a flushing cistern or a hand-operated flushing
valve that can be connected to a flushing water supply system. The flushing cistern
details will be discussed in the following section. The flushing valve is not suitable
in Hong Kong due to the high pressure and flow requirement. Unless the building
can provide its own private seawater, the flushing valve will be permitted for
installation.

Supply to the cistern could be cold water if the flushing water is not available.
Special angle valve and syphonage fitting will be employed for flushing process.

7.10.1 Types of water closets.

Manufactures supply bowls for a variety of flushing actions which fall in

the following categories:

a) Syphon jet
b) Reverse trap
c) Washdown
d) Blowout

Chapter 3 Page 51
 a) Syphon jet

This type of water closet has become the most popular in the
United States. It may be obtained in either the floor or wall-hung
style. Its operation is accomplished by action of a jet (D) of water
directed through the upleg (C) of the trapway. This fills the
trapway with water and the syphonic actions immediately started.
It has a large water surface (A) in the bowl and a deep water seal
(B). Its action is relatively quiet, strong and quick. The rim holes
are punched at an angle which produces a swirling or vortex
motion of the water. This action in conjunction with the strong jet
of water in the upleg of the trapway cleanses the bowl thoroughly
and efficiently with the minimum amount of noise.

Figure 11

b) Reverse trap

The reverse trap water closet is very similar to the syphon jet
except that the water surface (A) and the trapway (C) are smaller
and the depth of water seal (B) is less. Because of these
differences, less water is required for its efficient operation. It
could be said the reverse trap is the economy model syphon jet.

Fig. 12

c) Washdown

This type is of much simpler construction than the other three

types. The trapway is at the front of the bowl instead of the rear.
Because of this reversal of the trapway, the water surface (A) is
the smallest of all models and the exposed, dry fouling area is the
greatest. This type is rapidly losing popularity and will probably
disappear in the near future. The washdown water closet depends

Chapter 3 Page 52
 for its operation primarily upon the syphonic action in the
trapway. The syphonic action is accelerated, rather than started,
by the force of water from the jet (D) directed over the dam of the
trapway. Washdown bowls should be used only where low cost is
the prime consideration.

Fig 13

d) Blowout

This type is dependent for its operation upon the driving jet (D)
directed into the trapway, rather than upon syphonic action. It has
a large water surface (A), deep water seal (B), and a large
unrestricted trapway (C). This bowl requires a higher entering
water pressure to insure adequate flushing and is noisier than
syphon action bowls. This type is suitable for use in schools,
commercial and office buildings where noise is not objectionable.

Fig. 14

All types may be obtained with an elongated rim. This offers a large seat
opening and is recognized as a superior sanitary feature. The elongated
bowl should be specified for all water closets intended for public use.

Seats for water closets should be of smooth non-absorbent material which

has relatively low thermal conductivity so as to avoid thermal chock to
the bare skin when it contacts material that is very cold. Open front toilet
seats should be specified for water closets intended or public use.

An interesting bit of trivia: The open front seat was first designed for use
by women. It was found that due to female biological construction, they
tended to soil the front of a closed front toilet seat. The excellent sanitary
characteristics of the open front soon recommended its general sue for all
public toilets, male as well as female.

Chapter 3 Page 53
 Figure 15 Water closet

The water supply for the flushing action of water closets can be by means of a
flush valve or a flush tank. Either means must be capable of providing an
adequate quantity of water for the proper and efficient flushing of the water
closet. Since flushing valves are unacceptable to local regulation, it has been
obsolete in H.K.

7.10.2 Flushing cisterns for water closet

The syphon fitting (valveless) is flushed by syphon action, operation of the

Chapter 3 Page 54
 lever lifting the water in the bell of the syphon ‘1’ over the invert and down
to the leg’2’ into the flush pipe. This action continuous until the water level
falls low enough to allow air to enter the bell of the syphon through the
moulded hole. Syphon action is then created which empties the cistern.
(Figure 16)

There are certain essential requirements which must be satisfied when a

flush tank is employed:

a) There must be an overflow to prevent tank flooding. The overflow

should discharge into the water closet.

b) The ballcock, which controls the flow of water into tank, should be
equipped with a means of replenishing the trap seal after each
flushing action.

c) The ballock should be equipped with an adequate means o protection

against back syphonage into the domestic water supply. A vacuum
breaker is satisfactory for this purpose.

A minimum of 9 litres flushing water tank is required for a water

closet. New rules will set the capacity to a reduced capacity of 7.5
litres or less.

Figure 16 Figure 17

The valve fitting cannot be used for all types of building in Hong Kong.
The cistern is operated by depressing the lever which lifts the chain and the
valve fitting to allow water discharging over the flushpipe. After the water
drops to the low level, the valve will close by its own weight and refilling
up to a higher water level. Both of them should have a minimum capacity of
9 litres storage. The refill period must not be longer than 2 minutes. (Figure
17)

7.10.3 Flushing Valve (Fig. 18a, b & c)

The water supply for the flushing action of water closets and urinals can be

Chapter 3 Page 55
 by means of a flush valve. Either means must be capable of providing an
adequate quantity of water for the proper and efficient flushing of the water
closet. Depending upon the manufacturer and the type of water closet, it has
been found that a flush valve will deliver 1.89 litres/ sec. to 2.8 litres/sec
flow of approximately 1 bar working pressure in order to achieve a
successful operation.

Flush valve usually requires high pressure and high flow rates in result of
bigger supply flushing water pipe. Water hammer is usually expected with
high plumbing noise. The local authority will not approve the sea water
supply except the development will allow for the private seawater.

Figure 18a Figure 18b Figure 18c

Flush Valve Flush valve for Water Closet Flush valve for Urinal

7.10.4 Unacceptable types of water closets which are.

They are those that have:
a) An invisible water seal
b) Unventilated spaces
c) Surfaces which are not thoroughly cleansed with each flushing action
d) A design which permits contamination of the domestic water supply

Quiet operation and economical use of water are important qualities of a water
closet. Water closets may be floor-outlet mounted on special closet flange
connections in the floor or wall-hung closets mounted on a combination chair
carrier and fitting which supports the water closet without placing any stress on
the wall. The wall-hung water closet permits greater ease in cleaning the floor
around and below the closet.

Chapter 3 Page 56
 7.11 Urinals

Urinals are installed in comercial, industrial buildings and schools, and reduce the
number of WCs in male sanitary rooms. Three types are available:

The bowl type, which is screwed to the wall and if two or more bowls are fitted,
division pieces may be fixed between them (Figure 19).

The slab type which consists of flat slabs fixed against the wall, projecting return
end slabs and channel (Figure 20).

The stall type which consists of curved stalls, dividing pieces and glazed channel
(Figure 21).

Figure 19 Bowl urinals

Chapter 3 Page 57
 Figure 20 Slab type urinals

Figure 21 Stall type urinals

Chapter 3 Page 58
 Urinals are flushed at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes by means of an automatic
flushing cistern at the rate of 4.5 litres per bowl, 9litres for two bowls or 13.5 litres
for three to four bowls and with 4.5 litre per 610 mm of slab width or stall.

A hydraulically operated inlet valve (drip tap) to the automatic flushing cistern is
obtainable which closes when the building is unoccupied and other fitments are not
used. Drip tap controls the water infill rate to top up the cistern. Water rises evenly
inside and outside the bell until it reaches the air hole of the syphon tube. Air inside
the bell is thus trapped and becomes compressed as the water level rises outside the
bell. When the water level reaches a certain height above the dome, the compressed
air is sufficient to force water out of the U-tube and reduce the air pressure inside
the dome. The reduced air pressure inside the dome immediately allows water to
flow through the syphon and a syphonic action is set up, which empties the cistern.
When the flush is finished, water from the reserve chamber is syphoned through the
syphon tube, which refills the lower well and u-tube. The complete cycle will
restart after the water level break the syphonic action. (Figure 22)

Figure 22

7.12 Slop hopper (Figure 23)

Special types of sanitary appliances are required for hospital sluice rooms. The slop
hopper is required for the efficient disposal of slops and is similar in design to the
washing down WC pan but is provided with a hinged stainless steel grating for a
bucket rest. Another grating inside the pan prevents the entry of large objects
which could cause a blockage.

The bed pan washer is provided with a nozzle fitted inside the pan which
produces a jet of water for the cleansing of bed pans and urine bottles. To
prevent the risk of contamination of the water supply, it is essential that the water
for the jet is taken from the cold water storage cistern through a separate pipe.

Chapter 3 Page 59
 Figure 23

7.13 Services Sink (Figure 24)

This sanitary ware demands both the cold water for general cleansing application
and flushing water tap provision in case for flushing debris, small rubbish carried
after cleansing. The construction is exactly the same as a slop hopper but smaller
in capacity.

Chapter 3 Page 60
 Figure 24

8. Conclusion:

The better you can understand from the sanitary wares requirements, you will get better
preparation to allow for the plumbing services inside a building.

Reference Web Site

1. Amercian Society of Sanitary Engineering

http://www.asse-plumbing.org

2. International Sanitary Supply Association

http://www.issa.com

Chapter 3 Page 61
 APPENDIX

Abstract from Building Regulation

CAP123 Section I

Building (Standards of Sanitary

Fitments, Plumbing, Drainage

Works and Latrines) Regulation

I4 to I7

Pages 63 to 66

Chapter 3 Page 62
Chapter 3 Page 63
Chapter 3 Page 64
Chapter 3 Page 65
Chapter 3 Page 66