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SOLUTION

Solution, in chemistry, is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances in relative

amounts that can be varied continuously up to what is called the limit of solubility.
The term solution is commonly applied to the liquid state of matter, but solutions of
gases and solids are possible. Example of a liquid solution is salt solution consisting
of salt and water. Air for example is solution consisting chiefly oxygen, nitrogen with
trace amount of other several gases and brass is a solid solution (an Alloy) composed
of copper and zinc. It therefore means that, there are liquid, Gaseous and Solid
solutions.

COMPONENTS OF A SOLUTION

The substances that make up a homogeneous solution are called components of the
solution. It has basically has two components i.e. a solvent and a solute.

Solvent: The component of a solution which dissolves the other component in itself is
called solvent. A solvent constitutes the larger component of the solution. For
example, a solution of sugar in water is solid in the liquid. Here, sugar is the solute
and water is the solvent.

Solute: The component of the solution which dissolves in the solvent is called solute.
The solute is the smaller component of the solution. For example, a solution of iodine
in alcohol known as ‘tincture of iodine’, iodine is the solute. Similarly, in carbonated
drinks (Soda water), carbon dioxide gas is the solute.

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Solvents Solute Examples

Liquid Solid Sea(Salt & H2O) Sucrose solution (Sugar & H2O)

Liquid Liquid Vinegar (acetic acid H2O), alcoholic beverages

(Ethanol & H2O), Gasoline

Liquid Gas Soda water (CO2 & H2O), Oxygen in H2O

Solid Liquid Amalgamation of mercury in gold

Solid Solid Brass (Zinc & Copper), steel, brass alloy and
polymer

Solid Gas Dissolution of hydrogen gas in metals like

palladium

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION

1. It is a homogeneous mixture.

2. Its particles are too tiny and have a diameter less than 1 nm.

3. The particles are not visible to naked eyes.

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4. Particles don’t scatter a beam of light passing through it and hence the path of the
light is not visible.

5. Solutes are inseparable from the mixture and do not sediment. A solution is stable.

6. The components of a mixture cannot be separated using filtration.

7. Solutions show a decrease in freezing point.

8. Solutions show an increase in boiling point.

9. Solutions exhibit osmotic pressure.

10. Vapour pressure is lowered in solutions.

( Note: The properties listed in 7,8,9&10 are the colligative properties of solution,
Colligative properties are properties that depend upon the concentration of
solute molecules or ions, but not upon the identity of the solute.)

CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given quantity of

it. In other words, the concentration of a solution is the mass of the solute in grams,
which is present in 100 g of a solution. Depending upon the amount of solute present,
it is called a dilute or concentrated solution.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

There are different types of solutions which can be classified on a different basis like
the difference in the solute and solvent, number of criteria, etc, which can be shown as
follows:-

1. Different types of Solutions On the bases of water as Solvent:

Solutions can be classified into 2 types on the basis of whether the solution is water or
not.

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 Aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in water the solution is called
an aqueous solution e.g., salt in water, sugar in water and copper sulfate in
water.

 Non-aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in a solvent other than

water, it is called a non-aqueous solution e.g, iodine in carbon tetrachloride,
sulphur in carbon disulfide, phosphorus in ethyl alcohol.

2. Different types of Solutions On the bases of an amount of solute added:

Solutions can be classified into 3 types on the bases of an amount of solute present in
the solution.

 A supersaturated solution comprises a large amount of solute at a temperature

wherein it will be reduced; as a result the extra solute will crystallize quickly.
Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than saturated solutions.

 Unsaturated solutions are the ones with a lesser amount of solute than what
we require for saturation. Sometimes, by applying external forces like heat
energy, you can increase the solubility of the solutes in the solutions. It can also
be defined as a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving any more
solute at a given temperature.

 A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not

capable of dissolving any more solute at a given temperature. Saturated
solutions can also be defined as a solution that dissolved as much solute as it is
capable of dissolving at a given temperature.

3. Different types of solutions on the bases of an amount of solvent added:

Solutions can be classified into 2 types on the bases of an amount of solvent present in
the solution.

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 A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of
solvent.

 A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute dissolved in a small

amount of solvent.

However, these terms are relative, and we need to be able to express concentration in
a more exact, quantitative manner. Still, concentrated and dilute are useful as terms to
compare one solution to another (see figure below). Also, be aware that the terms
"concentrate" and "dilute" can be used as verbs. If you were to heat a solution, causing
the solvent to evaporate, you would be concentrating it, because the ratio of solute to
solvent would be increasing. If you were to add more water to an aqueous solution,
you would be diluting it because the ratio of solute to solvent would be decreasing.

Figure 1: Solutions of a red dye in water from the most dilute (on the left) to the most
concentrated (on the right).

4. Different types of solutions on the bases of the amount of concentration of

solute in two solutions:

Solutions can be classified into three types based on the concentration of the solvent in
two solvents (in a beaker and a cell in it), in the solution.

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 Hypertonic Solutions: Hypertonic Solutions are those types of solutions in
which the concentration of the solute in a beaker is higher than that of in the
cell, so water comes out of the cell making the cell to plasmolyze/ shrink.

 Hypotonic Solutions: Hypotonic Solutions are those solutions in which the

concentration of solute in a beaker is less as compared to the cell, so the water
will move into the cell causing it to swell and burst afterward.

 Isotonic Solutions: These Isotonic Solutions have the same concentration of

solute in both beaker and cell, so the water will move around the cell in both
directions.

Solutions can be distinguished on their ability to conduct electric current, as those

solutions which contain molecules are called Non-conductors while those solutions
which contain ions are known as conductors.

The substances which dissolve in water and breaks to form ions are called as
electrolytes, while those substances which dissolve in water but do not form ions are
called Non-electrolytes. These ion-forming substances which conduct electric current
in solutions, known as electrolytes can be further classified into Strong electrolyte and
Weak electrolyte.

Strong Electrolyte: Strong electrolytes are available only in the form of ions, as it
makes the light bulb glow brilliantly on the conductivity apparatus (which is used to
check electric current in the solution). NaCl is a good example of Strong electrolyte.

Weak Electrolyte: The solutions which contain only a few ions are known as weak
electrolytes, which makes the light bulb glow dimly on the conductivity apparatus.
Weak acids and bases are good examples of weak electrolytes.

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Mixtures 

A mixture is composed of two or more substances, but they are not chemically
combined. In contrast, the compound contains various elements that are bonded to
each other. For instance, consider a mixture of salt, that is when salt is dissolved in
water it is a mixture but ideally, salts consist of two components namely sodium and
chlorine.

Here Sodium and Chlorine are bonded together with the electrostatic force of
attraction to form sodium chloride even though there is no chemical bond between
water and salt in the mixture. Hence, matter can be classified as mixtures, compounds
and elements. Further mixtures can be classified as homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures.

Homogenous and Heterogeneous Solutions

Homogeneous solutions are solutions with uniform composition and properties

throughout the solution. For example a cup of coffee, perfume, cough syrup, a
solution of salt or sugar in water, etc.

Heterogeneous solutions are solutions with non-uniform composition and properties

throughout the solution. A solution of oil and water, water and chalk powder and
solution of water and sand, etc.

Aerated drinks, Salt-water or Sugar water mixtures, fruit juices are some examples for
solutions. Some solutions are heterogeneous in nature, and they are termed as
suspension.

Such suspended particles can be seen quite clearly in the solution. Hence, when light
is passed through such solutions, it scatters in different directions. Medicated syrups
are one of the finest examples of this.

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Examples

Solute Solvent Solution is called as Example

Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Mayonnaise

Liquid Solid Gel Gelatin

Solid Solid Solid sol Cranberry glass

Solid Gas Solid aerosol Smoke

SOLVENT

A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute (a chemically distinct liquid, solid

or gas), resulting in a solution. A solvent is usually a liquid but can also be a
solid, a gas, or a supercritical fluid. The quantity of solute that can dissolve in a
specific volume of solvent varies with temperature.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLVENTS

Solvents can be briefly classified based on their chemical nature and behavior.

A. Based upon Polarity:

In general most solvents have polarity due to their internal chemistry. This polarity is
due to concentration of charges on one of the element inside a solvent molecule. It
imparts changes on the molecule such that they can dissolve solutes having polarity or
able to ionize them. When a solute is mixed in a solvent, the solvent molecules

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dissolve the solute by separating apart the solute molecules using forces like hydrogen
bonding, vanderwals forces etc.

1. Polar solvents: These are solvents having dielectric constant more than 15. They
can dissolve salts and other ionizable solutes. Ex: Water, alcohol. Polar solutes like
salts dissolve in polar solvents.

2. Non-polar solvents. These solvents are non polar and have dielectric constants less
than 15. They cannot form inter-molecular bonds by use of hydrogen bonding,
vanderval forces etc. Hence they cannot dissolve polar compounds. Ex: Benzene,
CCl4.

Fats and oils are soluble in non-polar solvents. Hence to remove lipids from an extract,
petroleum ether is used in industry.

B. Based on Chemical nature:

1. Aprotic solvents: (No protons). These solvents are non reactive and chemically
inert. They neither take protons nor give protons. Ex: benzene (C6H6). Chloroform
(CHCl3).

2. Amphiprotic solvents: Theses solvents which can give and take up protons on
reaction. They have neutral pH. Ex: Water, alcohol.

3. Protogenic solvents (proton+genesis = give): These are the solvents acidic in

nature. They can donate a proton and hence called “protogenic”. Ex: HCL, H2SO4,
perchloric acid.

4. Protophyllic solvents: These are the solvents which take up protons. They are basic
in nature and are mostly alkalies. Ex: NaOH, KOH etc. These protogenic and
protphyllic solvents can be again classified as leveling agents and differentiating

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agents. A strong acid or base is leveling agents as it can donate or accept protons to
even weak base or acid respectively while weak acids and weak bases cannot do so
and can only give proton to strong base or take up proton from strong acid
respectively.  Hence due to this differentiation they are called differentiating agents.

C) Based on chemistry:

Solvents are also classified based on their center of chemistry due to presence of some
special elements. These special elements bring total change in their physical and
chemical properties.

Inorganic solvents: Solvents without carbon are called inorganic solvents. Ex: water,
NaOH, HCl

Organic solvents. Solvents having carbon are called organic solvents. Ex: Alcohols
(CH3OH), hydrocarbons solvents like Benzene.

Halogenated solvents: Solvents having halogens are called halogenated

solvents. Halogens are elements found in 17th group of periodic table. Hypochlorite
solutions etc

Applications of Solvents

Solvent products are utilized in almost all manufacturing processes in a wide variety
of applications. Many of the products we use that are vital to everyday modern living
such as pharmaceuticals, personal care or electronics are all manufactured using
solvents in their processes. With a commitment from the industry to improve the
functionality and environmental characteristics of solvent products,
new applications are continuously being developed.

The following applications all use solvents in the process of their manufacture;

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Pharmaceuticals

Paints and Coatings

Printing Inks

Cosmetics and Personal Care

Food and Beverage

Cleaning and Degreasing

Automotive

Dyes and Pigments

Adhesives

Chemical Manufacture

Aerosols

Agrochemicals

SAFE HANDLING AND STORAGE OF CHEMICALS

By following a few simple guidelines, the risks associated with handling and storage
of material within the laboratory can be reduced considerably.

1. Laboratory workers should date containers with the day, month and year they
are first opened and first received. This is required for materials that have
potential to form organic peroxides and recommended for all other materials.

2. Laboratories should minimize chemical storage to only those chemicals which

will be actively used. Laboratory doors should remain closed at all times.

3. Workers should not use chemicals or equipment if they have not been trained
to do so.
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4. Use the following chemical storage guidelines for work with specific chemical
hazards:

General Chemical Safety Guidelines

Acids

1. Store large bottles of acids on low shelves or on trays in acid cabinets or a

cabinet marked “corrosives”
2. Segregate oxidizing acids from organic acids, flammable and combustible
materials.
3. Segregate acids from bases, active metals such as sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and other incompatible materials.
4. Use bottle carriers or a cart to transporting acid bottles.
5. Have spill control pillows or acid neutralizers available in the event of a spill.
Do not use bases to neutralize acid spill.

Bases

1. Segregate bases from acids and other incompatible materials.

2. Store large bottles of liquid bases on trays in a cabinet marked “Bases ” or

“Corrosives”.

3. Store solutions of inorganic hydroxides in polyethylene containers.

4. Have spill control pillows or caustic neutralizers available for caustic spills. Do
not use acids to neutralize base spills.

Flammables

1. Only store flammable liquids in a specially equipped flammable-safe

refrigerator or flammables cabinet.
2. Keep away from sources of ignition.
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3. Keep fire extinguishing and spill control equipment readily available.
4. For flammable metals, have a Class-D fire extinguisher available. See “fire
extinguishers” for more information.

Oxidizers

1. Store in a cool, dry area

2. Store away from flammable and combustible materials, such as paper, wood,
etc.

Peroxide-Forming Chemicals

1. Date the container when received and when opened.

2. Store in airtight containers in a dark, cool, dry area.
3. Check container for formation of peroxides, as needed, using appropriate
indicator strips.
4. Dispose of peroxide forming chemicals on or before expiration date or one year
after opening, whichever is first.

Compressed Gases

1. Store in a secure and upright position.

2. Chain cylinders individually, 2/3 to 3/4 from the floor.
3. Indicate the status of the cylinder: Full or In Use or Empty.
4. When not in use, replace the valve cap.
5. To transport use a cylinder cart.
6. Remove all manifolds and regulators, secure the valve cap, and chain or strap
the cylinder to the cart before moving.

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HOW TO DISPOSE OF CHEMICALS SAFELY

When dealing with chemicals that are harmful to both your own health and the wider
environment, they need to be treated and disposed of in the appropriate manner.

CATEGORIES OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

There are many different types of hazardous waste. Some categories have their own
subcategories of waste, while other types might fall into certain hazardous waste
categories because they display specific characteristics (such as ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity, toxicity). Additionally, some chemical products can be
hazardous after they’ve been disposed of.

LISTED WASTES

These can be identified in a series of different lists;

 F-List

Wastes created as a result of common manufacturing and industrial processes, known

as ‘non-specific source waste’ due to their production in multiple industries.

 K-List

Wastes created from specific industries such as petroleum refining or pesticide

manufacturing, also known as ‘source-specific wastes’.

 Pi-List and U-List

Wastes created by commercial chemical products being discarded in their unused

form which become hazardous when thrown away.

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CHARACTERISED WASTE

These comprise waste materials which meet one or more of the characteristics of
hazardous waste.

 Ignitability

Can the waste create fire in certain conditions, is it spontaneously combustible, or

have a flash point less than 60°C?

 Corrosivity

Can it corrode metallic containers? If the pH level is 2 and under or 12.5 and above,
then it should be considered hazardous.

 Reactivity

Unstable materials that can cause explosions, toxic fumes, gases or vapours when
heated, compressed or mixed with water.

 Toxicity

When certain materials are disposed of, the toxicity can be absorbed into the ground,
contaminating water as a result.

UNIVERSAL WASTE

Waste caused by household items, such as batteries, lamps and equipment containing
mercury.

MIXED WASTE

Waste that contains both radioactive and hazardous components, generated by

medical, pharmaceutical, nuclear and other energy industries.

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METHODS OF DISPOSAL

The improper disposal of chemicals is forbidden by law, so it ’s important to adhere to

correct procedures as strictly as possible.

It may be a case that you need to wash chemicals down the drain with plenty of water.
This can apply to the following:

 Concentrated and diluted acids and alkalis

 Harmless soluble inorganic salts
 Alcohols containing salts
 Hypochlorite solutions

 Fine silica and alumina

The following materials should be disposed of via incineration:

 All organic solvents

 Soluble organic waste

 Paraffin and mineral oil

Controlled waste – waste that’s suitable for refuse collection from the local authority –
can, for the most part, be placed in your everyday waste bin. However, the lab must
also have a container for certain other items, such as broken glassware, sharp objects
and dirty samples or other items contaminated with chemicals. 

REDUCING POTENTIAL FIRE HAZARDS

In a lab environment, potential fire hazards can be numerous, so it ’s important to treat

and handle combustibles in the appropriate manner. Consider limiting superfluous
materials in the lab, and where you can, keep these materials from heat sources and
store them at least 18 inches below the ceiling.

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Ensure these items are appropriately labeled and stored in the correct cabinets. Do not
allow them to be kept on benches or on incorrect shelving, and when pouring such
liquids with a low flash point from a large container, ground the container to minimize
the development of static charge.

EXTRACTION OF CHEMICALS

"Extraction" refers to transference of compound(s) from a solid or liquid into a

different solvent or phase. When a tea bag is added to hot water, the compounds
responsible for the flavor and color of tea are extracted from the tea bag into the
water. Decaffeinated coffee is made by using solvents or supercritical carbon dioxide
to extract the caffeine out of coffee beans. Bakers use the extract of vanilla, almond,
orange, lemon, and peppermint in their dishes, essences that have been extracted from
plant materials using alcohol.

In the chemistry lab, it is most common to use liquid-liquid extraction, a process that
occurs in a separatory funnel. A solution containing dissolved components is placed in
the funnel and an immiscible solvent is added, resulting in two layers that are shaken
together. It is most common for one layer to be aqueous and the other an organic
solvent. Components are "extracted" when they move from one layer to the other. The
shape of the separatory funnel allows for efficient drainage and separation of the two
layers.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION

Solvent extraction is a method of separating compounds on the basis of their solubility

in two different immiscible liquids like water and organic compound. The apparatus
used for solvent extraction is usually a separatory funnel. Is a method to separate
compounds or  metal complexes, based on their relative solubilities in two
different immiscible liquids, usually water (polar) and an organic solvent (non-polar).
There is a net transfer of one or more species from one liquid into another liquid
phase, generally from aqueous to organic. The transfer is driven by chemical potential,

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i.e. once the transfer is complete, the overall system of chemical components that
make up the solutes and the solvents are in a more stable configuration (lower free
energy).

CONTINUOUS SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION (Soxhlet Extraction)

The technique of solid-liquid extraction is often used to extract a solid natural product
from natural source such as a plant. A solvent is chosen that selectively dissolves the
desired compound best that leaves behind the undesired insoluble solid. A continuous
solid-liquid extraction apparatus, called a soxhlet extractor is commonly used in
research laboratory.

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Principle of operation

The solvent is heated to reflux. The solvent vapour travels up a distillation arm, and
floods into the chamber housing the thimble of solid. The condenser ensures that any
solvent vapour cools, and drips back down into the chamber housing the solid
material. The chamber containing the solid material slowly fills with warm solvent.
Some of the desired compound dissolves in the warm solvent. When the Soxhlet
chamber is almost full, the chamber is emptied by the siphon. The solvent is returned
to the distillation flask. The thimble ensures that the rapid motion of the solvent does
not transport any solid material to the still pot. This cycle may be allowed to repeat
many times, over hours or days.

During each cycle, a portion of the non-volatile compound dissolves in the solvent.

After many cycles the desired compound is concentrated in the distillation flask. The

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advantage of this system is that instead of many portions of warm solvent being
passed through the sample, just one batch of solvent is recycled.

After extraction the solvent is removed, typically by means of a rotary evaporator,

yielding the extracted compound. The non-soluble portion of the extracted solid
remains in the thimble, and is usually discarded.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING EXTRACTION

1. Attention to fire hazards.

2. Level of the solvent in the flask should be above the ring.

3. Level of aqueous solution should be substantially below the thimble holes.

DISTILLATION

Distillation is the process of vapourizing a liquid and recovering it by condensing the

vapours. Distillation is employed to separate a liquid from non-volatile matter
dissolved or suspended in it or to separate one liquid from a mixture of liquids of
different boiling point,as in the separation of gasoline, kerosene, and lubricating oil
from crude oil. Further, industrial applications incorporate the processing of the
chemical products that are as formaldehyde, phenol and the purification of seawater.

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TYPES OF DISTILLATION

SIMPLE DISTILLATION: This is generally used to separate substances in a

mixture, where boiling points differ largely. Hence, it is important that simple
distillation is used only when the boiling temperature of compounds is greater than
20-250C. Simple distillation involves heating the liquid mixture to the boiling point
and immediately condensing the resulting vapors. This method is only effective for
mixtures wherein the boiling points of the liquids are considerably different (a
minimum difference of 25oC).

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION: Is a type of distillation that involves the

separation of a mixture into its constituent substances based on their boiling point
(volatility). This is practiced for those mixtures, in which the boiling points of the
components differ less than 250C at 1 atm.

 Round-bottom flask or distilling flask

 A source of heat, which can be a fire or a hot bath.

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 Receiving flask to collect the condensed vapors

 Fractioning column

 Thermometer to measure the temperature in the distilling flask

 Condenser

 Standard Glassware.

When heated, the liquid mixture is converted into vapors that rise into the
fractioning column. The vapors now cool and condense on the walls of the
condenser. The hot vapors emanating from the distilling flask now heat the
condensed vapor, creating new vapors. Many such vaporization-condensation
cycles take place and the purity of the distillate improves with every cycle.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIMPLE AND FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

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SIMPLE DISTILLATION FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Used in separation of mixture whose Used in separation of mixture whose

difference in boiling point is greater than difference in boiling point is less than
250C. 250C.

Can be used to separate solvent from Cannot be used to separate solvent from
solute solute

Used to purify sea water Used in crude oil refining

Uses a simple apparatus with 2 flasks and Uses a complex apparatus with a
a condenser fractionation column

Consumes less energy and time Consumes more energy and time

It cannot guarantee high purity. It can provide chemicals with a high

degree of purity.

STEAM DISTILLATION: It is used for the purification of mixtures, in which the

components are temperature or heat sensitive e.g. organic compounds. This is done by
passing steam through the mixture (which is slightly heated) to vaporize some of it.
The process establishes a high heat-transfer rate without the need for high
temperatures. The resulting vapor is condensed to afford the required distillate. The
process of steam distillation is used to obtain essential oils and herbal distillates from
several aromatic flowers/herbs.

VACUUM DISTILLATION: It is a special method of separating compound at

pressure lower than the standard atmospheric pressure. Vacuum distillation is ideal for

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separating mixtures of liquids with very high boiling points. In order to boil these
compounds, heating to high temperatures is an inefficient method. Therefore, the
pressure of the surroundings is lowered instead. The lowering of the pressure enables
the component to boil at lower temperatures. Once the vapor pressure of the
component is equal to the surrounding pressure, it is converted into a vapor. These
vapors are then condensed and collected as the distillate. The vacuum distillation
method is also used to obtain high-purity samples of compounds that decompose at
high temperatures.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF DISTILLATION PROCESS

 Distillation process is used in chemistry to disperse and cleanse liquids.
 Distillation is exploited in making vinegar, alcoholic beverages, and purified
water. It is one of the ancient technique of desalinating water.
 Distillation is also used on an industrial scale for the purpose of purifying
chemicals.
 Fossil fuel industry utilizes distillation to discrete components of crude oil to
prepare chemical feedstock, fuel and petroleum.
 Distillation is an effective and traditional method of desalination.

AZEOTROPES: It is a mixture of two or more liquids that cannotbe separated by

distillation. It is also known as a Constant Boiling Mixture.

CLASSES OF AZEOTROPES

i. Positive azeotropes

ii. Negative azeotropes

POSITIVE AZEOTROPES: A positive azeotropes is one in which the boiling point

is lower than any of its components e.g. water-ethanol mixture. This azeotrope is also
called a minimum boiling mixture or a pressure maximum azeotrope.

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NEGATIVE AZEOTROPES: A negative azeotrope is one in which its boiling point
is higher than any of its compounds e.g. HCl and H 2O. They are also called maximum
boiling mixtures or pressure minimum azeotropes.

SUBLIMATION

Sublimation refers to the process of transition of a substance from the solid phase to
the gaseous phase without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. Examples of
substances that sublime are;

i. Iodine crystal

ii. Camphor

iii. Naphthalene

iv. Ammonium chloride

v. Arsenic

vi. Carbon dioxide

vii. Water (ice and snow)

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HERBARIUM

Herbarium is a collection of dried, pressed, nicely preserved plant specimens arranged

in sequence of an accepted system of classification. It is used for identification of
fresh specimens, comparison between floras of different regions. The value of a
herbarium depends on the care with which specimens were preserved and mounted,
accuracy and completeness of identification and labeling and maintenance so that they
do not deteriorate and can easily be referred to.

Equipment for collection and collecting methods.

1. Specimens that have both flowers and fruits are selected.

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2. Digger / trowel – for digging out the underground parts of the plants example
Rhizome, corm, tubers etc. These parts help in identification and classification
of the plant.

3. Pruning knife/bent sickle:- These have to be sharp. Pruning knife is used for
cutting branches of herbs, shrubs and trees. Bent sickle has a long handle and is
used for collecting flowers/fruits from high trees.

4. Vasculum/plastic bags:- Vasculum is an oval metallic container with screwed

fasteners to keep it airtight to avoid wilting. Plastic bags can also be sued as
they prevent loss of moisture when close tightly.

5. Field note Book:- This is a pocket sized note book used to record all
information concerning the plant: These include

a. Location e.g. country, province, Stale Park, river etc.

b. Habitat example river bank, forest edge, open field, swamp etc.

c. Field observation of the plant example height flower, colour, fruit colour,
odour.

d. Nature of stem juice example milky colour sticky, red, clear sap, thick, watery

e. Collection number example 1 . . . followed by your last name

f. Date of collection

g. Name of plant if know name could be local, common or botanical

h. Association with other plants and its abundance.

Plant Press

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This consists of equal sized top and bottom frames measuring 30cm x 45cm made of
these, light, strong pieces of plywood or metal. Between the frames are the folders,
blotters and ventilators. Folders are old newspapers in which the collector places the
specimens. Blotters absorb moisture from the specimens while ventilators provide air
for drying. The press is tightly bound together by strong straps of canvas or leather
and is placed in the hot sun or suspended over moderate heat.

Plant Pressing

Plants for pressing should be placed in the folders in a manner so as to give maximum
possible natural look. Longer specimens are bent into a V or W shape so as to fit them
on a standard sized mounting sheet (30 x 45cm). Leaves, flowers parts should not be
crowded. Thick organs may be trimmed and cotton paid placed proper pressing.

Mounting of pressed specimens:

The pressed, dried specimen are glued or gummed to a hard standard sheet of paper.
The paper should be fairly heavy to reduce. Flexing when mounted specimen are
picked up.

Label

Label is an important part of finished but usually 6 x 10cm. they are pasted with glue
on the lower right hand corner of the mounting sheet. A label should contain the
following information’s.

1. Region of collection accompanied by name of the institution.

2. Botanical name of the plant with the author citation

3. Locality of the collection

4. The habitat

5. Name of the collector and his field number

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6. Collector field observation

7. Date of collection and the name of the person who identified the specimen.

Filling

This is the arrangement of specimens in a herbarium. Specimen are filed according to

a particular system of plant classification filling is done alphabetically for genera or
according to phylogenetic sequence (in major herbaria). Specimens belonging to are
genus is placed within a genus cover. In many major herbaria, the scheme of techni-
colour folder is in usage. The colour of the folder is indicative of the distribution of
the plant.

Care of specimens

Herbaria in warm and moist regions appear to face pest problems. The common pest
adults and larvae of tobacco beetle (Lasioderma serricorne) and drug store beetle
(Stegobium paniceus). These are controlled in the following ways:

1. Use of insecticides example Dichlorodiphenyl) trichloroethane (DDT),

carbondisulphide and cyanide gas.

2. Specimens are poisoned with 10% aqueous solution of mercuric chloride.

3. Use of insect repellants example Naphthalene balls and Paradichlorobenzene

mixed in the ratio 2:1 and put in herbarium case.

4. Use of calcium chloride in small bottles the mouth covered with lose cotton
and kept in herbarium cases to absorb moisture thereby preventing fungal
attacks.

5. Specimen should be handled with care to avoid cracking and crumbing, tear
and wear

6. Store specimens in steel cabinets and fire – proof buildings

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Uses of Herbarium

1. The vegetation in any particular region is easily known.

2. While exploring a new area, the herbaria of previously explored areas can be
referred to.

3. Data about the nature, distribution and ecology of any plant of economic or
medicinal value can be obtained easily.

4. It can serve as the basis for other branches of botany example plant ecology.
Phytogeography, Economic botany e.t.c.

5. Verification of latin names (nomenclature).

PRESERVATION METHODS OF COMMON VERTEBRATES AND

INVERTEBRATES

Preservation is a method of keeping animal tissues as closely as it is while living. The

specimens will last for longer time, can be stored indefinitely by destroying any
bacteria, fungi that could degrade the specimen and protect from further action by
microorganisms.

A preservative is a chemical compound that is capable of keeping the animal tissues as

closely as it is while living.

Such preserved specimens are valuable for learning by student, researchers and for
detailed study of such organism. They are can also serve as a reference material for
identifying unknown living organisms and monetary value etc.

The procedure for preserving animal specimen varies greatly from one animal group
to another. In most cases, the specimen must first be killed or narcotized in such a way
as to leave the tissue relaxed and suitable for display. The material is then fixed in this

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condition and then finally preserved. The final preservation is normally made either is
a solution of ethanol and methanol usually known as alcoholic or in a solution of
methanol formaldehyde known as formalin for preservation purpose.

Preservation method of common animals (vertebrate and invertebrate)

Fixed specimen: the specimen is prepared by fixing it is achieved by injecting it with

chemicals that stop the deterioration and decay process. The most common fixative is
formaldehyde or a formaldehyde and water solution known as formalin.

Fluid preserve: The preserve is commonly alcohol, either ethanol or isopropyl

alcohol.

The container: Containers are typically glass jars or bottles sealed with a closure.
Types of closure may vary within a collection and often include lids with gaskets.

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