STM 211 Prat.
STM 211 Prat.
STM 211 Prat.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II
NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTORY MICROBIOLOGY
COURSE CODE: STM211
YEAR 2- SE MESTER I
PRACTICAL
WEEK 1 MICROSCOPY (BRIGHT FIELD LIGHT MICROSCOPE)……………………………..3
WEEK 2 EXAMINATION OF POND WATER (Protozoa)……………………………………….8
WEEK 3 EXAMINATION OF POND WATER (Algae)…………………………………………….11
WEEK 4 TRANSFER OF BACTERIA USING ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE……………………….…14
WEEK 5 STAINING TECHNIQUES :( 1) NEGATIVE STAINING……….........................21
WEEK 6 SMEAR PREPARATION AND SIMPLE STAINING…………………………………….24
WEEK 7 STAINING TECHNIQUES :( 2) GRAM STAINING……………...........................29
WEEK 8 BIOCHEMICAL TEST: CATALASE TEST…………………………………………………..34
WEEK 9 CULTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS…………………………………………………38
WEEK 10 THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AGENTS ON BACTERIA I:
DISINFECTANTS…………………………………………………...................................43
WEEK 11 THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AGENTS ON BACTERIA II:
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS (KIRBY‐BAUER METHOD)…………………………….48
WEEK 12 PREPARATION OF PURE CULTURE FROM MIXED
CULTURE Streak Plate Technique……………………………......................54
WEEK 13 PREPARATION OF PURE CULTURE FROM MIXED
CULTURE Pour Plate Technique……………………………………………………….58
WEEK 14 CULTIVATION OF ANAEROBIC BACTERIA………………………………………………..62
WEEK 15 CULTIVATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FUNGI…………………………………….68
2
WEEK 1. EXPERIMENT ONE: MICROSCOPY (BRIGHT‐FIELD LIGHT
MICROSCOPE)
Introduction
Microbiology usually is concerned with organisms so small they cannot be seen distinctly
with the unaided eye. Because of the nature of this discipline, the microscope is of crucial
importance. Thus it is important to understand how the microscope works. Microbiologists
currently employ a variety of light microscopes in their work; bright‐field, dark‐field, phase‐
contrast, and fluorescence microscopes are most commonly used. Modern microscopes are
all compound microscopes. That is, the magnified image formed by the objective lens is
further enlarged by one or more additional lenses.A microscope that allows light rays to
pass directly through to the eye without being deflected by an intervening opaque plate in
the condenser is called a brightfield microscope.
Principle
The bright‐field light microscope is an instrument that magnifies images using two lens
systems. Initial magnification occurs in the objective lens. Most microscopes have at least
three objective lenses on a rotating base, and each lens may be rotated into alignment with
the eyepiece or ocular lens in which the final magnification occurs. The objective lenses are
identified as the low‐power, high‐dry, and oil immersion objectives. Each objective is also
designated by other terms. These terms give either the linear magnification or the focal
length. The latter is about equal to or greater than the working distance between the
specimens when in focus and the tip of the objective lens. For example, the low‐power
objective is also called the 10X, objective; the high‐dry is called the 40X, objective; and the
oil immersion is called the 100X objective. As the magnification increases, the size of the
lens at the tip of the objective becomes progressively smaller and admits less light. This is
3
one of the reasons that changes in position of the substage condenser and iris diaphragm
are required when using different objectives if the specimens viewed are to be seen
distinctly. The condenser focuses the light on a small area above the stage, and the iris
diaphragm controls the amount of light that enters the condenser. When the oil immersion
lens is used, immersion oil fills the space between the objective and the specimen. Because
immersion oil has the same refractive index as glass, the loss of light is minimized. The
eyepiece, or ocular, at the top of the tube magnifies the image formed by the objective
lens. As a result, the total magnification seen by the observer is obtained by multiplying the
magnification of the objective lens by the magnification of the ocular, or eyepiece. For
example, when using the 10Xocular and the 43X objective, total magnification is 10 x43 =
430 times.
Materials
‐compound microscope
‐lens paper and lens cleaner
‐immersion oil
‐prepared stained slides of several types of bacteria (rods, cocci,), fungi, algae, and protozoa
‐glass slides
‐coverslips
‐dropper with bulb
‐newspaper or cut‐out letter m’s
Method: Procedure for Basic Microscopy: Proper Use of the Microscope
1. Always carry the microscope with two hands. Place it on the desk with the open part
away from you.
4
2. Clean all of the microscope’s lenses only with lens paper and lens cleaner if necessary. Do
not use paper towels as they can scratch the lenses. Do not remove the oculars or any other
parts from the body of the microscope.
Figure 1.1 Preparation of a Wet-mount Slide. (a) Add a drop of water onto the slide. (b) Place the specimen (letter m)
directly in the water. (c) Place the edge of a cover slip on the slide so that it touches the edge of the water. (d) Slowly lower
the cover slip to prevent trapping of air bubbles
3. Cut a lowercase ‘m’ from a newspaper or other printed page. Prepare a wet‐mount as
illustrated in figure 1.1. Place the glass slide on the stage of the microscope and secure it
firmly using stage clips. If your microscope has a mechanical stage device, place the slide
securely in it. Move the slide until the letter m is over the opening in the stage.
4. With the low‐power objective in position, lower the tube until the tip of the objective is
within
5 mm of the slide. Be sure that you lower the tube while looking at the microscope from the
side.
5. Look into the microscope and slowly raise the tube by turning the coarse adjustment
knob counterclockwise until the object comes into view. Once the object is in view, use the
fine adjustment knob to focus the desired image.
6. Open and close the diaphragm, and lower and raise the condenser, noting what effect
these actions have on the appearance of the object being viewed. Usually the microscope is
5
used with the sub stage condenser in its topmost position. The diaphragm should be open
and then closed down until just a slight increase in contrast is observed
7. Use the oil immersion lens to examine the stained bacteria that are provided. The
directions for using this lens are as follows: First locate the stained area with the low‐power
objective and then turn the oil immersion lens into the oil and focus with the fine
adjustment. An alternate procedure is to get the focus very sharp under high power, then
move the revolving nosepiece until you are halfway between the high‐power and oil
immersion objectives. Place a small drop of immersion oil in the center of the illuminated
area on the slide. Continue revolving the nosepiece until the oil immersion objective clicks
into place. The lens will now be immersed in oil. Sharpen the focus with the fine adjustment
knob. Draw a few of the bacteria in the spaces provided
8. After you are finished with the microscope, place the low‐power objective in line with
the ocular, lower the tube to its lowest position, clean the oil from the oil immersion lens
with lens paper and lens cleaner, cover, and return the microscope (see figure 1.2) to its
proper storage place
Results
Draw a large well labeled diagram of the microscope
1. Identify all the parts of a compound microscope
2. Know how to correctly use the microscope especially the oil immersion lens
3. Learn how to make and examine a wet‐mount preparation
Questions
What is the magnification stamped on the housing of the oculars on your microscope?
What are the magnifications of each of the objectives on your microscope?
6
Why is oil necessary when using the 100X objective?
Differentiate between the resolving power and magnifying power of a lens. What is meant
by the term “parfocal”?
7
WEEK 2 EXPERIMENT TWO : EXAMINATION OF POND WATER
Introduction
Microbiology usually is concerned with organisms so small they cannot be seen distinctly
with the unaided eye. Because of the nature of this discipline, the microscope is of crucial
importance. Thus it is important to understand how the microscope works and the way in
which specimens are prepared for examination. In this experiment we will examine
microorganisms found in pond water. To study the microorganisms of pond water, it will be
necessary to make wet mount slides. The procedure for making such slides is elatively
simple. All that is necessary is to place a drop of suspended organisms on a microscope slide
and cover it with a cover glass. A thorough understanding of microscopy, slide techniques,
and culture methods therefore provides a substantial foundation for their study.
Principles
Certain transparent, colorless living microorganisms and their internal organelles are often
impossible to see by ordinary bright‐field or dark‐field microscopy because they do not
absorb, reflect, refract, or diffract sufficient light to contrast with the surrounding
environment or the rest of the microorganism. Microorganisms and their organelles are only
visible when they absorb, reflect, refract, or diffract more light than their environment. The
phase‐contrast microscope permits the observation of otherwise invisible living, unstained
microorganisms
Materials
‐bottles of pond‐water samples
‐microscope slides and cover glasses
8
‐rubber‐bulbed pipettes ( Pasteur pipette with pipettor)
‐pictorial guides of common pond water microorganisms
‐ forceps
‐Grease marking pencil
Method
1. Clean the slide and cover glass with soap and water, rinse thoroughly, and dry. Do not
attempt to study a slide that lacks a cover glass.
2. When using a pipette, insert it into the bottom of the bottle to get a maximum number of
organisms. Very few organisms will be found swimming around in middepth of the bottle.
3. To remove filamentous algae from a specimen bottle, use forceps. Avoid putting too
much material on the slides.
4. Explore the slide first with the low‐power objective. Reduce the lighting with the iris
diaphragm. Keep the condenser at its highest point.
5. When you find an organism of interest, swing the high‐dry objective into position and
adjust the lighting to get optimum contrast. If your microscope has phase‐contrast
elements, use them.
Results
1. Refer to Figure 1 and the text on the page to identify the various organisms that you
encounter.
7. Record your observations on the Laboratory Reports n
Quiz
1. What advantage does the phase‐contrast microscope have over the bright‐field
microscope?
9
Figure 1 Protozoans
1.heteronema; 2.cercomonas; 3.codosiga; 4.protospongia; 5.trickamoeba; 6.amoeba;
7.mayorella; 8.diffugia; 9.paramecium; 10.lacrymaria; 11.linotus; 12.loxodes;
13.blepharisma; 14.coleps; 15.condylostoma; 16.strentor; 17.vorticella; 18.carchesium;
19.zoothamnium; 20.stylonychia; 21.onychodromas; 22.hypotrichidium; 23.euplotes;
24.didinium
10
WEEK 3. EXPERIMENT THREE : EXAMINATION OF POND WATER (2)
Introduction: See Week 2
Materials
‐bottles of pond‐water samples
‐microscope slides and cover glasses
‐rubber‐bulbed pipettes ( Pasteur pipette with pipettor)
‐pictorial guides of common pond water microorganisms
‐ forceps
‐Grease marking pencil
Method
1. Clean the slide and cover glass with soap and water, rinse thoroughly, and dry. Do not
attempt to study a slide that lacks a cover glass.
2. When using a pipette, insert it into the bottom of the bottle to get a maximum number of
organisms. Very few organisms will be found swimming around in middepth of the bottle.
3. To remove filamentous algae from a specimen bottle, use forceps. Avoid putting too
much material on the slides.
4. Place the slide on the stage of the phase‐contrast microscope so that the specimen is over
the light hole.
5. Explore the slide first with the low‐power objective. Reduce the lighting with the iris
diaphragm. Keep the condenser at its highest point.
6. When you find an organism of interest, swing the high‐dry objective into position and
adjust the lighting to get optimum contrast. If your microscope has phase‐contrast
elements, use them.
11
Results
1. Refer to Figure 2 and the text on the page to identify the various organisms that you
encounter.
7. Record your observations on the Laboratory Reports.
Question
1. Enumerate the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
12
Figure 2 Filamentous algae
1. Rhizoclonium ; 2. Cladophora ; 3. Bulbochaete ; 4. Oedogonium ; 5. Vaucheria ; 6.
Tribonema ; 7. Chara ; 8. Batrachospermum ; 9. Microspora ; 10. Ulothrix ; 11. Ulothrix ;
12. Desmidium ; 13. Mougeotia ; 14. Spirogyra ; 15. Zygnema ; 16. Stigeoclonium ; 17.
Draparnaldia
13
WEEK 4. EXPERIMENT FOUR: TRANSFER OF BACTERIA USING
ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE
Introduction
In the laboratory bacteria must be cultured to facilitate identification and to examine their
growth and metabolism. All cultured media are sterilized that is rendered free of life, prior
to use. Sterilization is usually accompanied using an autoclave. Containers of culture media
such as Petri dish or test tube should not be opened until you are ready to work with them,
and even then they should not be left open. Culture media can be prepared in other forms
depending on the desired use. Broth cultures provide large numbers of bacteria in a small
space and are easily transported. Agar slants are test tubes containing solid culture media
that were left at an angle while the agar solidified. Agar slants like Petri plates provide a
solid growth surface, but slants are easier to store and transport than Petri plates. Agar is
allowed to solidify in the bottom of a test tube to make an agar deep. Deeps are often used
to grow bacteria that prefer less oxygen than is present on the surface of the medium. Semi
solid agar deeps containing 0.5% to 0.7% agar instead of the normal 1.5% agar can be used
to determine whether bacterium is motile. Motile bacteria will move away from the point of
inoculation, giving an inverted Christmas tree appearance. A bacterial culture is transferred
is transferred from one culture medium to another in order to keep it alive and to study its
growth. Transferring must be done without introducing unwanted microbes called
contaminants into the media. Transfer techniques that minimize contaminants are called
aseptic techniques. Microorganisms are aseptically inoculated, por introduced, into various
forms of the culture media. Transfer and inoculation are usually performed with a sterile,
heat‐ resistant , non‐corroding nichrome attached to an insulated handle. When the end of
the wire is bent into a loop, it is called an inoculating loop; when straight, it is an inoculating
14
needle. For special purposes cultures may also be transferred with sterile cotton swabs,
pipettes, glass rods, or syringes.
Principle
Most commonly used culture media will support the growth of a number of different
bacteria. It is therefore essential when working in the microbiology laboratory that suitable
precautions are taken to prevent the growth of unwanted contaminants in our cultures.
These simple practical measures are termed aseptic technique, and it is essential to master
them if reliable experimental results are to be obtained. Any glassware and equipment used
is sterilized before work begins. Containers such as tubes, flasks and plates are kept open
for the minimum amount of time, and the necks of bottles and tubes are passed through a
flame to maintain their sterility. The wire loops and needles used to transfer small volumes
of microbial cultures are sterilized by heating them to redness in a flame. Aseptic
techniques are laboratory skills imbibed by every microbiologist for the transfer and
handling of microorganisms and instruments, including sterilizing and maintaining sterility
of transfer instruments, performing aseptic transfer, and obtaining microbial samples. Your
instructor will normally demonstrate aseptic technique to you.
Materials
‐Inoculating loop (Figure [a] below)
‐Inoculating needle (Figure [b] below)
‐Bunsen burner
‐Blow‐out pipette with pipettor ‐to‐deliver pipette
‐24‐hour tryptic soy broth and tryptic soy agar slant cultures of Staphylococcus aureus,
Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pneumonia
15
‐Streak‐plate cultures
‐Tryptic soy broth tubes
‐Tryptic soy agar slants
‐Tryptic soy agar deeps
‐Wax pencil
Figure a Figure b
Method: Procedure for Culture Transfer (Instruments and Techniques)
Pipetting
1. Proper pipetting using both to‐deliver and blowout pipettes will be demonstrated in the
laboratory by the instructor. After the demonstration, practice using both pipettes with
some distilled water and the bulbs or mechanical devices provided.
16
Aseptic Technique
1. Using a wax pencil, label the tube or plate to be inoculated with the date, your name, and
the name of the test microorganism.
2. Gently mix the primary culture tube in order to put the bacteria into a uniform
suspension.The tube can be tapped to create a vortex that will suspend the microorganisms,
or if a vortex mixer is available, it can be used.
3. Place the stock culture tube and the tube to be inoculated in the palm of one hand and
secure with the thumb. The tubes are then separated to form a V in the hand (figure 4c).
They should be held at an angle so that the open ends are not vertical and directly exposed
to airborne laboratory contaminants.
4. Using the other hand, flame the inoculating loop or needle over a Bunsen burner until the
wire becomes red‐hot .
5. Using the same hand that is holding the inoculating loop, remove the caps from the two
tubes, hold them between your fingers, and briefly flame the necks of the tubes over a
Bunsen burner by passing them through the flame. However, DO NOTALLOW THE TUBES TO
BECOME RED‐HOT.
6. Cool the hot loop in the broth culture until it stops “hissing.” With the sterile inoculating
loop, transfer 1 drop of culture from the stock culture tube into the new broth tube. At this
point, one could also transfer to a glass slide, streak the surface of a slant, or streak the
bacteria onto the surface of a petri plate. When picking up bacteria from a slant, cool the
hot loop or needle by holding it against the top of the slant until it stops “hissing.”
7. Reflame the neck of the tubes.
8. Recap the tubes.
9. Reflame or sterilize the loop or needle. Using aseptic technique, perform the following
transfers:
17
a. With the inoculating loop, transfer the S. aureus tryptic soy broth culture to a tryptic
soy agar slant. Also, inoculate a tryptic soy broth tube with S.aureus, using the inoculating
loop.
b. With the inoculating needle, transfer the S. aureus to a tryptic soy agar deep tube.
This is done by plunging the inoculating needle of S.aureus into the tube without
touching the walls of the tube. Penetrate the medium to its depth. The inoculating needle
is then withdrawn from the tube.
c. Using the inoculating loop, make a slant‐to‐slant transfer. This is done by gently
streaking the surface of the slant in the form of a serpentine (wiggly or S‐shaped) line. If
there is liquid at the base of the slant, the tube may be tilted after inoculation so that
the liquid runs over the slant surface. This will moisten the surface and spread out the
bacteria.
d. Place the tubes in a test‐tube rack or a clean vegetable can and incubate at 35°C for 24
to 48 hours. Afterwards, examine all of the tubes for the presence of bacterial growth.
Growth is indicated by turbidity (cloudiness) in the broth culture, and the appearance of
an orange‐to‐red growth on the slant culture and along the line of inoculation in the agar
deep tube. Also note if any contamination is present. This is indicated by growth that is
not red to orange in color. Record your results in the report book.
18
Figure 4 Aseptic Technique for Bacterial Removal and Subculturing
Results
Discuss all the difficulties you encountered during the culture transfer and the aseptic
technique process.
Questions
1. What is the purpose of flaming in the aseptic technique?
2. What is the purpose of sub culturing?
3. In sub culturing, when do you use the inoculating loop?
4. How is it possible to contaminate a subculture?
19
5. What are some signs of growth in a liquid medium?
20
WEEK 5 EXPERIMENT FIVE: STAINING TECHNIQUES ( 1) NEGATIVE
STAINING
Introduction
The difficulty that one encounters in trying to examine cellular organelles is that most
protoplasmic material is completely transparent and defies differentiation. It is for this
reason that stained slides are usually used in brightfield cytological studies. Since the
staining of slides results in cellular death, it is obvious that when we study stained
microorganisms on a slide, we are observing artifacts rather than living cells. A microscope
that is able to differentiate transparent protoplasmic structures without staining and killing
them is the phase‐contrast microscope. The first phase‐contrast microscope was developed
in 1933 by Frederick Zernike and was originally referred to as the Zernike microscope. It is
the instrument of choice for studying living protozoans and other types of transparent cells.
Principles:
The simplest way to make a slide of bacteria is to prepare a wet mount, much in the same
manner that was used for studying protozoa and algae. Although this method will quickly
produce a slide, finding the bacteria on the slide may be difficult, especially for a beginner.
The problem one encounters is that bacteria are quite colorless and transparent. Unless the
diaphragm is carefully adjusted, the beginner usually has considerable difficulty bringing the
organisms into focus. A better way to observe bacteria for the first time is to prepare a slide
by a process called negative, or background, staining. This method consists of mixing the
microorganisms in a small amount of nigrosine or India ink and spreading the mixture over
the surface of a slide. (Incidentally, nigrosine is far superior to India ink.) Since these two
pigments are not really bacterial stains, they do not penetrate the microorganisms. Instead
21
they obliterate the background, leaving the organisms transparent and visible in a darkened
field.
Materials:
‐microscope slides
‐nigrosine solution or india ink
‐slant cultures of S. aureus and S cerevisiae
‐inoculating straight wire and loop
‐sterile toothpicks
‐Bunsen burner
‐china marking pencil
‐grease marking pen
Method
1. Swab down your tabletop with disinfectant in preparation for making slides.
2. Clean two or three microscope slides with ethanol to rid them of all dirt and grease.
3. By referring to figure 1, place the proper amount of stain on the slide.
4. Oral Organisms: Remove a small amount of material from between your teeth with a
sterile straight toothpick or inoculating needle and mix it into the stain on the slide. Be sure
to break up any clumps of organisms with the wire or toothpick. When using a wire, be sure
to flame it first to make it sterile.
5. From Cultures: With a sterile straight wire, transfer a very small amount of bacteria from
the slant to the center of the stain on the slide.
6. Spread the mixture over the slide according to the procedure used in figure 5
22
7. Allow the slide to air‐dry (DO NOT HEAT FIX) and examine with an oil immersion
objective.
Figure 5
Results
Draw a few representative types of organisms on laboratory report book
Question
1. Describe the microscopic appearance of the two organisms bacteria.
2. When is negative staining used?
3. Why do the bacteria remain unstained in the negative staining procedure?
23
WEEK 6. EXPERIMENT SIX: SMEAR PREPARATION AND SIMPLE
STAINING
Introduction
While negative staining is a simple enough process to make bacteria more visible with a
brightfield microscope, it is of little help when one attempts to observe anatomical
microstructures such as flagella, granules, and endospores. Only by applying specific
bacteriological stains to organisms can such organelles be seen. However, success at
bacterial staining depends first of all on the preparation of a suitable smear of the
organisms. A properly prepared bacterial smear is one that withstands one or more
washings during staining without loss of organisms, is not too thick, and does not result in
excessive distortion due to cell shrinkage. The first step in preparing a bacteriological smear
differs according to the source of the organisms. If the bacteria are growing in a liquid
medium (broths, milk, saliva, urine, etc.), one starts by placing one or two loopfuls of the
liquid medium directly on the slide. From solid media such as nutrient agar, blood agar, or
some part of the body, one starts by placing one or two loopfuls of water on the slide and
then uses a straight inoculating wire to disperse the organisms in the water. Bacteria
growing on solid media tend to cling to each other and must be dispersed sufficiently by
dilution in water; unless this is done, the smear will be too thick. The most difficult concept
for students to understand about making slides from solid media is that it takes only a very
small amount of material to make a good smear. When your instructor demonstrates this
step, pay very careful attention to the amount of material that is placed on the slide.
Principle
One way of observing the details of bacteria including its morphology and size involves
smear preparation and simple staining. A bacterial smear is a dried preparation of bacterial
cells
24
on a glass slide. In a bacterial smear that has been properly processed, (1) the bacteria are
evenly spread out on the slide in such a concentration that they are adequately separated
from one another, (2) the bacteria are not washed off the slide during staining, and (3)
bacterial form is not distorted.In making a smear, bacteria from either a broth culture or an
agar slant or plate may be used. If a slant or plate is used, a small amount of bacterial
growth is transferred to a drop of water on a glass slide (figure 6a) and mixed. The mixture
is then spread out evenly over a large area on the slide (figure 6b). One of the most common
errors in smear preparation from agar cultures is the use of too large an inoculum. This
invariably results in the occurrence of large aggregates of bacteria piled on top of one
another. If the medium is liquid, place one or two loops of the medium directly on the slide
(figure 6c) and spread the bacteria over a large area (figure 6d). Allow the slide to air dry at
room temperature (figure 6e). After the smear is dry, the next step is to attach the bacteria
to the slide by heat‐fixing. This is accomplished by gentle heating (figure 6f ), passing the
slide several times through the hot portion of the flame of a Bunsen burner. Most bacteria
can be fixed to the slide and killed in this way without serious distortion of cell structure.
The use of a single stain or dye to create contrast between the bacteria and the background
is referred to as simple staining. Its chief value lies in its simplicity and ease of use. Simple
staining is often employed when information about cell shape, size, and arrangement is
desired. In this procedure, one places the heatfixed slide on a staining rack, covers the
smear with a small amount of the desired stain for the proper amount of time, washes the
stain off with water for a few seconds, and, finally, blots it dry. Basic dyes such as crystal
violet (20 to 30 seconds staining time), carbolfuchsin (5 to 10 seconds staining time), or
methylene blue (1 minute staining time) are often used. Once bacteria have been properly
stained, it is usually an easy matter to discern their overall shape. Bacterial morphology is
usually uncomplicated and limited to one of a few variations.
25
Figure 6 Preparation of Bacterial Smear
Materials
‐24‐ to 48‐hour tryptic soy broth or agar slants of ‐Bacillus subtilis , and Staphylococcus
aureus
‐microscope
‐clean microscope slides
‐bibulous paper
‐inoculating loop and needle
‐sterile distilled water
‐Bunsen burner
26
‐methylene blue
‐crystal violet (1% aqueous solution)
‐Ziehl’s carbolfuchsin
‐wax pencil
‐immersion oil
‐slide holder
Method
Smear Preparation
1. With the wax pencil, mark the name of the bacterial culture in the far left corner on each
of three slides.
2. For the broth culture, shake the culture tube and, with an inoculating loop, aseptically
(see figure 6) transfer 1 to 2 loopfuls of bacteria to the center of the slide. Spread this out to
about a d‐inch area. When preparing a smear from a slant or plate, place a loopful of water
in the center of the slide. With the inoculating needle, aseptically pick up a very small
amount of culture and mix into the drop of water. Spread this out as above. (Two slides
should be prepared; one each of B. subtilis Staphylococcus aureus.)
3. Allow the slide to air dry.
4. Pass the slide through a Bunsen burner flame three times to heat‐fix and kill the bacteria.
Simple Staining
1. Place the three fixed smears on a staining loop or rack over a sink or other suitable
receptacle
2. Stain one slide with alkaline methylene blue for 1 to 1d minutes; one slide with
carbolfuchsin for 5 to 10 seconds; and one slide with crystal violet for 20 to 30 seconds.
3. Wash stain off slide with water for a few seconds
27
4. Blot slide dry with bibulous paper Be careful not to rub the smear when drying the
slide because this will remove the stained bacteria.
5. Examine under the oil immersion lens and report your observation
6. You may want to treat smears of the same bacterium with all three stains in order to
compare them more directly. It is also instructive to cover bacterial smears for varying
lengths of time with a given stain in order to get a feel for how reactive they are and the
results of overstaining or understaining a slide preparation.
Results
Discuss extensively the smear and staining procedure and enumerate your difficulties
Question
1. What are the two purposes of heat fixation?
2. What is the purpose of simple staining?
3. Why are basic dyes more successful in staining bacteria than acidic dyes?
4. Name three basic stains.
5. Why is time an important factor in simple staining?
28
WEEK 7. EXPERIMENT SEVEN: STAINING TECHNIQUES (2) GRAM
STAINING
Introduction
In 1884 the Danish bacteriologist Christian Gram developed a staining technique that
separates bacteria into two groups: those that are gram‐positive and those that are gram‐
negative. The procedure is based on the ability of microorganisms to retain the purple color
of crystal violet during decolorization with alcohol. Gram‐negative bacteria are decolorized
by the alcohol, losing the purple color of crystal violet. Gram‐positive bacteria are not
decolorized and remain purple. After decolorization, safranin, a red counterstain, is used to
impart a pink color to the decolorized gram‐negative organisms. Figure 7 illustrates the
effects of the various reagents on bacterial cells at each stage in the process. Note that
crystal violet, the primary stain, causes both gram‐positive and gram‐negative organisms to
become purple after 20 seconds of staining. When Gram’s iodine, the mordant, is applied to
the cells for one minute, the color of gram‐positive and gram‐negative bacteria remains the
same: purple. The function of the mordant here is to combine with crystal violet to form a
relatively insoluble compound in the gram‐positive bacteria. When the decolorizing agent,
95% ethanol, is added to the cells for 10–20 seconds, the gram‐negative bacteria are
leached colorless, but the gram‐positive bacteria remain purple. In the final step a
counterstain, safranin, adds a pink color to the decolorized gramnegative bacteria without
affecting the color of the purple gram‐positive bacteria. Of all the staining techniques you
will use in the identification of unknown bacteria, Gram staining is, undoubtedly, the most
important tool you will use. Although this technique seems quite simple, performing it with
a high degree of reliability is a goal that requires some practice and experience. Here are
two suggestions that can be helpful: first, don’t make your smears too thick, and second,
29
pay particular attention to the comments in step 4 on the next page that pertain to
decolorization.
Simple staining depends on the fact that bacteria differ chemically from their surroundings
and thus can be stained to contrast with their environment. Bacteria also differ from one
another chemically and physically and may react differently to a given staining procedure.
This is the principle of differential staining. Differential staining can distinguish between
types of bacteria. The Gram stain does not always yield clear results. Species will differ from
one another in regard to the ease with which the crystal violet‐iodine complex is removed
by ethanol. Gram‐positive cultures may often turn gram negative if they get too old. Thus, it
is always best to Gram stain young, vigorous cultures rather than older ones. Furthermore,
some bacterial species are gram variable. That is, some cells in the same culture will be
gram positive and some, gram negative. Therefore, one should always be certain to run
Gram stains on several cultures under carefully controlled conditions in order to make
certain that a given bacterial “strain” is truly gram positive or gram negative. Indistinct
Gram‐stain results can be confirmed by a simple test using KOH. Place a drop of 10% KOH on
a clean glass slide and mix with a loopful of bacterial paste. Wait 30 seconds, then pull the
loop slowly through the suspension and up and away from the slide. A gram‐negative
organism will produce a mucoid string; a gram‐positive organism remains fluid.
Principle
Although several explanations have been given for the Gramstain reaction results, it seems
likely that the difference between gram‐positive and gram‐negative bacteria is due to the
physical nature of their cell walls. If the cell wall is removed from grampositive bacteria,
they become gram negative. The peptidoglycan itself is not stained; instead it seems to act
30
as a permeability barrier preventing loss of crystal violet. During the procedure the bacteria
are first stained with crystal violet and next treated with iodine to promote dye retention.
When gram‐positive bacteria then are decolorized with ethanol, the alcohol is thought to
shrink the pores of the thick peptidoglycan. Thus the dye‐iodine complex is retained during
the short decolorization step and the bacteria remain purple. In contrast, gram‐negative
peptidoglycan is very thin, not as highly cross‐linked, and has larger pores. Alcohol
treatment also may extract enough lipid from the gramnegative
wall to increase its porosity further. For these reasons, alcohol more readily removes the
purple crystal violet‐iodine complex from gram‐negative bacteria.
Figure 7 Color changes that occur at each step during the gram-staining process
31
Materials
‐18‐ to 24‐hour tryptic soy broth cultures of formalinized (1 ml of concentrated formalin per
10 ml of culture) Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli , and a mixture of S. aureus and E.
coli
‐solutions of crystal violet, Gram’s iodine , 95% ethanol and/or isopropanol‐acetone mixture
(3:1v/v), and safranin
‐clean glass slides
‐inoculating loop
‐Bunsen burner
‐bibulous paper
‐microscope
‐lens paper and lens cleaner
‐immersion oil
‐staining rack
Method
1. Prepare heat‐fixed smears of E. coli, S. aureus, and the mixture of E. coli and S. aureus
2. Place the slides on the staining rack.
3. Flood the smears with crystal violet and let stand for 30 seconds
4. Rinse with water for 5 seconds
5. Cover with Gram’s iodine mordant and let stand for 1 minute
6. Rinse with water for 5 seconds
7. Decolorize with 95% ethanol for 15 to 30 seconds. Do not decolorize too long. Add the
decolorizer drop by drop until the crystal violet fails to wash from the slide . Alternatively,
32
the smears may be decolorized for 30 to 60 seconds with a mixture of isopropanol‐acetone
(3:1 v/v).
8. Rinse with water for 5 seconds
9. Counterstain with safranin for about 60 to 80 seconds . Safranin preparations vary
considerably in strength, and different staining times may be required for each batch of
stain. (If you are color‐blind, use Bismark brown stain rather than safranin.)
10. Rinse with water for 5 seconds.
11. Blot dry with bibulous paper and examine under oil immersion. Gram‐positive organisms
stain blue to purple; gram‐negative organisms stain pink to red. There is no need to place a
coverslip on the stained smear.
Results
Examine the slide under oil immersion and make drawings . Make comments on your
observations
Questions
1. Which step is the most crucial or most likely to cause poor results in the Gram stain?
Why?
2. Why must young cultures be used when doing a Gram stain?
3. What is meant by gram variable?
4. Distinguish between prokayotes and eukaryotes
33
WEEK 8 EXPERIMENT EIGHT: BIOCHEMICAL TESTS (1) CATALASE
TEST
Introduction
After the microscopic and growth characteristics of a pure culture of bacteria are examined,
specific biochemical tests can be performed. Classic dichotomous keys are coupled with the
biochemical tests for the identification of bacteria from specimens. Generally, fewer than 20
tests are required to identify clinical bacterial isolates to the species level. Some of the
biochemical tests used for bacteria identification include Carbohydrate fermentation, Casein
hydrolysis, Catalase , Citrate utilization, Coagulase, Decarboxylases (arginine, lysine,
ornithine), Esculin hydrolysis, Beta‐galactosidase (ONPG) test, Gelatin liquefaction ,
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), IMViC (indole; methyl red; Voges‐Proskauer; citrate), Lipid
hydrolysis, Nitrate reduction , Oxidase , Phenylalanine deaminase , Starch hydrolysis
,Urease. The list is by no means exhaustible. Physiological characteristics Of bacteria are
normally determined with a series of biochemical tests. Although correctly identifying the
unknowns that are given to you is very important, it is just as important that you thoroughly
understand the chemistry of the tests that you perform on the organisms. Organisms of
different species not only differ morphologically and physiologically, but they also differ in
protein makeup. The different proteins of bacterial cells that are able to stimulate antibody
production when injected into an animal are antigens. The antigenic structure of each
species of bacteria is unique to that species and, like the fingerprint of an individual, can be
used to identify the organism. Many closely related microorganisms that are identical
physiologically can be differentiated only by determining their antigenic nature. The method
of determining the presence of specific antigens in a microorganism is called serological
typing (serotyping). It consists of adding a suspension of the organisms to antiserum, which
34
contains antibodies that are specific for the known antigens. If the antigens are present, the
antibodies in the antiserum will combine with the antigens, causing agglutination, or
clumping, of the bacterial cells. Serotyping is particularly useful in the identification of
various organisms that cause salmonella and shigella infections.
Principle
Some bacteria contain flavoproteins that reduce O2, resulting in the production of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) or superoxide (O2 –). These are extremely toxic because they are powerful
oxidizing agents and destroy cellular constituents very rapidly. A bacterium must be able to
protect itself against such O2 products or it will be killed. Many bacteria possess enzymes
that afford protection against toxic O2 products. Obligate aerobes and facultative anaerobes
usually contain the enzymes superoxide dismutase, which catalyzes the destruction of
superoxide, and either catalase or peroxidase, which catalyze the destruction of hydrogen
peroxide. Most strict anaerobes lack both enzymes and therefore cannot tolerate O2.
Catalase production and activity can be detected by adding the substrate H2O2 to an
appropriately incubated (18‐ to 24‐hour) tryptic soy agar slant culture. If catalase was
produced by the bacteria, the above chemical reaction will liberate free O2 gas. Bubbles of
O2 represent a positive catalase test; the absence of
bubble formation is a negative catalase test. Catalase activity is very useful in differentiating
between groups of bacteria. For example, the morphologically similar Enterococcus and
Streptococcus(catalase negative) and Staphylococcus (catalase positive) can be
differentiated using the catalase test.
35
Materials
‐18‐ to 24‐hour tryptic soy broth cultures of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus
pneumonia
‐3% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
‐Bunsen burner
‐inoculating loop
‐Pasteur pipette with pipettor
‐incubator set at 35°C
‐test‐tube rack
‐wax pencil
‐clean glass slides
‐ Nichrome wire loop
Method
1. On a clean grease free slide put 2 drops of a 3% solution of H2O2
2. With the aid of a sterile wire loop, scoop some of the culture inoculum and emulsify it in
the hydrogen peroxide solution
3. The appearance of gas bubbles indicates a positive test; the absence of gas bubbles is a
negative test
Results
Based on your observations, determine and record your findings
Questions
1. Do anaerobic bacteria require catalase? Explain your answer.
36
2. What two groups of bacteria can be differentiated with the catalase test?
3. What are three products that result when flavoproteins reduce O2?
37
WEEK 9.EXPERIMENT NINE: CULTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS
Introduction
A microbiological medium (media, plural) is the food that we use for culturing bacteria,
molds, and other microorganisms. It can exist in three consistencies: liquid, solid, and
semisolid. Liquid media include nutrient broth, citrate broth, glucose broth, litmus milk,
etc. These media are used for the propagation of large numbers of organisms, fermentation
studies, and various other tests. Solid media are made by adding a solidifying agent, such as
agar, gelatin, or silica gel, to a liquid medium. A good solidifying agent is one that is not
utilized by microorganisms, does not inhibit bacterial growth, and does not liquefy at room
temperature. Agar and silica gel do not liquefy at room temperature and are utilized by very
few organisms. Gelatin, on the other hand, is hydrolyzed by quite a few organisms and
liquefies at room temperature. Nutrient agar, blood agar, and Sabouraud’s agar are
examples of solid media that are used for developing surface colony growth of bacteria and
molds. As we will see in the next exercise, the development of colonies on the surface of a
medium is essential when trying to isolate organisms from mixed cultures. Semisolid media
fall in between liquid and solid media. Although they are similar to solid media in that they
contain solidifying agents such as agar and gelatin, they are more jellylike due to lower
percentages of these solidifiers. These media are particularly useful in determining whether
certain bacteria are motile
Principle
Before one can construct a medium that will achieve a desired result in the growth of
organisms, one must understand their basic needs. Any medium that is to be suitable for a
specific group of organisms must take into account the following seven factors: water,
carbon, energy, nitrogen, minerals, growth factors, and pH. Media can be prepared to exact
38
specifications so that the exact composition is known. These media are generally made from
chemical compounds that are highly purified and precisely defined. Such media are readily
reproducible. They are known as synthetic media. Media such as nutrient broth that contain
ingredients of imprecise composition are called nonsynthetic media. Both the beef extract
and peptone in nutrient broth are inexact in composition.
Materials
‐24‐ to 48‐hour tryptic soy broth culture of Escherichia coli
‐autoclave
‐petri plates
‐culture tubes
‐test‐tube rack or wire basket
‐test‐tube caps
‐defined culture medium as in Table 1
‐complex culture medium as in Table 2
‐2‐liter Erlenmeyer flask
‐10‐ml pipettes
‐aluminium foil paper
‐balance
‐agar
‐water bath set at 48° to 50°C
‐boiling water bath
‐stirring glass rod
‐Bunsen burner or hot plate
39
Method
Table 9a: A Chemically Defined Medium
Preparing a Chemically Defined Medium
1. Prepare 500 ml of glucose‐mineral salts broth for the culture of E. coli using the recipe
outlined in table 9a. To a 1‐liter Erlenmeyer flask add 375 ml of distilled water. Weigh out
and add each ingredient to the water in the order listed and stir after each addition until the
ingredient is completely dissolved. Remember to halve the quantity of each ingredient. Add
the remaining 125 ml of water to wash the inside of the flask.
2. Adjust the pH to 7.2 to 7.4 by adding just enough HCl or NaOH dropwise .
3. Dispense 3 to 5 ml of the glucose‐mineral salts broth into each of 10 test tubes using a 10‐
ml pipette and then loosely cap the tubes. Other students can use the remaining 450 ml of
broth for their tubes. Place your tubes in a test‐tube rackor basket. Place the basket or rack
in the autoclave.
.
40
Preparing a Complex Medium
1. Prepare 500 ml of tryptic soy broth according to the recipe outlined in table 9b.
2. Add 375 ml of distilled water to a 1‐liter Erlenmeyer flask and add the ingredients
individually (use half the amounts given); mix after each addition.
3. Add the remaining 125 ml of water to rinse the sides of the flask.
4. Adjust the pH to 7.3 by adding just enough HCl or NaOH dropwise .
5. Dispense 3 to 5 ml of the broth into each of 10 tubes and loosely cap them. Place the
tubes in a test‐tube rack or basket, and place in the autoclave.
6. To the remaining broth (450 ml), add 7.2 g of agar to give an agar concentration of
approximately 1.6%. Heat the contents of the flask and gradually bring to a boil. Heat the
agar until it is completely melted. Cover with aluminum foil and place in the autoclave. After
autoclaving, cool the flask of sterile agar in a 48° to 50°C water bath. Line up the desired
number of sterile petri plates on the bench top. Remove the aluminum foil cap from the
flask and briefly flame the flask’s neck. Lift the top of each plate, pour about 15 ml of agar,
and quickly replace the top (the agar should be approximately 3 to 5 mm deep in the plate).
Pour all plates without stopping. Alternatively, after dissolving the agar medium, dispense
15‐ml portions into 18 x150 mm tubes; cap and autoclave the tubes. Cool them in a 48° to
50°C water bath and pour the agar
41
Procedure for Autoclaving
1. Your instructor will demonstrate the use of the autoclave.
2. Load the autoclave with the freshly prepared culture media.
3. Close and lock the autoclave door.
Preparing Agar Plates
1. As outlined previously and use some of the sterilized tryptic soy agar to prepare
agar plates.
2. When the plates are cool (agar solidified), invert them to prevent condensing moisture
from accumulating on the agar surfaces.
3. All plates and tubes should be incubated for at least 24 hours to ensure sterility before
you use them.
Results
Describe your experiences in the preparation of both Defined and Undefined media
Question
1.After at least 24 hours of incubation, do your prepared plates and broths appear to be
sterile? Explain your answer.
2.Why are culture media sterilized before use?
3. Describe three ways for sterilizing culture media and supplies.
4.Why are petri plates inverted after they cool?
5. Why is culture medium cooled to about 48° to 50°C before it is poured into petri plates?
42
WEEK 10.EXPERIMENT TEN: THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AGENTS ON
BACTERIA (I) DISINFECTANTS
Introduction
Although many microorganisms are beneficial and necessary for human well‐being,
microbial activities may have undesirable consequences, such as food spoilage and disease.
Therefore it is essential to be able to kill a wide variety of microorganisms or inhibit their
growth to minimize their destructive effects. The goal is twofold: (1) to destroy pathogens
and prevent their transmission, and (2) to reduce or eliminate microorganisms responsible
for the contamination of water, food, and other substances From the beginning of recorded
history, people have practiced disinfection and sterilization, even though the existence of
microorganisms was long unsuspected. The Egyptians used fire to sterilize infectious
material and disinfectants to embalm bodies, and the Greeks burned sulfur to fumigate
buildings. Mosaic law commanded the Hebrews to burn any clothing suspected of being
contaminated with the leprosy bacterium. Today the ability to destroy microorganisms is no
less important: it makes possible the aseptic techniques used in microbiological research,
the preservation of food, and the prevention of disease. The techniques are also essential to
personal safety in both the laboratory and hospital. There are several ways to control
microbial growth: osmotic activity, pH, temperature, O2, and radiation physical and
chemical agents in food preservation
Principle
Many factors influence the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants and antiseptics. The
microbicidal (to kill) or microbiostatic (to inhibit) efficiency of a chemical is often
determined with respect to its ability to deter microbial growth. The first part of this
exercise will examine this effect of several chemicals. More specifically, the microbicidal
43
efficiency of a chemical is often determined with respect to phenol and is known as the
phenol coefficient (PC). The phenol coefficient is calculated by dividing the highest dilution
of the antimicrobial of interest, which kills all organisms after incubation for 10 minutes but
not after 5 minutes, by the highest dilution of phenol that has the same characteristics.
Chemicals that have a phenol coefficient greater than 1 are more effective than phenol, and
those that have a phenol coefficient less than 1 are less effective than phenol. However, this
comparison should only be used for phenol‐like compounds that do not exert bacteriostatic
effects and are not neutralized by the subculture media used.
Materials
‐20‐hour tryptic soy broth cultures of
‐Staphylococcus aureus
‐Pseudomonas aeruginosa
‐2 sterile screw‐cap test tubes
‐1 sterile 5‐ml pipette with pipettor
‐12 sterile 1‐ml pipettes
‐48 tryptic soy broth tubes (10 ml per tube)
‐sterile water in Erlenmeyer flask
‐12 sterile tubes for making dilutions
‐bleach
‐commercial disinfectants such as 3% hydrogen peroxide, 70% isopropyl alcohol, and
bleach.Dilute with k normal tap water. The tap water need not be sterilized for
commercial disinfectants. Note if any of the disinfectants contain triclosan. Why is this
important?
‐phenol (carbolic acid)
44
‐wax pencil
‐35°C incubator
‐test‐tube rack
‐Bunsen burner
‐inoculating loop
Method
First Period
Growth Inhibition
1. Each group of students should select one of the disinfectants and, if necessary, dilute it
according to the specifications on the label (the use dilution).
2. Place 5 ml of disinfectant into two sterile tubes. Add 0.05 ml of P. aeruginosa to one tube
and
0.05 ml of S. aureus to the other.
3. Using the wax pencil, label the tubes with your name and those of the respective
bacteria. Mix
each of the tubes in order to obtain a homogeneous suspension.
4. At intervals of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 15 minutes, transfer 0.1 ml of the mixture containing the
bacteria and disinfectant to separate tubes of tryptic soy broth. Do this for both bacteria.
Also
inoculate two tubes of broth with 0.1 ml of both bacteria and mark these “controls.”
5. Incubate all tubes for 48 hours at 35°C.
Phenol Coefficient
45
1. Dilute phenol in sterile distilled water 1/80, 1/90, and 1/100; dilute the bleach 1/400,
1/450, and 1/500 so that the final volume in each tube is 5 ml.
2. Label 18 tryptic soy broth tubes with the name and dilution of disinfectant, the time
interval of the subculture (e.g., 5 minutes, phenol 1/80), and your name. Each dilution
should be tested after 5, 10, and 15 minute incubations.
3. Place in order in a test‐tube rack, one test tube of each of the different bleach and phenol
dilutions for each time interval.
4. Add 0.5 ml of S. aureus to each tube of disinfectant and note the time. Mix each of the
tubes in order to obtain a homogeneous suspension and allow the disinfectant to come
into contact with the bacteria.
5. Using aseptic technique, at intervals of 5, 10, and 15 minutes, transfer one loopful from
each disinfectant tube into the appropriately labeled tryptic soy broth tube.
6. Incubate all tubes for 48 hours at 35°C.
Second Period
Growth Inhibition
1. Shake and observe each of the tubes for growth. Record the presence of growth as + and
the absence of growth as –. Tabulate your results as well as the results of the class in Part 1
Phenol Coefficient
1. Shake and observe all tryptic soy broth cultures for the presence (+) or absence (–) of
growth.
2. Record your observations
3. From your data, calculate the phenol coefficient for bleach. For example, assume a 1/20
dilution of phenol (1 part phenol in a total of 20 parts liquid) kills S. aureus within 10
minutes. A 1/300 (1 to 300) dilution of bleach also kills S. aureus within 10 minutes.
PC = 300 or 1/20
46
20 1/300
PC = 15
Thus, bleach is 15 times more effective than phenol in killing S. aureus.
Results
Tabulate your results in a presentable manner and comment about them
Question
1. List some criteria of a good disinfectant.
2. What is the phenol coefficient technique?
3. What physical factors can influence the activity of a disinfectant?
4. Why do microorganisms differ in their response to disinfectants?
47
WEEK 11.EXPERIMENT ELEVEN: THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AGENTS
ON BACTERIA (II): ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS (KIRBY‐BAUER
METHOD)
Introduction
The term chemotherapy is most closely associated in the minds of most people with
the treatment of cancer. In fact the term was first used by Paul Ehrlich to describe any
use of a drug or other chemical substance for the treatment of disease; thus, it has
much wider terms of reference. In our present discussion, we shall confine ourselves to
chemotherapy as it relates to the treatment of infectious diseases. It was Ehrlich who,
100 years ago, observed how certain dyes would stain bacteria but not the surrounding
tissues, leading him to formulate the idea of selective toxicity, whereby a substance
would selectively target harmful microorganisms but leave human tissues undamaged. He
tested hundreds of synthetic compounds in the search for his ‘magic bullet’ before finding,
in 1910, an arsenic‐containing drug, Salvarsan, which was effective against Treponema
pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis.The other major breakthrough in the treatment of
infectious diseases was of course the discovery of naturally occurring antimicrobial agents,
or antibiotics. These are metabolites produced by certain microorganisms, which inhibit the
growth of certain other microorganisms. As we shall see, the definition has been extended
to include semisynthetic derivatives of these naturally occurring molecules.
Principle
One method that is used to determine antibiotic susceptibility is the sensitivity disk method
of Kirby‐Bauer (named after W. Kirby and A. W. Bauer in 1966). In this method, antibiotics
are impregnated onto paper disks and then placed on a seeded Mueller‐Hinton agar or
nutrient agar plate using a mechanical dispenser or sterile forceps. The plate is then
48
incubated for 16 to 18 hours,and the diameter of the zone of inhibition around the disk is
measured to the nearest millimeter. The inhibition zone diameter that is produced will
indicate the susceptibility or resistance of a bacterium to the antibiotic (figure 11). Antibiotic
susceptibility patterns are called antibiograms. Antibiograms can be determined by
comparing the zone diameter obtained with the known zone diameter size for susceptibility.
Figure 11 A Kirby-Bauer Plate. A Nutrient agar plate inoculated with S. aureus and various antibiotics. The
For example, a zone of a certain size indicates susceptibility, zones of a smaller diameter or
no zone at all show that the bacterium is resistant to the antibiotic. Frequently one will see
colonies within the zone of inhibition when the strain is antibiotic resistant. Many factors
are involved in sensitivity disk testing and must be carefully controlled. These include size of
the inoculum, distribution of the inoculum, incubation period, depth of the agar, diffusion
rate of the antibiotic, concentration of antibiotic in the disk, and growth rate of the
bacterium. If all of these factors are carefully controlled, this type of testing is highly
satisfactory for determining the degree of susceptibility of a bacterium to a certain
antibiotic. The Kirby‐Bauer method is not restricted to antibiotics. t may also be used to
49
measure the sensitivity of any microorganism to a variety of antimicrobial agents such as
sulfonamides and synthetic chemotherapeutics.
Figures 11 and 12 illustrate the Kirby‐Bauer method.
Materials
‐4 Mueller‐Hinton or Nutrient agar plates
‐antibiotic disks
‐4 sterile swabs
‐4‐ to 6‐hour tryptic soy broth cultures of Staphylococcus aureus ,Escherichia coli ,
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa , and Klebsiella pneumoniae
‐35°C incubator
‐Forceps
‐Metric rulers
‐Wax pencil
‐70% ethyl alcohol and beakers
‐Bunsen burner
Method
First Period
1. With a wax pencil, mark the lid of each Mueller‐ Hinton agar or Nutrient agar plate with
your name, date, and the name of the bacterium to be inoculated. Each group of students
will inoculate the surface of four Mueller‐Hinton plates with S. aureus, E. coli,P. aeruginosa,
and K. pneumoniae, respectively. Use a separate, sterile cotton swab for each bacterium.
50
The swab is immersed in the culture tube, and the excess culture is squeezed on the inner
side of the test tube. If there are sufficient supplies, you may wish to analyze the
antimicrobial sensitivity of microorganisms from your throat.
2. The swab is then taken and streaked on the surface of the Mueller‐Hinton plate three
times, rotating the plate 60° after each streaking. Finally, run the swab around the edge of
the agar. This procedure ensures that the whole surface has been seeded. Allow the culture
to dry on the plate for 5 to 10 minutes at room temperature with the top in place.
51
Figure 12 Antibiogram Testing for Sensitivity
3. Dispense the antibiotics onto the plate either with the multiple dispenser or individually
with the single unit dispenser. Make sure that contact is made between the antibiotic disk
and the culture by gently pressing the disk with alcohol‐flamed forceps. DO NOT PRESS THE
DISK INTO THE AGAR, AND DO NOT MOVE THE DISK ONCE IT IS PLACED ON THE AGAR.
4. Incubate the plates for 16 to 18 hours at 35°C. DO NOT INVERT THE PLATES.
52
Second Period
Result
Measure the zones of inhibition to the nearest mm for each of the antibiotics tested. Record
the results in the lab book. For each antibiotic, determine whether the bacteria are resistant
or susceptible.
Question
1. How can you determine whether the zone of inhibition is due to death or to inhibition of
a bacterium?
2. What factors must be carefully controlled in the Kirby–Bauer method?
3. In which growth phase is a bacterium most sensitive to an antibiotic?
4. What are some reasons bacteria are becoming more resistant to antibiotics?
53
WEEK 12.EXPERIMENT TWELVE: PREPARATION OF PURE CULTURE
FROM MIXED CULTURE (STREAK‐PLATE TECHNIQUE)
Introduction
In natural habitats microorganisms usually grow in complex, mixed populations containing
several species. This presents a problem for the microbiologist because a single type of
microorganism cannot be studied adequately in a mixed culture. One needs a pure culture,
a population of cells arising from a single cell, to characterize an individual species. Pure
cultures are so important that the development of pure culture techniques by the German
bacteriologist Robert Koch transformed microbiology. Within about 20 years after the
development of pure culture techniques most pathogens responsible for the major human
bacterial diseases had been isolated
Principles
If a mixture of cells is spread out on an agar surface so that every cell grows into a
completely separate colony, a macroscopically visible growth or cluster of microorganisms
on a solid medium, each colony represents a pure culture. Isolated, pure colonies can be
obtained by the streak‐plate technique. In this technique, the bacterial mixture is
transferred to the edge of an agar plate with an inoculating loop and then streaked out over
the surface in one of several patterns. At some point on the streaks, individual cells will be
removed from the loop as it glides along the agar surface and will give rise to separate
colonies
54
Materials
(Streak‐Plate Technique 1)
‐24‐ to 48‐hour tryptic soy broth culture mixture containing Escherichia coli ,
Staphylococcus aureus, and
Bacillus subtilis
‐3 tryptic soy agar pours
‐boiling water bath
‐48° to 50°C water bath
‐Bunsen burner
‐petri plates
‐inoculating loop
‐wax pencil
Method
1. Melt three sterile, capped tubes of tryptic soy agar by heating them in a boiling water
bath until melted
2. Cool the tubes in a 48° to 50°C water bath for 10–15 minutes.
3. Remove the cap, flame the lip of the tube, and pour the agar into a petri plate. Be careful
to keep the lid of the plate covering the bottom and the mouth of the tube while pouring
the agar. Do the same for the other two plates.
4. After pouring the plates, allow them to cool for a few minutes on the bench top. With a
wax pencil, mark on the bottom of the plate the name of the bacterium to be inoculated,
your name, and date.Also draw four quadrants on the bottom of the plate, as illustrated in
figure 1, to aid you in keeping track of your streaks
5. Aseptically remove a loopful of the bacterial mixture
55
6. Streak out the loopful of bacteria on the agar plate that you have prepared as follows:
a.( CHECK FIGURE 12) Carefully lift the top of the petri plate just enough to insert
your inoculating loop easily. The top should cover the agar surface as completely as
possible at all times in order to avoid contamination. Insert the inoculating loopful of
bacteria and spread it over a small area (area 1) at one edge of the plate in order to
make effective use of the agar surface. This is accomplished by letting the loop rest
gently on the surface of the agar and then moving it across the surface each time
without digging into the agar.
b. Remove the inoculating loop and kill any remaining bacteria by flaming them.
Then insert the loop under the lid and cool it at the edge of the agar near area 1.
c. Rotate the plate while carefully keeping in mind where the initial streaks ended
(use the marked quadrants as a guide) and cross over the streaks in area 1. Streak
out any bacteria picked up as shown in area 2.
d. Remove the loop, flame it, cool in the agar as before, and repeat the streaking
process ( area 3).
e. If necessary, you can repeat this sequence once more to make a fourth set of
streaks (area 4). Use fewer cross‐streaks here than in the previous quadrant.
f. Repeat the above procedure (a–e) for the other two bacteria on two new petri
plates.
56
Figure 12 Streaking of Plate. The arrows indicate motion of the loop. In b, flame and cool the loop between 1
and 2, 2 and 3, and 3 and the end of the streak. The aim is to thin the numbers of bacteria growing in each
successive area of the plate as it is rotated and streaked so that well isolated colonies will appear in quadrant 3.
7. Incubate the plates at 30° to 37°C for 24 to 48 hours in an inverted position.
Result
Afterwards, examine each of the agar plates to determine the distribution and amount of
growth in the three or four streaked areas and record your results
Question
1.Which area of a streak plate will contain the greatest amount of growth? The least
amount of growth? Explain your answers.
2. How can a streaked plate become contaminated?
57
WEEK 13. EXPERIMENT THIRTEEN: PREPARATION OF PURE
CULTURE FROM MIXED CULTURE (POUR PLATE TECHNIQUE)
Principles
The pour‐plate technique also will yield isolated colonies and has been extensively used
with bacteria and fungi. The original sample is diluted several times to reduce the microbial
population sufficiently to obtain separate colonies upon plating (figure 1). The small
volumes of several diluted samples are added to sterile petri plates and mixed with liquid
tryptic soy agar that has been cooled to about 48° to 50°C. Most bacteria and fungi will not
be killed by the brief exposure to the warm agar. After the agar has hardened, each cell is
fixed in place and will form an individual colony if the sample is dilute enough. Assuming no
chaining or cell clusters, the total number of colonies are equivalent to the number of viable
microorganisms in the diluted sample. To prepare pure cultures, colonies growing on the
surface or subsurface can be inoculated into fresh medium.
Materials
‐24‐ to 48‐hour mixed tryptic soy broth culture mixture containing Escherichia coli ,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis
‐3 tryptic soy agar pour tubes
‐3 9‐ml sterile 0.9% NaCl (saline) blanks
‐48° to 50°C water bath
‐boiling water bath
‐wax pencil
‐3 petri plates
‐inoculating loop
‐Bunsen burner
58
‐3 sterile 1‐ml pipettes with pipettor
Method
1. With a wax pencil, label three sterile saline blanks 1 to 3.
2. Melt the tryptic soy agar deeps in a boiling water bath and cool in a 48° to 50°C bath for
at least 10 to 15 minutes
3. With a wax pencil, label the bottoms of three Petri plates 1 to 3, and add your name and
date.
4. Inoculate saline tube 1 with 1 ml of the MIXED bacterial culture using aseptic technique
and MIX thoroughly. This represents a 10–1 dilution.
5. Using aseptic technique, immediately inoculate tube 2 with 1 ml from tube 1; a 10–2
dilution.
6. Using aseptic technique, mix the contents of tube 2 and use it to inoculate tube 3 with 1
ml; a 10–3 dilution.
7. After tube 3 has been inoculated, mix its contents, remove the cap, flame the top, and
aseptically transfer 1 ml into petri plate 3. Then inoculate plates 1 and 2 in the same way,
using 1 ml from tubes 1 and 2, respectively.
8. Add the contents of the melted tryptic soy agar pours to the petri plates. Gently mix each
agar plate with a circular motion while keeping the plate flat on the bench top. Do not allow
any agar splash over the side of the plate! Set the plate aside to cool and harden.
9. Incubate the plates at 30° to 37°C for 24 to 48 hours in an inverted position.
59
Figure 13 The Pour-Plate Technique. The original inoculum is diluted several times to thin out or dilute the
population sufficiently. 1 ml of each dilution is then dispensed into a sterilea petri plate. Plate count Agar pours
are then added to each plate. Isolated cells grow into colonies and can be used to establish pure cultures. .
Result
Afterwards, examine each of the pour plates on the distribution and amount of growth and
record your results. Comment on your results.
60
Question
1. Which area of a streak plate will contain the greatest amount of growth? The least
amount of growth? Explain your answers.
2. How can a streak plate become contaminated?
61
WEEK 14.EXPERIMENT FOURTEEN :CULTIVATION OF ANAEROBIC
BACTERIA
Introduction
One of the environmental factors to which bacteria and other microorganisms are quite
sensitive is the presence of O2. For example, some microorganisms will grow only in the
presence of O2 and are called obligate aerobes. Facultative anaerobes will grow either
aerobically or in the absence of O2, but better in its presence. Strict obligate anaerobes will
grow only in the absence of O2 and are actually harmed by its presence. Aerotolerant
anaerobes are microorganisms that cannot use O2 but are not harmed by it either. Finally,
microorganisms that require a small amount of O2 for normal growth but are inhibited by
O2 at normal atmospheric tension are called microaerophiles. These variations in O2
requirements can be easily seen by inoculating a tube of molten agar with the bacterium in
question, mixing the agar thoroughly without aerating it, and allowing it to solidify. The
bacteria will grow in the part of the agar deep culture that contains the proper O2
concentration The damaging effects of O2 on anaerobic bacteria create difficult culturing
problems. Ideally, one should not only provide an O2‐free environment, but one that has an
adequate amount of moisture for bacterial growth. It is also necessary to have CO2 present
for the growth of many anaerobic bacteria. There are a number of ways in which anaerobic
bacteria may be cultured. For those bacteria that are not really fastidious anaerobes, growth
can occur on nutrient agar slants if anaerobic conditions are created. This setup is called a
Wright’s tube (named after James H. Wright, American physician, 1901–1978) (figure 14.1).
The anaerobic condition is created using pyrogallol and NaOH. In the presence of NaOH,
pyrogallol is oxidized and removes O2 very effectively in the process. After the anaerobic
bacterium has been streaked out on the surface of the agar slant, the cotton plug is
trimmed and then pushed into the culture tube until it rests just above the top of the slant.
62
The space between the top of the cotton plug and the open end of the culture tube is then
filled with pyrogallol crystals, and 1 ml of 10% NaOH is added. The tube is closed with a
rubber stopper and is immediately inverted. It is incubated upside down. Anaerobic bacteria
may also be grown in special anaerobic jar system called GasPak Anaerobic System. In the
GasPak System (figure 14.2), hydrogen and CO2 are generated by a GasPak envelope after
the addition of water. A palladium catalyst (pellets) in the chamber lid catalyzes the
formation of water from hydrogen and O2, thereby removing O2 from the sealed chamber.
Figure 14.1 Preparation of an Anaerobic Wright’s Tube. Pyrogallol is a reducing agent that is activated by
NaOH to remove oxygen from the tube and create anaerobic conditions.
Principles
One of the most convenient approaches to create anaerobiosis is is to employ a specially
designed commercial anaerobic broth. Two of the most useful are cooked meat medium
and thioglycollate broth. Thioglycollate medium can be purchased with methylene blue or
resazurin as an oxidationreduction indicator. When this medium begins to turn bluish or
reddish, it is becoming too aerobic for the culture of anaerobic bacteria.
Materials
‐24‐ to 48‐hour broth cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and ‐Clostridium
sporogenes
‐boiling water bath
‐48° to 50°C water bath
‐4 thioglycollate broth tubes
‐inoculating loop
‐2 tryptic soy agar plates
‐sterilized Brewer’s anaerobic covers
64
‐GasPak Anaerobic System
‐4 tryptic soy agar slants
‐scissors
‐cotton plugs
‐pyrogallol crystals (poisonous)
‐10% NaOH (caustic)
‐test tubes
‐rubber stoppers
‐test‐tube rack
‐wax pencil
‐disposable gloves
‐spatula for handling pyrogallol crystals and soil
‐1‐ml pipette with pipettor
‐garden soil
Method
The Relationship of O2 to Bacterial Growth
1. Melt three tryptic agar deeps and heat them in a boiling water bath for a few minutes in
order to drive off any O2.
2. Cool the deeps in a water bath 48° to 50°C.
3. With a wax pencil, label each tube with the name of the bacterium to be inoculated, your
name, and date.
4. Using aseptic technique inoculate each cooled deep with 1 or 2 loopsful of one of each of
the three different bacteria (P. aeruginosa, C. sporogenes, and E. coli).
65
5. Mix the bacteria throughout the agar without aerating it by rolling each tube between the
palms of your hands.
6. Allow the agar to harden and incubate the three tubes for 24 to 48 hours at 35°C.
Broth Culture of Anaerobic Bacteria
1. With a wax pencil, label three freshly steamed thioglycollate broth tubes with P.
aeruginosa, C. sporogenes, and E. coli, as well as your name and date.
2. Using aseptic procedures, inoculate the three broth tubes. Do not shake these tubes to
avoid oxidizing the medium! Methylene blue or resazurin is present in the medium as an
oxidation‐re duction indicator. If more than 1/3 the broth is bluish or reddish in color, the
tube should be reheated in a water bath in order todrive off the O2 before use.
3. Incubate the tubes at 35°C for 24 to 48 hours..
Slant Culture of Anaerobic Bacteria in a Wright’s Tube
1. With a wax pencil, label four tryptic soy agar slants—two with P. aeruginosa and two with
C. sporogenes, and your name and date.
2. Using aseptic technique, inoculate each slant with the respective bacterium.
3. Incubate two slants (one of each bacterium) aerobically at 35°C for 24 to 48 hours.
4. With the other two slants, cut off the cotton plug with a pair of scissors (figure 1), and
with the m butt of the inoculating loop, push it into the tube until it almost touches the top
of the slant. While wearing gloves, fill the space above the cotton with pyrogallol crystals
and add 1 ml of 10% NaOH. Quickly stopper the tube with a rubber stopper and invert the
tube.
5. Place in a test‐tube rack and incubate inverted at 35°C for 24 to 48 hours.
Isolation of Anaerobes from the Soil
1. Place a spatula of soil in a thioglycollate broth tube.
66
2. Incubate at either 30° or 37°C for one day
3. Observe culture tubes for growth in the form of turbidity and the production of
fermentation gases.
Result
Record your growth results
Question
1. Explain how an anaerobic atmosphere can be created in a jar.
2. Explain what happens in a Wright’s tube.
3. Differentiate between the following:
a. an obligate anaerobe
b. an obligate aerobe
c. a facultative anaerobe
d. an aerotolerant anaerobe
e. a microaerophile
67
WEEK 15. EXPERIMENT FIFTEEN: CULTIVATION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF FUNGI
Introduction
The fungi comprise a large group of eukaryotic nonphotosynthetic organisms that include
such diverse forms as slime molds, mushrooms, puffballs, yeasts, and molds. Fungi may be
saprophytic or parasitic and unicellular or filamentous. Fungi are of great importance
economically and socially, and may have beneficial or detrimental effects. Many fungi,
particularly yeasts, are involved in industrial fermentation processes.Yeasts are unicellular,
do not have flagella and reproduce asexually by budding or transverse fission, or sexually by
spore formation. Multicellular forms such as moulds have long, branched, threadlike
filaments called hyphae, which aggregate together to form a tangled mycelium In some
fungi the hyphae have crosswalls or septa (sing: septum) separating cells, which may
nevertheless be joined by one or more pores, which permit cytoplasmic streaming, a form
of internal transport. Such hyphae are said to be septate; others have no crosswalls and are
therefore coenocytic. Most molds and yeasts occupy slightly acidic environments in the pH
range of 4 to 6
Principle
Yeasts are unicellular fungi that are spherical, ellipsoidal,or oval in shape, and usually (with
the exception of the dimorphic yeasts such as Candida) do not form hyphae (fungal
filaments). They are about 5 to 10 times larger than bacteria. Yeasts commonly reproduce
asexually by budding, a process in which a new cell (called a daughter cell) is formed by the
parent cell from a protuberance called a bud. When yeasts reproduce sexually, they
produce several types of sexual spores (e.g., ascospores). The type of spore produced is
68
very useful in classifying yeasts. Metabolic activities are also used to identify and classify
yeasts. For example, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae will ferment glucose but not
sucrose. In the laboratory, Sabouraud dextrose agar is commonly used to isolate yeasts. It is
a selective medium containing glucose and peptone, and has a low pH, which inhibits the
growth of most other microorganisms.
Molds are multicellular, filamentous fungi. The techniques of culturing and observing fungi
differ from the methods used to study bacteria. Fungi grow at comparatively slow rates,
often requiring several days to weeks to form macroscopically visible colonies. Usually, the
growth will spread over the entire culture plate. Molds produce spores on brightly colored
aerial hyphae. Most molds grow best at room temperature (25°C) rather than at 35°C. The
basic medium for the culture of many molds is Sabouraud dextrose agar. The high sugar
concentration and low pH (5.6) of this medium make it unsuitable for the growth of most
bacteria, thus guarding against contamination. Mold colonies may be examined directly in
culture with a dissecting microscope. However, it is better to tease away a portion of the
growth and place it on a slide with a drop of water or stain (a wet mount). An alternative
method is a slide culture.
Materials:
‐7‐ to 10‐day Sabouraud dextrose plate culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae,Rhodotorula
species , Penicillium notatum and Aspergillus niger
‐ commercial baker’s yeast
‐2 Durham tubes
‐iodine solution (3 ml water to 1 ml Gram’s iodine)
‐methylene blue solution
‐Bunsen burner
69
‐inoculating loop
‐clean glass slides
‐coverslips
‐wax pencil
‐2 Sabouraud dextrose agar plates
‐1 Sabouraud dextrose agar deep
‐2 potato dextrose agar deeps
‐35°C incubator
‐1 glucose fermentation tube with Durham tube (0.5%peptone + 1% yeast extract + 1%
glucose)
‐1 sucrose fermentation tube with Durham tube (0.5%peptone + 1% yeast extract + 1%
sucrose)
‐sterile cotton swabs
‐48° to 50°C water bath
‐3 sterile petri plates
‐22 40‐mm coverslips
Method
YEAST (FIRST PERIOD)
1. With a wax pencil, draw two circles on a clean glass slide. Place several drops of the
water‐iodine solution into one circle and several drops of the methylene blue solution into
the other circle.
2. Suspend a loopful of yeast culture into each circle. Place a coverslip over each.
70
3. Examine both yeast cell preparations under low and high power. Note the shape and
relative size and the presence or absence of budding . Look for the small nucleus and larger
vacuole.
4. Suspend a pinch of commercial baker’s yeast in 2 to 3 ml of warm water. With the
inoculating loop, streak onto d of a Sabouraud dextrose agar plate. Using the inoculating
loop, remove some S.cerevisiae from the stock plate. Streak the other half of the plate.
Label the plate with your name, date, and yeast. Incubate the plate at 35°C until growth is
seen.
6. Inoculate about 1 ml of the commercial baker’s yeast suspension into a glucose
fermentation tube and a sucrose fermentation tube. Incubate these tubes at 35°C and
observe daily until growth is seen. Look for fermentation (gas bubbles in the Durham tubes)
and growth as indicated by turbidity.
7. Try to isolate S. albicans by swabbing the surface of your tongue. Streak a Sabouraud
dextrose agar plate. Incubate the plate at 35°C until growth has occurred.
Second Period
1. Smell the Sabouraud dextrose agar plate. Observe the appearance of the yeast colonies.
Record your results
2. Examine the glucose and sucrose fermentation tubes. Record your results
3. Examine the Sabouraud dextrose agar plate prepared by swabbing your tongue. Smell the
plate. Stain several of the colonies with the methylene blue as in step 1 of the first period
procedure. Record your results .
71
MOLD
Preparation and Observation of Colonies
1. Melt one tube of Sabouraud dextrose agar and one of potato dextrose agar.
2. Cool to 48° to 50°C in a water bath.
3. Pour into two petri plates respectively and allow to harden.
4. Using the wax pencil, label the Sabouraud dextrose agar plate Aspergillus and the potato
dextrose agar plate Penicillium. Add your name and date to each plate.
5. Using aseptic technique, inoculate the plates as labeled with a single loopful of the mold
suspension. Place the loopful of mold inoculum in the center of the plate. Do not spread the
inoculum. Handle plates carefully so that they are not jostled.
6. Do not invert the petri plates. Incubate them at room temperature for 2 to 7 days.
Preparation of Slides for Microscopic Examination of Molds
1. Obtain two clean glass slides and coverslips.
2. Flame the surface of the slides and coverslips in order to sterilize them. Use tweezers to
hold the slides and coverslips.
3. Use the wooden sticks (or a heated syringe) to transfer sufficient melted paraffin or
silicone caulk to each slide to support the coverslip about 1 mm over the surface of the
slide. Let the paraffin or silicone harden. Each slide should appear as in figure 15a.
4. Heat the coverslips sufficiently so that they will form a seal when you set them over the
hardened paraffin or silicone. Each slide should look like figure 15b.
5. Melt and cool to 48° to 50°C a tube of Sabouraud dextrose agar (for Aspergillus) and a
tube of potato dextrose agar (for Penicillium). Label the tubes accordingly.
6. Using a sterile pipette, transfer and mix 0.5 ml of the proper mold suspension with the
proper agar tube.
72
7. For each mold, use a sterile Pasteur pipette and quickly let sufficient inoculated agar run
under the coverslip of the prepared slide to half fill the chamber. Each slide should now
appear as shown in figure15c. This procedure must be completed before the agar hardens.
8. Moisten two circles of paper towel that just fit the bottom of the petri plates, and place
one in each plate. Each slide should then be placed in its own petri plate. Label the plates
accordingly. The slide should be supported above the moist paper by two wooden sticks or a
piece of a V‐shaped glass rod (figure 15d). Place the lid on the petri plate and incubate at
room temperature for 2 to 4 days.
9. After incubation, observe the slides with a microscope, using the low‐power objective.
Add a few drops of methylene blue in methanol to stain the various structures. (The alcohol
is necessary to soften the cell wall and allow the stain to enter) .
Figure 15 Mold Culture Slide
73
Results
1.Draw the representative yeast cells
2. After the colonies have developed properly (figure 15d), sketch and describe the
macroscopic appearance (e.g., color, texture) of each . Examine the hyphae and conidia
under the microscopes and draw the conidia.
Questions
1.Can bacteriological media be used for the cultivation of molds? Explain your answer.
2.Are Rhizopus hyphae coenocytic or septate?
3.How would you describe the fruiting bodies of Aspergillus and Penicillium?
4.Why are stains not required for yeast identification?
5.Why is Sabouraud dextrose agar used to cultivate yeasts?
6.Why are yeast colonies larger than bacterial colonies?
74