MODULE-1
INTRODUCTION: Definition, objectives of Traffic Engineering and scope of Traffic
Engineering. Traffic Characteristics: Road user characteristics, vehicular characteristics – static
and dynamic characteristics, Reaction time of driver and PIEV theory, reaction time for
practical application
Definition
Traffic Engineering is that phase of engineering which
deals with planning, geometric design of roads, streets and
highways, abutting land along with traffic operation.
Objectives of Traffic Engineering
The main objectives of traffic engineering are to make the
traffic operation
Safe
Economic
Convenient
Comfortable
Efficient
Environmentally Sustainable
Scope of Traffic Engineering
Steep growth in traffic volume has occurred due to various
reasons like increased income, advanced technology ect,
to accommodate this high volume of traffic the growth in
road infrastructure is insufficient. Hence there is a need for
improving the efficiency of the available infrastructure by
adopting various engineering solutions. To provide
appropriate solutions to the problems we need to
understand the existing traffic scenario, for which various
traffic studies have to be carried out.
The study of traffic engineering may be divided into six
major sections
Traffic characteristics
Traffic study and analysis
Traffic operation, control and regulation
Planning and analysis
Geometric design
Administration and management
Traffic characteristics
Road user characteristics
Physical characteristics
Vision
Hearing
Strength
Reaction to traffic stream situation
Mental characteristics
Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience, literacy,
knowledge of vehicle characteristics
Psychological factor
Fear, anger, anxiety, superstition, attentiveness,
attitude
Environmental characteristics
Traffic stream condition
Facilities to the traffic
Vehicular characteristics
Vehicular characteristics can be broadly classified as
Static characteristics
Dynamic characteristics
Static Characteristics
Maximum Dimensions of Vehicle
1. Width of All vehicles 2.5m Maximum
vehicle
2. Height of Single deck for normal application 3.8m Maximum
vehicle Double deck for normal application 4.75m Maximum
3. Length of Single unit truck with 2 or more axle 11.0 m
vehicle Single unit bus with 2 or more axle 12.0 m
Semi trailor tractor combination 16.0 m
Tractor trailer combination 18.0 m
Weight of loaded vehicle
Sl Vehicle type Maximum Front axle Rear axle
No gross weight weight in weight in
in tonnes tonnes tonnes
1. Both axles single tyre 12.0 6.0 6.0
2. Front axle-Single tyre, Rear 16.0 6.0 10.0
axle-double tyre
3. Front axle-Single tyre, Rear 24.0 6.0 18.0
axle-Dual axle with double tyre
Note: Maximum weight of vehicle (Tractor trailer
combination is 52.2 Ton
Axle Configurations
2 Axle Truck –16t
3 Axle Truck –24t
4 AxleSemiArticulated–
34t4AxleArticulated–34t
5 Axle Truck –40t
LCV
Axle Configurations
Axle Configurations
Axle Configurations
Axle Configurations
Dynamic Characteristics
Power of vehicle
Governs the permissible and limiting values of
gradient
Governs the total hauling capacity of vehicle
Power required to overcome the total resistance
to traction, consisting of
Inertia resistance
Rolling resistance
Grade resistance
Air resistance
Speed of Vehicle:
Speed of vehicle affects
Sight distance
Super elevation
Transition curve
Width of pavement and shoulders
Design gradient
Capacity of traffic lane
Design and control measures at intersections
Braking characteristics
Depends on type of braking system and its
efficiency
Depends on type of pavement surface
Depends on condition of pavement surface
Braking test
Braking test is usually conducted to determine the skid
resistance of the pavement under prevailing condition
and also under desired running speed.
Parameters of braking test
i. Braking distance – L meters
ii. Initial speed of vehicle – U m/sec
iii. Brake application duration – t sec
Note: SSD = lag distance + braking distance
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓
𝑣2
Therefore braking distance =
2𝑔𝑓
Any two parameters are required to calculate skid resistance
Problem-1
Vehicle traveling speed = 30 kmph
Visible skid mark length = 5.8 m
Determine skid resistance f = ?
Solution
30 2
𝑣2 3.6
𝐿= 5.8 = Therefore f=0.61
2𝑔𝑓 2∗9.8∗𝑓
Problem-2
Vehicle traveling speed = 40 kmph
After applying brake, vehicle stopped within 1.8 sec
Determine skid resistance f = ?
Solution
𝑢
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 but v = 0 Therefore 𝑎= (retardation)
𝑡
40/3.6
𝑎= = 6.17 m/sec2
1.8
𝑤𝑎 𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Therefore 𝑤𝑓 = Therefore 𝑓=
𝑔 𝑔
6.17
𝑓= = 0.61
9.8
Problem-3
Vehicle was stopped in 1.4 sec by fully jamming the brakes, skid
marks measured 7.0 m. Determine skid resistance f.
Solution
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 but𝑣 = 0 Therefore 𝑢 = −𝑎𝑡 ------eqn-1
𝑢2 𝑎2 𝑡 2
𝑣 2 − 𝑢 2 = 2𝑎𝑠 Therefore 𝑠=− =
2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑎𝑡2 2𝑠 𝑎
Therefore 𝑠 = Therefore 𝑎 = but 𝑓 =
2 𝑡2 𝑔
Therefore
𝐚 𝟐𝐬 𝟐∗𝟕
𝐟= = 𝟐= = 𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟗
𝐠 𝐠𝐭 𝟗. 𝟖 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐
Problem-4
Vehicle traveling at 40 kmph
Stopped by applying brakes – skid marks = 12.2 m
Skid resistance of pavement = 0.7
Determine the brake efficiency
Solution
𝐮𝟐
𝐋=
𝟐𝐠𝐟
𝟐
𝟒𝟎
𝐮𝟐 𝟑.𝟔
𝐟= = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟔
𝟐𝐠𝐋 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐
𝟎.𝟓𝟏𝟔
Therefore % Braking efficiency = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟕%
𝟎.𝟕
Off Tracking
When a four or six wheeled vehicle, such as car, bus or
truck negotiates a horizontal curve at relatively slow
speed, the rear wheel do not trace the same path as the
corresponding front wheel. The difference in distance
between the curved wheel paths “Wm” shown in figure
below of a particular set of front and rear wheel is called
off-tracking
Off-tracking depends on two factors
i. The length of vehicle wheel base (6.0m to 7.0m)
ii. The mean radius of the horizontal curve
𝐥𝟐
Mechanical Off Tracking = in meters
𝟐𝐑
l = wheel base length in meters
R = Radius of curve in meters
Power performance of vehicle
This is required to understand the vehicle running cost
Resistance to motion of vehicle
The power developed by the vehicle (Pp) should be
sufficient to overcome the following resistances
a) Rolling resistance (Pf)
b) Air resistance (Pa)
c) Grade resistance (Pi)
d) Inertia resistance (Pj) during acceleration and
deceleration
e) Transmission losses
a) Rolling resistance (Pf)
The rolling resistance varies with the type of surface
Values of coefficient of rolling resistance
i. Cement concrete and asphalt surfacing – 0.01 to
0.02
ii. Road with smooth chipping or gravel surface, treated
with bituminous binder – 0.02 to 0.025
iii. Chipping or gravel not treated with binder – 0.03 to
0.06
iv. Cobble stone pavement – 0.04 to 0.05
v. Earth roads, smooth dry compact – 0.03 to 0.06
vi. Ploughed field, swampy ground, loose sand – 0.15 to
0.3
The Rolling resistance is given by
Pf = m f g
“Pf“ is Rolling resistance in N
“m” is mass of vehicle in kg
“f” is coefficient of rolling resistance
Values of Rolling resistance from Indian Standards
Asphalt or cement concrete – 0.01
Premixed carpet in good condition – 0.016
Premixed carpet in bad condition – 0.022
WBM in good condition – 0.025
WBM in bad condition – 0.037
Gravel surface – 0.046
Earth surface – 0.055
The rolling resistance depends on speed also
Upto 50 kmph it is constant
For higher speeds
fv = fo(1 + 0.01 (v – 50))
fv = Coefficient of rolling resistance at “v” kmph
v = Speed in kmph
fo = Coefficient of rolling resistance from table
b) Air resistance (Pa)
Air has density – exerts pressure against the front of
vehicle
Friction of air against the side of vehicle body
The eddying of the air behind the vehicle causes power
loss
The flow of air through the vehicle for ventilating and
cooling causes resistance
Air resistance Pa = CaAv2
Where
Pa = Air resistance
Ca = Coefficient of air resistance based on frontal
area of vehicle
v = Speed of vehicle in mt/sec
Values of frontal area and coefficient of air resistance
Type of vehicle Frontal area Mass Coefficient of
in sqm in kg air resistance
Fiat car 1.63 1065 0.42
Ambassador car 2.15 1365 0.39
Jeep 2.38 1200 0.37
Tata truck 5.37 6120 0.48
Ashok Leyland 5.37 8125 0.48
truck
Maruthi car 1.54 880 0.40
c) Grade resistance (Pi)
Grade Resistance +/- Pi = mig/100
+/- for upgrade/downgrade
m = mass of vehicle in kg
i = % grade
g = acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
d) Inertia resistance during acceleration and deceleration
(Pj)
Inertia resistance
+/- Pj = ma
+/- = for acceleration/deceleration
Pj= Force to accelerate in N
m = mass of vehicle in kg
a = average acceleration in m/sec2
e) Transmission Losses
Losses occurring in the mechanical system of vehicle
Considered to be 10% to 15% for most vehicles
Considered to be 25% for trucks and heavy commercial
vehicles
Power requirement of vehicle (PP)
Rear axle torque
Ta = k Tc Gt Ga
Ta = Rear axle torque
k = Efficiency of the transmission system (0.85 to
0.9)
Tc = Engine torque at the flywheel
Gt = Transmission gear ratio
Ga = Rear axle gear ratio (differential gear ratio)
PP = Rear axle torque/Radius of rolling drive tyre
PP = (k Tc Gt Ga)/rw
rw = λ r o
λ = Tyre deformation factor
0.945 to 0.95 for high pressure tyres (Trucks and
Buss)
0.93 to 0.935 for low pressure tyres (Cars)
Power output of vehicle (P)
Power output
P = PP v where v in mt/sec
P = (PP V)/3.6 where V in kmph
Also
v = (2πrw n)/(60Gt Ga) where n is engine
speed in RPM
V = (2πrw n) * 3.6/(60Gt Ga) where V in kmph
V = (0.377 rw n)/(Gt Ga)
Therefore power output P
P = (PP 0.377 rw n)/(Gt Ga) in watts
If k is transmission efficiency then
P = (PP 0.377 rw n)/(Gt Ga k) in watts
Engine power (HP) = Engine power in watts / 735
HP
Problem-1
A passenger car weighing 2 tonnes is required to
accelerate at a rate of 3m/sec2 in the first gear from a
speed of 10kmph to 20kmph. The gradient is +1% and
the road has a black topped surface. The frontal
projection area of car is 2.15m2. The car tyres have a
radius of 0.33m. The rear axle gear ratio is 3.82:1 and
the first gear ratio is 2.78:1. Calculate the engine
horsepower needed and the speed of the engine. Make
suitable assumptions.
Solution
PP = Pf±Pa±Pi±Pj
Pf = mgf consider f = 0.02 (for black top surface)
Therefore Pf = 2000 * 9.81 * 0.02 = 392.4 N --------(1)
Pa = CaA v2 for A = 2.15, Ca= 0.39 (from table)
Speed is 10kmph to 20kmph, hence average speed =
15kmph
Therefore Pa = 0.39 * 2.15 * (15/3.6)2 = 14.5 N -----(2)
Pi = m g i +1% grade = upgrade 1/100
Therefore Pi = 2000 * 9.81 * 1/100 = 196.2 N ------(3)
Pj = m a a = 3m/sec2
Therefore Pj = 2000 * 3 = 6000N ----------------------(4)
Therefore Pp = 392.4 + 14.5 + 196.2 + 6000 =
6603.1N
Power output required for initial speed of 10kmph
P = (Pp V)/3.6 = (6603.1 * 10)/3.6 = 18341.9 watts
Therefore P = 18341.9/735 = 24.95 HP
Assume transmission efficiency of 0.9, then the engine
horse power
P = 24.95/0.9 = 27.72 HP (Horse power of engine)
Engine RPM
V = (0.377rw n)/ (Gt Ga)
rw= λ r0 (assume λ = 0.935)
Therefore rw= 0.935 * 0.33 = 0.308 m
Therefore n = (Gt GaV)/(0.377 rw) V = 10kmph
n = (2.78 * 3.82 * 10)/0.377 * 0.308)
n = 915 RPM (Speed of Engine)
PIEV Theory
Reaction Time
1) Perception
2) Intellection
3) Emotion
4) Violation
1) Perception time: is time required for the sensations
received by the eyes or ears of the driver to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous
system & spinal cord or it is the time required to
perceive an object or situation.
2) Intellection time : is the time require for the driver
to understand the situation it is also the time
required for comparing the different thoughts.
3) Emotion time: is the time elapsed during emotional
sensational and other mental disturbance such as
fear, anger or any other emotional feeling
superstition etc
4) Volition time: is the time taken by the driver for
the final action such as brake application.
