Vehicle

Performance
and Human
Factors
CE 454
Chapter 2 Review
 Components of
Highway Transport
• Driver
• Pedestrian
• Vehicle
• Road
• Environment (Weather, Time of Day (angle
of sun), …)
Driver Characteristics
• The sense most important Visual Reception has five principal
characteristics important in driving:
in driving is sight, though
• Visual Acuity - the ability to see
others may play in to a fine details of an object: Very Clear
lesser extent: 3-5 ˚ conical angle, somewhat clear
– the feel of the road, within 10 - 12˚ conical angle
• Peripheral Vision - the ability to
– the sound of the siren, see objects beyond the cone of
– the smell of burning oil. clearest vision, up to 160˚
• Sight is affected by • Color Vision - the ability to
differentiate colors
– brightness,
• Glare Vision and Recovery -
– background brightness, seeing when subject to a bright light,
contrast, recovery 3 sec from dark to light
– time, and 6 sec from light to dark
– speed of the vehicle • Depth Perception - ability to
differentiate objects by distance,
difficult when moving at high speed
 Perception-Reaction
Process
• Perception - driver sees object
• Identification - driver identifies object
(understands stimulus)
• Emotion - driver selects action
• Reaction (Volition) - driver executes action
 Example: Perception-
Reaction Time
• A driver with a perception reaction time of 3
seconds is driving 100 km/hr when she sees
a tree blocking the road and must stop.
Determine the distance (in meters) the
vehicle moves before the driver applies the
brakes.
• D = r t = (100 km/hr / 3600 sec/hr ) * 3 sec *
1000 m/km = 83.33 meters
 PRT Standards
• Each process takes time. As a result, time
beyond simple braking time is required to
avoid collision, and advanced warnings are
given in signs, and minimum sight distances
become engineering design constraints.
• AASHTO stipulates assuming at least 2 . 5
seconds for stopping sight distance.
 Pedestrian
Characteristics
• How fast do pedestrians walk? It depends.
• The average walking speed at intersections has
been estimated at 1.5 m/sec for males and 1.41 m
/sec for females.
• But it may be less than 1 m/sec for elderly and
disabled.
• This is important for designing traffic signal
phasings, and for estimating stopping sight distance
(will a sighted pedestrian clear the road?).
 Vehicle
Characteristics
• Static: Mass, Length, Width, Height. In general,
the maximum allowed are 36,000 kg (80,000 lb),
2.59 m wide, 14.63 m long for trailers, though these
vary by state, some allow larger vehicles. Truck
weight is a critical issue in highway finance, as it is
truck weight per axle that does the most damage to
the roadway.

• Dynamic: Acceleration, Velocity

 Acceleration (1)
• However in actual transportation
• In physics you dealt with
applications, as opposed to
numerous cases where
simple falling bodies,
acceleration is assumed constant.
acceleration can be a function of
You will recall the following
velocity. A model that is often
formulae:
used is:
•
∂x ∂ut
=a = a - but
∂t ∂t
• • Integrating gives:
x = at + C1
x = 0.5at 2 + C1t + C2 † 1
- ln(a - but ) = t + C
b

†
†
 Acceleration (2)
• If the velocity is u0 at time zero
1
C = - ln(a - bu0 )
b
Êa ˆ
ut = Á ˜(1- e ) + u0e
- bt - bt

Ëb ¯
†
Êa ˆ Ê a ˆ Ê u0 ˆ
x = Á ˜t - Á 2 ˜(1- e ) + Á ˜(1- e- bt )
- bt

Ëb ¯ Ëb ¯ Ëb¯
†
Problem: Acceleration
and Velocity
• Suppose the acceleration of a vehicle can be
represented by the equation

∂ut
= 5- 0.05u
∂t
• where u is the vehicle speed in m/sec. If the vehicle
is traveling at 90 km/hr, determine the velocity after
5 sec of acceleration and the distance traveled
† that time. (work in pairs and solve)
during
 Solution (1)
• t=5 sec,
• a=5,
• b=0.05,
• u0 = 90 kph
• Solve for velocity
Êa ˆ
u = Á ˜(1- e- bt ) + u0e- bt
Ëb ¯
Ê 5 ˆ Ê 1000 ˆ -0.05*5
˜(1- e )
-0.05*5
u =Á + 90Á ˜e = 41.5m /sec
Ë 0.05 ¯ Ë 3600 ¯
†
 Solution (2)
• Solve for position

Êa ˆ Ê a ˆ Ê u0 ˆ
x = Á ˜t - Á 2 ˜(1- e ) + Á ˜(1- e- bt )
- bt

Ëb ¯ Ëb ¯ Ëb¯
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ
Á 90Á ˜˜
Ê 5 ˆ Ê 5 ˆ Ë 3600 ¯ ˜
x =Á 5
˜ Á- 2
Ë 0.05 ¯ Ë 0.05 ¯
˜(1- e -0.05*5
) + Á
Á 0.05 ˜
(1- e -0.05*5
) = 168.2m
† Á ˜
Ë ¯
 Equations for Vehicle
Motion
• Ft = Tractive Effort (N)
• Fa =Air Resistance (N) Ft = ma + Fa + Fr + Fg
• Fg = Grade Resistance (N)
• Fr = Rolling Resistance (N)
Fr = (0.015)W - passenger cars
• a = vehicle acceleration (m/sec2)
• v = vehicle speed (m/sec) † Fr = (0.010)W - commercial trucks
• m = vehicle mass (kg)
• r = density of air (1.20 kg/m3) † r
• W = vehicle weight (N) Fa = ACDn 2
2
• G = Grade (rise/run) †
• 2
A = vehicle frontal area (m ) Fg = GW
• CD = Drag Coefficient
• P = power (kW) †
• g = 9.81 m/sec 2 Ftn
P=
† 1000
 Maximum Grade
• When a vehicle is ascending the maximum grade at
a given speed, all tractive effort is being used to
overcome resistance to motion. So the maximum
grade is found by solving:

Ft - Fa - Fr
G=
W
 Relevant Parameters
For 2 Types of Vehicles

Vehicle Empty Mass (kg) Nominal Power A (m2) CD Available power

(with driver) (kW) (% of nominal
power)
P a s s e n g e r Car 1500 78 2.4 0.5 50%
(type P)
Tractor Semi 11,340 245 9.5 1.0 94%
Trailer (WB15)
 Example
• AASHTO recommends using a commercial
truck with a mass/power ratio of 180 kg per
kilowatt as a "typical heavy truck". Determine
the maximum grade such a vehicle can climb
at a sustained speed of 60 km/hr.
 Solution (1)
• Vehicle mass:
m = 180 kg/kW * nominal power = 180 * 245 = 44,100 kg
• Vehicle weight:
44,100 * 9.81
W = mg = = 432.6 kN
† 1000
• Vehicle speed:
m
1000
† km km = 16.67 m/sec
v = 60 *
hr 3600 sec
hr
 Solution (2)
• Tractive effort at 60 km/hr:
Ftn
P=
1000
1000P 1000* (0.94)* (245)
Ft = = = 13,815 N = 13.82kN
v 16.67
• Air resistance at 60 km/hr

1.20
† [( )* (9.5)* (1.0)* (16.67)2 ]
r 2
Fa = ACDn 2 = = 1.584 kN
2 1000

†
 Solution (3)
• Rolling Resistance
Fr = ( 0.010)W = (0.01)* (432.6) = 4.33 kN

• Maximum Grade

Ft - Fa - Fr 13.82 - 1.58 - 4.33

G= = = 0.018 = 1.8%
W 432.6

†
 Problem
(Work in Pairs)
• An otherwise typical heavy truck climbs a hill of 3%
grade at 65 km/hr.
• What is its mass/power ratio?
• Data required:
– Nominal Power = 245 KW,
– Area = 9.5 m2,
– CD = 1.0,
– Available power = 94%,
– Density of air = 1.20 kg/m3
 Solution (1)
• Vehicle speed = 65 km/hr = v = (65 km/hr) *
{(1000 m/km)/(3600 sec/hr)} = 18.06 m/sec
• G = 3% = 0.030
• Maximum Grade:
• G = (Ft – Fa – Fr) / W
• First we have to find tractive effort, air resistance
and rolling resistance to find weight of vehicle.
 Solution (2)
• Tractive effort at 65 km/hr:
• p = (Ft v) / 1000
• Ft = (1000*p)/v = {1000*(0.94)*(245)}/ 18.06 =
12751.94 N = 12.75 kN
• Air Resistance at 65 km/hr:
• Fa = (r/2)*ACDv2 =
[(1.20/2)*(9.5)*(1.0)*(18.06)2]/1000 = 1.86 kN
 Solution (3)
• Rolling Resistance: We cannot calculate rolling
resistance unless we know weight.
• Therefore G= 0.03 = (12.75 – 1.86 – 0.010*W) /
W
• Calculate W from above equation:
• 0.030W = 10.89 – 0.010W
• 0.040W = 10.89
• W = 10.89/0.04 = 272.25 kN
• Since W = mg => 272.25*1000 = m*9.81
• m = (272.25*1000)/9.81 = 27,752 kg
 Solution (4)
• Since vehicle mass
• m = (mass/power ratio) * nominal power
• Therefore
• Mass/power ratio = m/nominal power =
• 27752/245 = 113.27 kg/kW
 AASHTO Stopping
Distance Equation
• For highway design it is often useful to have a braking equation where the
deceleration is caused by a friction force generated by skidding tires, and where
the vehicle might be braking on a down (or up) grade. To do this assume that
the vehicle is a simple object with mass m sliding on an inclined surface, where
the angle of incline equals g (See Figure 2 . 7 , p. 2 5, MK) Two forces are
operating on the object, a gravitational force tending to pull it downhill, and a
friction force tending to resist the downhill motion. Taking positive forces to be
pulling in the downhill direction, the total force on the object can be written as

F = W (sin(q ) - f cos(q ))

• where W = mg = object’s weight, while f = coefficient of friction.

†
 Stopping Distance (2)
• Using Newton’s second law we can conclude then
that the acceleration of the object is
a = g(sin(q ) - f cos(q ))
• Using our basic equations to solve for d in terms of
vi and ve gives
2 2
† vi - ve
d=
-2a
• and substituting for the acceleration yields
vi2 - ve 2
d=
† 2g( f cos(q ) - sin(q ))
 Stopping Distance (3)
• For the angles commonly encountered on
roads, cos(q)≈1 and sin(q)≈tan(q)=G, where
G is called the road’s grade. This gives
vi 2 - ve 2
d=
2g( f - G)

†
 Example 1: Stopping
distance
• Example: A vehicle initially traveling at 88
km/hr skids to a stop on a 3% downgrade,
where the pavement surface provides a
coefficient of friction equal to 0.7. How far
does the vehicle travel before coming to a
stop?
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆˆ 2
Á 88* Á ˜˜ - ( 0)
Ë Ë 3600 ¯¯
d= = 45.4m
2* ( 9.8) * ( 0.7- 0.03)
 Example 2: Braking
Point
• A motorist traveling at 88 km/hr on a freeway
intends to leave the roadway using an exit ramp
with a maximum allowable speed of 50 km/hr. At
what point should the driver step on her brakes to
reduce her speed to the ramp's speed limit as she
enters the ramp? Assume the coefficient of
friction is 0.4 and the alignment of the road is
horizontal
2 2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ
• Solution Á 88* Á ˜ ˜ - Á 50* Á ˜˜
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯ Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
d= = 51.6m
2* ( 9.8) * ( 0.4 - 0)
 Example 3: Coefficient
of Friction
• A vehicle initially traveling at 150 km/hr skids to a stop on a
3% downgrade, where the pavement surface is slick, taking
200 m to do so. What is the coefficient of friction on this
surface?
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2
Á150* Á ˜˜ ( )
- 0
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
d= = 200m
2* ( 9.8) * ( f - 0.03)
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2
Á150* Á ˜˜ ( )
- 0
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
( f - 0.03) =
2* ( 9.8) * 200
f = 0.47
 Example 3: (Grade)
• What should the grade be for the previous example if the
coefficient of friction is 0.40:
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2
Á150* Á ˜ ˜ - ( 0)
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
d= = 200m
2* ( 9.8) * ( 0.40- G)
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2
Á150* Á ˜ ˜ - ( 0)
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
( 0.40- G) =
2* ( 9.8) * 200
G = 0.40- 0.44 = -0.04
Thus, the road needs to be uphill if the
trucks are going that speed on that surface
† and can stop that quickly.
 Accident
Reconstruction
• You want to estimate the speed of a vehicle just
before it was involved in an accident. You have
measured skid marks and an estimate of the speed
at impact. Your unknowns are the initial speed
and the coefficient of friction.
• First, average the lengths of skid marks
• Second, estimate the coefficient of friction by
doing a trial run
• Third, estimate the unknown velocity
 Example 4: Accident
Reconstruction
• You are shown an accident scene with a vehicle
and a light pole. The vehicle was estimated to hit
the light pole at 50 km/hr.
• The skid marks are measured to be 210, 205, 190,
and 195 meters.
• First, Average the Skid Marks.
(210+205+190+195)/4 = 200
 Example 4 (2)
• Second, A trial run is performed to estimate the coefficient
of friction. A car traveling 60 km/hr can stop in 100
meters.
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2
Á 60* Á ˜˜ ( )
- 0
Ë Ë 3600 ¯¯
d= = 100m
2* ( 9.8) * ( f - 0)
2
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2
Á 60* Á ˜˜ ( )- 0
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
f=
2* ( 9.8) *100
f = 0.14
 Example 4 (3)
• Third, estimate the unknown velocity
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2 Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ
2

Áu * Á ˜ ˜ - Á 50* Á ˜˜
Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯ Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
d= = 200m
2* ( 9.8) * ( 0.14 - 0)
Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ 2 Ê Ê 1000 ˆ ˆ
2

Áu * Á ˜ ˜ - Á 50* Á ˜ ˜ = 200m * ( 2* ( 9.8) * ( 0.14))

Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯ Ë Ë 3600 ¯ ¯
2
Ê 1000 ˆ
548.8+192.9 = u 2 Á ˜
Ë 3600 ¯
741.7
u2 = = 9612.43
0.077
u = 98kph
 Stopping Distance and
PRT
• Finally, for highway design it is • where
often useful to have a stopping
distance formula that includes the – d = stopping (sight)
distance traveled during the distance (m)
driver’s perception/ reaction time (t) – V = initial speed (km/hr)
and which allows speeds to be
– t= perception/reaction
expressed directly in units of
miles/hour. Making these changes time (seconds)
gives us the AASHTO stopping – f = AASHTO stopping
sight distance formula (see also friction coefficient
formula (3.32), p. 71,GH). (dimensionless) (see Table
3.1 AASHTO)
V2 – G = roadway grade
d = 0.278tV + (dimensionless)
254( f ± G)

†
 Example 4: SSD
• Calculate the Stopping Design Speed Coefficient of
(kph) Skidding Friction
Sight Distance from (f)
the previous example 30 0.40
• Stopping Sight 40 0.38
Distance = (1000/3600) 50 0.35
* 98 * 2.5 + 200 60 0.33
70 0.31
• Where Perception
80 0.30
Reaction Time = 2.5, 90 0.30
Braking Distance = 100 0.29
200 m 110 0.28
120 0.28
AASHTO 3.1 abbreviated Stopping Sight Distance Wet Pavements
 Curve Resistance
• When a vehicle takes a curve, • where
external forces act on the front
wheels of the vehicle. These forces – Rc = Curve Resistance (N)
have components that retard the – u = vehicle speed (km/hr)
forward motion of the vehicle. This – m = gross vehicle mass (kg)
resistance depends on the radius of
curvature and the speed of the – g = acceleration due to
vehicle. This curve resistance can gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
be given as: – R = Radius of curvature (m)
Ê 1000 ˆ 2
Á u˜ m
Ë 3600 ¯
Rc = 0.5*
R

†
 Example: Curve
Resistance
• A 1000 kg vehicle is traveling at 100 km/hr
around a curve with a radius of 250 m.
What is the curve resistance?
Ê 1000 ˆ 2 Ê 1000 ˆ2
Á u˜ m Á 100˜ 1000
Ë 3600 ¯ Ë 3600 ¯
Rc = 0.5* = 0.5* = 1400N
R 250

†
 Radius of Curvature
• Vertical Curves on roads are parabolic,
• Horizontal Curves are based on circles.
• When a vehicles moves around a horizontal curve, it is
subject to the outward radial force (centrifugal force) and
the inward radial force. The inward force is not due to
gravity, but rather because of the friction between tires and
the roadway. At high speeds, the inward force is inadequate
to balance the outward force without some help.
• That help arises from banking the road, what transportation
engineers call superelevation (e). This banking, an
inclination into the center of the circle, keeps vehicles on
the road at high speed.
Illustration of Forces

Wfscosa
Wu2/gR e
1
a
 “Centrifugal Force”
• The minimum radius of circular • where
curve (R) for a vehicle traveling – ac = acceleration for curvilinear
at u kph can be found by motion = u2/R
considering the equilibrium of a – W = weight of the vehicle
vehicle with respect to moving – g = acceleration due to gravity
up or down the incline. Let
alpha (a) be the angle of incline,
the component of weight down
the incline is W*sin(a), the
frictional force acting down the
incline is W*f*cos(a). The
"centrifugal" force Fc is
Wac
Fc =
g
 Equilibrium of Forces
• When the vehicle is in
equilibrium with respect to • where
the incline (the vehicle – fs = coefficient of side
moves forward along the friction and
road, but neither up nor – u2/g = R (tan (a) + fs)
down the incline), the
forces may be equated as
follows:
2 2
mu Wu
= = W sin a + Wfs cos a
R gR
 Computing Radius of
Curvature
• Let tan(a)=e, g=9.8 m/sec2, u is in km/hr
(and we need R in meters)
2
Ê 1000 ˆ
2 Áu ˜ 2

R=
( u)
=
Ë 3600 ¯
=
( u)
g( e + fs) 9.81( e + fs) 127( e + fs)

• So to reduce R for a given speed, you must

increase e or fs.
†
 Standards
• There are maximum values for e and f, which
depend on the location of the highway (whether it
is urban or rural), weather (dry or wet on a regular
basis, snow), and distribution of slow vehicles.
– In rural areas with no snow or ice, a maximum
superelevation (e) of 0.10 is used.
– In urban areas, a maximum of 0.08 is used.
– Less is used in places like Minnesota, where it is 0.06
(see MN Design Guidelines). Values for fs vary with
design speed.
 Tables
Design Speed Coefficient of Coefficient of Minimum Minimum
(km/hr) Side Friction (fs) Side Friction (fs) Radius (m) Radius (m)
Urban Rural Urban Rural
30 0.312 0.17 20 30
40 0.252 0.17 40 55
50 0.214 0.16 70 90
60 0.186 0.15 115 135
70 0.162 0.14 175 195

Design Speed Coefficient of Minimum

(km/hr) Side Friction (fs) Radius (m)
All High Speed All High Speed
80 0.147 250
90 0.14 340
100 0.128 450
110 0.115 590
120 0.102 775

MnDOT Road Design Manual 3-2.03 a, 3-2.04

 Example
• An existing horizontal curve has a radius of 85
meters, which restricts the maximum speed on this
section of road to only 60% of the design speed of
the highway. Highway officials want to improve the
road to eliminate this bottleneck. Assume
coefficient of side friction is 0.15 and rate of
superelevation is 0.08. Compute the existing speed,
design speed, and find the new radius of curvature.
 Solution
• Existing Speed • Design Speed
Ê 1000 ˆ 2
Áu ˜
Ë 3600 ¯ 50/.6=83.33km/hr
R=
9.81(e + f s )

Ê 1000 ˆ 2
Áu ˜
Ë 3600 ¯ u 2 * 0.077
† 85 = =
9.81(0.08 + 0.15) 2.254

u = 50km /hr
†

†
 Solution (2)
• Find the radius of the new curve, using the
value of fs for 83.33 kph (fs=0.14)
2
Ê 1000 ˆ
Á 83.33 ˜
Ë 3600 ¯
R= = 248m
9.81( 0.08+ 0.14)

†
Questions