CHAPTER 5 – SOLUBILITY

Section 1: Types of Solution

1. Give examples of the different types of solutions.

A solution is a homogeneous mixture made up of atoms, ions, or

molecules. It has two mediums, namely, the solute (the dissolved medium)
and the solvent (the dissolving medium).
Solutions are of different types, based on a number of criteria, like the
difference in the solute or the solvent etc.

Based on the Final State of the Solution

Solid Solutions: alloys (12k gold, bell metal, sterling silver, some jewelry),
dental filling (mercury in silver)
Liquid Solutions: rubbing alcohol, vinegar, oxygenated water, carbon
dioxide in water, ocean water, syrup, soda water
Gaseous Solutions: gas, gas particulates, air

Based on Water as Solvent

Aqueous solutions: sugar in water, carbon dioxide in water
Electrolyte Solution - an NaCl or table salt when placed in water
Non-electrolyte Solution – glucose (sugar) when placed in water

Non-Aqueous Solutions: sulfur in carbon disulphide, naphthalene in

benzene
Based on the Amount of Solute Added
Unsaturated Solution: vinegar (unsaturated solution of acetic acid in
water), mist (unsaturated solution of water vapor in air)
Saturated Solution: carbonated water saturated with carbon
Supersaturated Solution: honey, maple syrup, sugar candy solution,
dead sea water, supersaturated sodium acetate

Based on the Amount of Solvent Added

Concentrated Solution: brine solution, orange juice, dark color tea
Dilute Solution: salt solution, light color tea

Based on the Concentration of Solute in Two Solutions

Isotonic Solution: beverage solutions
Hypertonic Solution: solution of 10% dextrose in water, also known by its
name D10W
Hypotonic Solution: freshwater habitats

2. Define the Following terms:

a. Saturated solution –

A saturated solution is a chemical solution containing the

maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent. The additional
solute will not dissolve in a saturated solution.

The amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent to form a saturated

solution depends on a variety of factors. The most important factors are:
  Temperature: Solubility increases with temperature. For example,
you can dissolve much more salt in hot water than in cold water.
 Pressure: Increasing pressure can force more solute into solution.
This is commonly used to dissolve gases into liquids.
 Chemical Composition: The nature of the solute and solvent and the
presence of other chemicals in a solution affects solubility. For
example, you can dissolve much more sugar in water than salt in
water. Ethanol and water are completely soluble in each other.

b. Unsaturated solution –

An unsaturated solution is a chemical solution in which the

solute concentration is lower than its equilibrium solubility. All of the
solute dissolves in the solvent.

When a solute (often a solid) is added to a solvent (often a liquid), two

processes occur simultaneous. Dissolution is the dissolving of the solute
into the solvent. Crystallization is is the opposite process, where the
reaction deposits solute. In an unsaturated solution, the rate of dissolution
is much greater than the rate of crystallization.

Types of Saturation

There are three levels of saturation in a solution:

1. In an unsaturated solution there is less solute than the amount that
can dissolve, so it all goes into solution. No undissolved material
remains.
2. A saturated solution contains more solute per volume of solvent than
an unsaturated solution. The solute has dissolved until no more can,
leaving undissolved matter in the solution. Usually the undissolved
material is more dense than the solution and sinks to the bottom of
the container.
3. In a supersaturated solution, there is more dissolved solute than in a
saturated solution. The solute can easily fall out of solution by
crystallization or precipitation. Special conditions may be needed to
supersaturate a solution. It helps to heat a solution to increase
solubility so more solute can be added. A container free of scratches
also helps keep solute from falling out of solution. If any undissolved
material remains in a supersaturated solution, it can act as nucleation
sites for crystal growth.

c. Supersaturated solution - If a solution has the maximum amount of

solute that can be dissolved, it is said to be saturated. Adding any
more solute would cause it to simply fall out of solution. Have you
ever tried to add extra sugar to your cold lemonade? It probably just
fell to the bottom of the container and did not dissolve. That is
because your lemonade was already saturated.
But, surely there must be a way to get that extra in there. Luckily for you,
chemists know how to make a supersaturated solution, a solution that
holds more solute than it normally could in its saturated form.

Supersaturated solutions are very unstable, and the solute will readily fall
out of solution if disturbed. As it does this, crystals can form, releasing heat
in the process.

d. Concentrated solution –

In chemistry, "concentrated" refers to a relatively large quantity of

substance present in a unit amount of a mixture. Usually, this means there
is a lot of a solute dissolved in a given solvent. A concentrated solution
contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved.
Because solubility depends on temperature, a solution that is concentrated
at one temperature may not be concentrated at a higher temperature.

The term may also be used to compare two solutions, as in "this one is
more concentrated than that one".

Examples of Concentrated Solutions

12 M HCl is more concentrated than 1 M HCl or 0.1 M HCl. 12 M

hydrochloric acid is also called concentrated sulfuric acid because it
contains a minimum amount of water.
When you stir salt into water until no more dissolves, you make a
concentrated saline solution. Similarly, adding sugar until no more
dissolves produces a concentrated sugar solution.

e. Dilute solution - A dilute solution is one in which there is a relatively

small amount of solute dissolved in the solution.
f. Electrolyte solution –

An electrolyte solution is a solution that generally contains ions, atoms or

molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive.
For this reason they are often called ionic solutions, however there are
some cases where the electrolytes are not ions. For this discussion we will
only consider solutions of ions. A basic principle of electrostatics is that
opposite charges attract and like charges repel. It also takes a great deal of
force to overcome this electrostatic attraction.

An electrolyte is any salt or ionizable molecule that, when dissolved in

solution, will give that solution the ability to conduct electricity. This is
because when a salt dissolves, its dissociated ions can move freely in
solution, allowing a charge to flow.

Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when a salt is placed into a

solvent such as water. For example, when table salt, NaCl, is placed in
water, the salt (a solid) dissolves into its component ions, according to the
dissociation reaction:
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

It is also possible for substances to react with water to yield ions in

solution. For example, carbon dioxide gas, CO2, will dissolve in water to
produce a solution that contains hydrogen ions, carbonate, and hydrogen
carbonate ions:

2 CO2(g)+ 2 H2O(l) → 3 H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + HCO3–(aq)

The resulting solution will conduct electricity because it contains ions. It is

important to keep in mind, however, that CO2 is not an electrolyte, because
CO2 itself does not dissociate into ions. Only compounds that dissociate
into their component ions in solution qualify as electrolytes.

g. Non-electrolyte solution –

Nonelectrolytes are compounds that do not ionize at all in solution. As a

result, solutions containing nonelectrolytes will not conduct electricity.
Typically, nonelectrolytes are primarily held together by covalent rather
than ionic bonds. A common example of a nonelectrolyte is glucose, or
C6H12O6. Glucose (sugar) readily dissolves in water, but because it does not
dissociate into ions in solution, it is considered a nonelectrolyte; solutions
containing glucose do not, therefore, conduct electricity.

Section 2: Energy of Solution Formation

1. Predict whether or not these substance will mix. Justify your answer.

Paint thinner and oil

 - A paint thinner is a solvent used to thin oil-based paints or clean up
after their use.
- An oil is a viscous liquid.
- The paint thinner will mix with the oil because they are both
nonpolar chemical substances. Conditions of solubility suggest that
“like dissolves like”.

Paint thinner and water

- A paint thinner is a solvent used to thin oil-based paints or

clean up after their use.
- Water is a colorless, transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid.
- The paint thinner is a nonpolar chemical substance while
water is a polar substance. Since they’re unlike substances, they
will not mix.
Oil and salt

- An oil is a viscous liquid.

- A salt is a strong-tasting substance, in the form of white powder
or crystals, which is used to improve the flavor of food or to
preserve it.
- An oil is a nonpolar chemical substance while a salt is a polar
substance. Since they’re unlike substances, they will not mix.
Oil and sugar

- An oil is a viscous liquid.

- A sugar is a sweet crystalline substance.
- An oil is a nonpolar chemical substance while a sugar is a polar
substance. Since they’re unlike substances, they will not mix.
 a. Salt and water - a. Our prediction that the salt will dissolve was
affirmed.
b. Salt particles were crystalline solids before they were added to
water. The crystalline particles dissolved in water. Nothing is left
undissolved.
c. When salt is placed in water, the salt is lost, implying it was
dissolved.
2. Which compound would dissolve naphthalene better – water,
benzene, or ethanol?

- Naphthalene is a volatile white crystalline compound produced by the

distillation of coal tar, used in mothballs and as a raw material for chemical
manufacture. It is a nonpolar substance.
- Water is a colorless, transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid. It is a polar
substance.
- Benzene is a colorless volatile liquid hydrocarbon present in coal tar and
petroleum, used in chemical synthesis. It is a nonpolar substance.
- Ethanol is a colorless volatile flammable liquid which is produced by the
natural fermentation of sugars. It is a polar substance.
- A general rule in chemistry is that “like dissolves like.” This rule
means that a solvent will dissolve substances that have similar
molecular structures. Since naphthalene is a nonpolar substance, it
will not dissolve in polar substances such as water and ethanol. It
may only be dissolved to another nonpolar substance like benzene.

3. Make a diagram about acid rain formation.

 Section 3: Factors affecting Solubility

1. Enumerate factors that affect solubility

Solubility refers to the amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent
at room temperature under given conditions. The solute is the dissolved medium and
the solvent is the dissolving medium. There are several factors that influence solubility
and these include the following:
NATURE OF THE SOLUTE AND THE SOLVENT

- A general rule in chemistry is that “like dissolves like.” This rule means that a
solvent will dissolve substances that have similar molecular structures.
Therefore, ionic solute dissolves in ionic solvent, ionic or polar solute dissolves
in polar solvents, and nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvent.
 Solute Solvent Solubility /
Miscibility
Polar Polar Soluble / miscible
Nonpolar Nonpolar Soluble / miscible
Nonpolar Polar Insoluble /
immiscible
Ionic Polar Soluble / miscible

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
- The effect of temperature is different for the solubility of solid in liquid from that of
the solubility of gases in liquids.
- The solubility of gas in liquid increases with a decrease in temperature and, decreases
with an increase in temperature.
- For solids in liquids, as temperature increases, solubility increases with an increase in
temperature for endothermic reactions.
- In an exothermic reaction, an increase in temperature decreases solubility.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE
- The solubility of solids in liquids is not affected by pressure. However, a change in
pressure influences the solubility of gas in liquids. When pressure is increased, the
molecules or ions come closer to each other and there are greater chances for interaction
between the solute and the solvent. Thus, solubility of gas in liquids increases with an
increase in pressure. This is known as Henry’s law named in honor of William Henry
(1774-1836) who conducted experiments on the solubility of gases in liquids.

SURFACE AREA
- Interaction between the solute and the solvent occurs at the surface area. Therefore,
the greater the surface area the greater the interaction of the solute and the solvent, and
thus solubility increases. The surface area can be increased by grinding the solid into
finer particles.

STIRRING or SHAKING
- As solute is added to the solvent, solute particles tend to concentrate in a section of the
mixture and the dissolving process slows down. Stirring will disperse the solute into
the sections of the solvent, increasing the dissolution process.

2. Explain the effect of temperature on the solubility of a solid and of a

gas

- The effect of temperature is different for the solubility of solid in liquid from that of
the solubility of gases in liquids.
- The solubility of gas in liquid increases with a decrease in temperature and, decreases
with an increase in temperature.
- For solids in liquids, as temperature increases, solubility increases with an increase in
temperature for endothermic reactions.
- In an exothermic reaction, an increase in temperature decreases solubility.

3. Explain the effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas

- The solubility of solids in liquids is not affected by pressure. However, a
change in pressure influences the solubility of gas in liquids. When pressure is
increased, the molecules or ions come closer to each other and there are greater
chances for interaction between the solute and the solvent. Thus, solubility of
gas in liquids increases with an increase in pressure. This is known as Henry’s
law named in honor of William Henry (1774-1836) who conducted experiments
on the solubility of gases in liquids.

4. Identify natural occurrences using knowledge about solubility

- Acid precipitation is a rainfall made sufficiently acidic by atmospheric
pollution that it causes environmental harm, typically to forests and lakes. The
main cause is the industrial burning of coal and other fossil fuels, the waste
gases from which contain sulfur and nitrogen oxides. Acid rain is caused by the
formation of nitric and sulfuric acids in our atmosphere. These compounds are
strong acids and they are highly soluble in water and they dissolve in the water
droplets within clouds thus affecting the pH of rainwater.