Exploring the secret lives of viruses

BIOLOGY

Cohesion
UNIT PROFILE OUTCOMES
You will consider the subject of biology—specifically, the topic • Understand cohesion
of vaccines. You will read about highly specialized vaccines • Recognize patterns of cohesion:
and science’s challenge of staying ahead of rapidly evolving cause / effect, compare / contrast,
pathogens (organisms that cause disease). problem / solution
Preview the reading “DNA Vaccines” on page 72. Skim • Understand cohesion in descriptions
the reading. Do you notice any comparisons? Cause / effect • Use outlines and graphic organizers
relationships? Solutions to problems? Description language?
Common collocations? • Recognize collocations

GETTING STARTED
Go to to listen to Professor Siegel and to complete a self-assessment.
Discuss these questions with a partner or group.
1. What is a disease in your home country or another country that was once rampant but is now
controlled by vaccine? What were the symptoms of the disease? How exactly was the situation
brought under control?
2. Have the vaccines you have received been effective? Have you or anyone you know ever experienced
any negative side effects as a result of being vaccinated? Has anyone you know ever contracted an
illness after having received the vaccination against it?
3. If you currently reside outside your home country, were any vaccinations required prior to moving?
If so, which? Is it justifiable for governments to require that foreign visitors be immunized against
certain diseases? Why or why not?

For more about BIOLOGY, see 2 3 . See also and BIOLOGY 1 2 3 .

46 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
FUNDAMENTAL SKILL
UNDERSTANDING COHESION

WHY IT’S USEFUL Cohesion means “staying together.” By recognizing patterns of cohesion, you can
understand how ideas in a reading relate to one another, which can help you organize the material
mentally as you read it.

Academic reading involves processing complicated collections of information. Successful academic

writers arrange their data, descriptions, and analyses in a form that promotes comprehension for most
readers. A reading passage has cohesion if the author has effectively pieced the information together.
Many cohesive devices—tools for creating cohesion—are obvious and easily recognized. You may know
them as “transition words and phrases” (also called “signposts”).

Common Transition Words and Phrases

Aer this On the other hand
Consequently The problem is
However Therefore
Most importantly When

Other cohesive devices may be less obvious but are no less important:
• pronouns
• personal pronouns (he, it, they, etc.)
• demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
• relative pronouns (which, who, that, etc.)
• quantitative pronouns (some, all, any, most, etc.)
• specialized nouns, verbs, or adjectives (puzzles, resolves, similar, outermost, etc.)
• comparative or superlative adjectives and adverbs (faster, more efficiently, etc.)
• text-locator signals (as we saw in Chapter 2, in the next section, etc.)
• patterns of synonyms / near synonyms (effort / initiative;
quandary / dilemma, etc.) TIP
Grammar We have named many types of
Understanding cohesion will enable you to connect ideas pronouns because 1) they are extremely
presented in a passage. This unit breaks the skill down into two important cohesive devices, and 2) it is
important to recognize how many pronouns
supporting skills: there are. People oen think only of
• recognizing patterns of cohesion: cause / effect, compare / personal pronouns and dismiss them as
having little meaning—and as therefore
contrast, and problem / solution being unimportant. This is untrue. Pronouns
• understanding cohesion in descriptions may be “little,” but they pack a lot of
important information and a lot of
cohesive power.

Cohesion 47
NOTICING ACTIVITY
A. As you read the following passage, be aware of questions that form in your mind about relationships
among ideas. Aer reading, write five of the questions that you asked yourself. You may want to use
words from the box to help you express your thoughts.

Relationship Words Topic Words

aer cause similar active / inactive immune toxin

among different solution antigen pathogen virus
before problem DNA recognize
between result

What Is a Vaccine?
1 A vaccine is a biological substance that trains the body to fight off TIP
dangerous pathogens. The material in a vaccine contains antigens, The description of processes
which are the molecules found on the surface of pathogens. Typically is vital to scientific writing.
More will be said about
injected into the body, the antigens in the vaccine mimic the real cohesion in process
disease in the system. The antigens first trigger an immune system descriptions in Supporting
Skill 2: Understanding
response that causes a wide array of cells, known collectively as Cohesion in Descriptions
antibodies, to fight them. The body then develops memory cells (p. 56). Before wrestling with
their cohesive patterns, you
specific to recognizing those antigens in the vaccine. After developing have to recognize that a
this memory of the disease, the body will have the defenses to fight the process is being described. In
“What Is a Vaccine?” several
real pathogen if it is exposed to it in the future. This encounter with processes are mentioned
a vaccine is often termed a “primary response.” When the vaccinated in connection with the
extended definition. The first,
person undergoes what is known as a “secondary response,” or an most basic, is the process
encounter with the real pathogen, the immune system is able to of injecting antigens into
a body. The last is that the
respond to the pathogen quickly and more effectively than during body produces antigens in
the first episode. In much the same way an athlete might run through response to toxoids. Between
these two there are several
moves before a real competition, the vaccinated body practices its more.
defenses before becoming infected with the bona fide disease.
2 Depending on the virus or bacteria they protect against, vaccines
are made with different substances. Some are developed with live but
attenuated viruses, which means that the virus has been weakened
to the point of being, in effect, disarmed—unlikely to cause disease.
Other vaccines are made with dead, or inactive, viruses. In addition,
some vaccines, such as those termed “subunit,” contain specific
antigens but no viral particles. The vaccines that help ward off bacterial
illnesses like diphtheria and tetanus contain toxoids, which are toxins
rendered inactive. The body misinterprets exposure to toxoids as a
threat, and it solves the perceived problem by producing antibodies to
block the related toxin that would have been released by actual bacteria.
Finally, there are new types of vaccines that are mostly still in the
experimental stage, such as DNA-based vaccines—that is, vaccines that
use DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which is a complex molecule that
carries genetic information and is found in the nucleus of nearly every
cell. As we will see in a later reading (“The MMR Vaccine and Anti-
Vaxxers,” p. 56), significant numbers of Americans have been misled

48 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
into seeing vaccines as a greater threat than the diseases they prevent.
This is unfortunate. No matter what their type, vaccines are considered
safe by medical professionals and help prevent crippling and potentially
fatal illnesses.

B. Read each excerpt from the passage. Then choose the item that correctly identifies the cohesive
device in the excerpt.
Excerpt Cohesive Device
When the vaccinated person undergoes what is known as a 1. A pair of synonyms:
“secondary response,” or an encounter with the real pathogen, a. vaccinated / real
the immune system is able to respond to the pathogen quickly b. undergoes / respond
and more effectively than during the first episode. c. encounter / episode
d. pathogen / system
In much the same way an athlete might run through moves 2. A signpost indicating a “comparison”
before a real competition, the vaccinated body practices cohesive relationship:
its defenses before becoming infected with the bona fide a. in much the same way
disease. b. before a real competition
c. the vaccinated body
d. before becoming infected
The antigens first trigger an immune system response that 3. A personal pronoun:
causes a wide array of cells, known collectively as antibodies, a. that
to fight them. The body then develops memory cells specific to b. them
recognizing those antigens in the vaccine. c. those
d. the
Some are developed with live but attenuated viruses, which 4. A quantitative pronoun:
means that the virus has been weakened to the point of being, a. some
in effect, disarmed—unlikely to cause disease. Other vaccines b. which
are made with dead, or inactive, viruses. c. to
d. other
The body misinterprets exposure to toxoids as a threat, and 5. A specialized noun, verb, or adjective
it solves the perceived problem by producing antibodies to that indicates a solution-to-a-problem
block the related toxin that would have been released by actual cohesive relationship:
bacteria. a. exposure
b. solves
c. perceived
d. actual
As we will see in a later reading (“The MMR Vaccine and Anti- 6. A text-locator signal:
Vaxxers,” p. 56), significant numbers of Americans have been a. as we will see in a later reading
misled into seeing vaccines as a greater threat than the diseases b. into seeing vaccines as a greater
they prevent. This is unfortunate. No matter what their type, threat
vaccines are considered safe by medical professionals and help c. this is unfortunate
prevent crippling and potentially fatal illnesses. d. no matter what their type
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

Cohesion 49
 SUPPORTING SKILL 1
RECOGNIZING PATTERNS OF COHESION: CAUSE / EFFECT, COMPARE / CONTRAST,
PROBLEM / SOLUTION

WHY IT’S USEFUL By learning to recognize three frequently employed patterns of cohesion, you will
further develop your understanding of how authors produce unified ideas.

Writers employ a variety of patterns of cohesion to ensure that ideas in their articles, research papers,
and other texts are unified and logically organized, both within paragraphs and throughout an entire
reading. Three types of cohesion that are consistently used to achieve this end are cause / effect,
compare / contrast, and problem / solution. Each type is characterized by unique words and phrases
that serve to make these types of relationships clear.
CAUSE / EFFECT
The intent of the language used to achieve cause / effect cohesion is to demonstrate to a reader the
reason, source, or event that brought about a particular result, outcome, or consequence.

Language Used with Causes Language Used with Effects

As As a result
As a result / consequence of [X cause], As the aforementioned facts show / indicate, …
Because Consequently
Because of [X cause], One effect / result / offshoot / consequence of
Due to [X cause], … this is …
For this reason, So
Once Therefore
Since Thus
Taking [X cause] into consideration,
The reason for [Y effect] is … [X cause]
When

Language Linking Causes and Effects

[X cause] brings about [Y effect]. [Y effect] can be attributed to [X cause].

[X cause] contributes to [Y effect]. [Y effect] is caused by [X cause].
[X cause] creates [Y effect]. [Y effect] is the consequence / result of [X cause].
[X cause] generates [Y effect].
[X cause] is responsible for [Y effect].
[X cause] leads to [Y effect].
[X cause] produces [Y effect].
[X cause] results in [Y effect].

In the following example, the “cause” marker in bold indicates the cause / effect relationship between the
two ideas.
As a result of receiving the vaccination against yellow fever, she was not concerned that she
would contract the disease during her travels.
Another way of writing the sentence, while maintaining the original meaning, is with an “effect”
marker:
She received the vaccination against yellow fever; therefore, she was not concerned that she
would contract the disease during her travels.

50 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
COMPARE / CONTRAST
A second type of cohesion often used by writers is compare / contrast cohesion. This category of
cohesive patterns is employed to convey and highlight the similarities and differences between objects,
ideas, people, places, and concepts.
The linguistic cues that typify compare / contrast cohesion include the following:

Compare Contrast

Also, … Alternatively In contrast Though

As … as Although In contrast to / Unlike
Both X and Y … But with, … When comparing
Each Compared to In spite of X to / with Y, …
In the same way, … Despite Instead of Whereas
Like Differ with respect to Is different While
Likewise, … Dissimilar Nevertheless, … X and Y differ from
On the contrary … each other
Similar Even though
On the other hand, … Yet
Similar to However, …
Similarly, … In comparison to / Rather than
While with, … Than
X and Y are alike

Study this example of some of the aforementioned compare / TIP

contrast phrases: Think about the reading that you do in
English for your classes. 1) Is one type
While both the MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) and of cohesive pattern especially common
chickenpox vaccines are live attenuated vaccines, they in readings about a particular topic? 2)
Is one type of cohesive pattern easier
differ with respect to the number of diseases they provide for you to notice in English than other
protection against. The former protects individuals from patterns? 3) Do you oen notice the
signposts we have been discussing?
three, whereas the latter only offers defense against one. Which seem the most common? 4) Have
you noticed other devices for signaling
In addition to the cues above, another very common way to discuss cause / effect, compare / contrast, or
similarities and differences between entities is through the use of problem / solution cohesion?
comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs. This includes
language such as most virulent, stronger, least important, more quickly,
and less intensely. For example:
Inactivated vaccines tend to be safer than live vaccines as they are less potent than live
ones.
In regions where a disease is spreading quickly, live attenuated vaccines are used more
frequently than inactivated vaccines.

Cohesion 51
 PROBLEM / SOLUTION
Problem / solution cohesion is a third commonly used pattern. This type of cohesive language is used
when a writer is discussing a situation, the problem(s) associated with that situation, solution(s) to the
problem(s), and an evaluation of the solution(s). This chart contains phrases that are frequently employed
to identify a problem and offer a solution:

Problem Solution

A barrier to overcoming the problem is … However, scientists found that if they [Y solution],
Due to the aforementioned issue … then [Z good result].
One obstacle [biologists] encountered was … One solution was …
One problem / issue is … The answer to the problem was [Y solution].
[Scientists] are battling against … The key to solving the problem was …
Some of the complications associated with They achieved this goal by …
this include … To solve this …
The biggest hurdle was … [Y solution] serves as a solution to [X problem] …
The challenge was …
The difficulty in / of [X problem] was …
There were several drawbacks …
This is ineffective because …
Unfortunately, …

Here is an example of “problem” language:

There were several drawbacks to the plan, one of them being that it did not outline the
specific methods scientists would use to research how individuals contract the disease.
Look at this example of “solution” language:
One solution for safeguarding an individual who cannot be vaccinated against a disease is
to prevent contact with others who have not been vaccinated.
Problem / solution cohesive phrases are not always separate from each other; in fact, you will often see
them within one sentence. For example:
The challenge was convincing college students to get the flu vaccine, and public health
officials achieved this goal by opening up flu vaccine clinics in popular hangout areas on
campus.
Sometimes, more than one cohesive pattern may be at work in a passage. Here’s an example of compare /
contrast, problem / solution language, and cause / effect within one sentence:
Compare / Contrast Problem / Solution
Despite the difficulty of administering vaccines to young children, health officials maintain
that neglecting these efforts would almost certainly lead to outbreaks of diseases that were
thought to have been eradicated.
Link Cause / Effect

Cause / effect and problem / solution language are especially likely to interrelate. For example, language
that demonstrates a “problem” can also represent a “cause.” Study this example:
One issue with the newly developed vaccine is its relatively low level of immunogenicity,
and because of this, researchers are tirelessly working to increase this in clinical trials.
In this situation, One issue represents “problem” language, as it refers to the problem of the vaccine
having a relatively low level of immunogenicity. One issue also serves as the “cause” for why researchers
are working to increase the level of immunogenicity in the vaccine.

52 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
EXERCISE 1
A. As you read, highlight words and phrases that are examples of the cause / effect, compare / contrast,
and problem / solution cohesion that you just read about. Consider how these examples contribute
to the cohesiveness of the reading.

Live Attenuated Vaccines and Inactivated Vaccines

1 A vaccine’s overall success in combating 3 Live attenuated virus vaccines also
disease is an equation of many variables, create a stronger immunity to a disease than
including how effective, safe, durable, and cost- inactivated vaccines because the attenuated
effective the vaccine is to produce. Of the many virus triggers a strong response of lymphocytes,
different types of vaccines, the two most basic which causes the body to produce more memory
forms are made from living, weakened viruses T and B cells that circulate in the blood and fight
and from dead viruses. These primary forms against the virus if it ever appears in the body
are both used regularly for protection against again. In many cases, one or two doses of the
dangerous diseases like polio, measles, and vaccine confer a lifelong immunity on individuals.
influenza, and the two forms have advantages A live attenuated vaccine is the nearest thing to
and disadvantages. While both live attenuated contracting the actual disease, so it provides the
(weakened) vaccines as well as inactivated (dead) most resistance against the disease. Whereas live
vaccines work to safeguard individuals against attenuated vaccines are quite potent, inactivated
illness, the former is generally more effective than vaccines deliver a much weaker immune system
the latter. response. As a result, they require several
2 Live attenuated virus vaccines, such as those additional doses, known as boosters, to ensure
that protect against measles, mumps, and rubella, that an individual’s immune system is able to fight
are produced in two ways. The first way is to use a off the actual infection.
nonpathogenic virus related to the real pathogen. 4 While live attenuated vaccines typically provide
The earliest smallpox vaccines were created better protection against illnesses, a problem
in this manner, when physicians inoculated with these vaccines is that their strength tends
patients against the disease by exposing them to to lead to a lower level of safety when compared
the cowpox virus—a close relative of the lethal with fixed-virus vaccines. When a vaccine’s virus is
smallpox virus. In contrast to this antiquated alive, it can, on rare occasions, mutate back to its
method of producing an attenuated vaccine, original, virulent form and cause a true infection.
the second method is a step more complex, For this reason, live attenuated vaccines are not
involving physicians weakening the virus in a recommended for individuals with compromised
laboratory, purifying the vaccination solution, and immune systems, such as pregnant women or those
administering the vaccine orally or by injection. who have undergone immune-system suppressing
A challenge associated with these lab-produced treatments like chemotherapy. Because attenuated
live attenuated vaccines is that they must be vaccines can, though rarely do, mutate into
refrigerated or they are rendered unstable. For virulence, inactivated vaccines are considered safer
this reason, they unfortunately are not easy to because the dead viruses cannot mutate. However,
provide to lower-income nations where refrigeration in the case of the polio vaccine, which comes in
devices are not abundant. Unlike live attenuated both forms, medical officials in parts of the world
vaccines, inactivated vaccines are not produced where polio is still endemic recommend using the
with a living virus. Scientists use chemicals, heat, live attenuated virus to inoculate against polio
or radiation to render a pathogenic virus harmless, because it offers a stronger defense for both the
or “fixed.” Inactivated vaccines, in contrast to individual and the region. The inactivated vaccine
perishable live-virus vaccines, can be reconstituted is typically used by health officials in the United
and easily stored. Inactivated vaccines include States to attempt to solve the problem of accidental
those against hepatitis A and rabies. contraction of polio from the vaccine.

Cohesion 53
 B. Read each excerpt from the passage and determine which cohesive device is used. Then write the
item number in the correct category in the chart below.
1. These primary forms are both used regularly for protection against dangerous diseases like polio,
measles, and influenza, and the two forms have advantages and disadvantages.
2. In contrast to this antiquated method of producing an attenuated vaccine, the second method is a
step more complex, involving physicians weakening the virus in a laboratory, purifying the vaccination
solution, and administering the vaccine orally or by injection.
3. A challenge associated with these lab-produced live attenuated vaccines is that they must be
refrigerated or they are rendered unstable.
4. Unlike live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines are not produced with a living virus.
5. As a result, they require several additional doses, known as boosters, to ensure that an individual’s
immune system is able to fight off the actual infection.
6. When a vaccine’s virus is alive, it can, on rare occasions, mutate back to its original, virulent form
and cause a true infection.

Cause / Effect Compare / Contrast Problem / Solution

C. Rewrite each sentence in Part B, replacing the cohesive device language with another word or
phrase related to the given pattern of cohesion. Do not change the meaning of the sentence. It may
be necessary to change the sentence structure.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

54 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
D. Each of the following excerpts from the passage contains more than one cohesive device. Mark the
sentences: Underline cause / effect language, circle compare / contrast language, and put brackets
around problem / solution language.
1. For this reason, they unfortunately are not easy to provide to lower-income nations where
refrigeration devices are not abundant.

2. Live attenuated virus vaccines also create a stronger immunity to a disease than inactivated
vaccines because the attenuated virus triggers a strong response of lymphocytes, which causes the
body to produce more memory T and B cells that circulate in the blood and fight against the virus if it
ever appears in the body again.

3. Whereas live attenuated vaccines are quite potent, inactivated vaccines deliver a much weaker
immune system response.

4. While live attenuated vaccines typically provide better protection against illnesses, a problem with
these vaccines is that their strength tends to lead to a lower level of safety when compared with
fixed-virus vaccines.

5. Because attenuated vaccines can, though rarely do, mutate into virulence, inactivated vaccines are
considered safer because the dead viruses cannot mutate.

6. However, in the case of the polio vaccine, which comes in both forms, medical officials in parts of
the world where polio is still endemic recommend using the live attenuated virus to inoculate against
polio because it offers a stronger defense for both the individual and the region.

7. The inactivated vaccine is typically used by health officials in the United States to attempt to solve
the problem of accidental contraction of polio from the vaccine.

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

Cohesion 55
 SUPPORTING SKILL 2
UNDERSTANDING COHESION IN DESCRIPTIONS

WHY IT’S USEFUL By recognizing the pattern of information in a description, you can develop a more
accurate mental image of an object, person, place, or process.

Some patterns of cohesion are spatio-temporal. That means they TIP

reflect the way something exists in space or time. These cohesive Nonlinear Cohesion An author
patterns usually work with other cohesive devices, mixing in might try to create spatio-temporal
descriptions that “skip around.”
with the cause / effect, compare / contrast, and problem / solution Rather than arranging information in
cohesive patterns we have already seen. a linear way, the author might move
unpredictably in space or time. However,
Descriptions of physical entities—things, people, places—usually this nonlinear movement is very difficult
to do successfully. If you ever see it, it will
have spatial cohesion. The author organizes the presentation of probably be in artistic writing like fiction,
information according to the position of things in relation to one poetry, or drama—not in factual writing.
another. Some examples of patterns are left-to-right (or right-to-
left), top-to-bottom, and inside-to-outside. These arrangements are usually linear—that is, they start
at one point and move continuously in one direction until the pattern is complete. If the description is
complex, two or more spatial sequences might be combined. Look at this example:
At the top of the device is a steel tube containing a lens, below which is a tray for holding
the specimen. The entire device rests on a heavy base that contains springs to minimize
vibration. A knob on the left side allows adjustment of the lens, while a hand rest on the
right helps the observer steady himself or herself during observation.
In the example, a top-to-bottom cohesive pattern comes first. Then there is a left-to-right pattern.
Descriptions of processes usually have temporal cohesion. The author organizes information according to
what happened first in time and then progresses until the last stage in time has been reached. Sometimes
an author may begin to tell things in real-time order and then temporarily shift back in time—as in the
technique called a “flashback,” which is sometimes used in fiction to communicate memories. Temporary
shifts to the future are also possible—a technique called “fast forward,” which may communicate predictions.
However, these techniques are mostly artistic (see the TIP). They are unusual in fact-based writing.
One last type of cohesion in descriptions is to arrange things according to a characteristic that can be
charted on a continuum—for example, from largest to smallest, from cheapest to most expensive, from
most harmful to least harmful, and so on.

EXERCISE 2
A. Read the passage, which is an excerpt from a much larger text about anti-vaccination sentiment in
the United States. This excerpt—which only begins to introduce the reasons why some people oppose
vaccination—focuses on some of the basics of the vaccination process. Consequently, this excerpt
concentrates on some descriptions organized in a spatio-temporal way. As you read, highlight all
instances of spatially cohesive physical descriptions and temporally cohesive process descriptions.

The MMR Vaccine and Anti-Vaxxers

1 The measles virus, a microscopic, circular particle, contains a nucleic acid that is housed inside
a protein coating. Along the surface of the protein are tiny receptors, also called antigens, that
can latch onto the surface of a cell. Once the virus enters the body and attaches itself to human
cells, it begins to replicate. After about a week of incubation, the first symptoms appear, which
include a cough, a runny nose, and a fever. This early stage is followed by a rash, which starts as

56 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
tiny white
h spots inside d the
h mouth. h Theh illness
ll then
h flares into a ffull-blown
ll bl l rash,
measles h with h red
d
spots that begin on the face and hairline and slowly travel down over the neck, chest, and arms.
Finally, the rash spreads all the way to a person’s legs and feet. One in four cases of measles requires
hospitalization, and one in one thousand cases ends in encephalitis (swelling of the brain) or death
from complications. The measles vaccine—which is typically given as part of the MMR vaccine
(measles, mumps, and rubella)—prevents the illness by teaching the immune system to fight off the
virus. But a rising tide of parents are refusing to vaccinate their children.
2 This refusal is not out of fear that the inoculation process is, in itself, traumatic. Granted, the
apparatus used in vaccination can be a bit daunting in appearance to a child, especially the needle.
Imagine a syringe held vertically, with its tip pointing upward. The kind typically used to vaccinate
children has a needle that is 1 inch long and has a 25- to 27-gauge thickness (meaning an outer
diameter of about 0.02 inch). On the inside, the needle is hollow (the hollow interior is called the
lumen), and the outside surface is almost always made of shiny stainless steel. The needle consists
of three parts. At the tip is the bevel, a slanted crosscut that forms the sharp end of the needle. The
long body of the needle is called the shaft, and the base of the needle fits into a fixture called the
hub, which holds the needle secure in the barrel of the syringe (the large tubular body with volume
markings on it). Inside the hub, the base of a typical modern needle ends in a cone-shaped fitting
that forms part of a connection called a Luer lock. The cone-shaped base of the needle may screw
tightly onto a threaded projection on the barrel, or the needle may be pressed onto a pressure fitting
of the barrel. Either way, the Luer lock ensures that the connection between needle and barrel is
watertight and airtight, secure against any ambient contaminants. Fitting within the tube of the
syringe is a movable plastic rod—the plunger—that terminates at the bottom of the whole assembly,
in a flat plastic disk against which one’s thumb is pressed while administering the injection.
3 Despite the use of scary-looking needles, vaccinating a child against measles, mumps, and
rubella is simple. The first dose is administered within about three months after a child’s first
birthday, the second at the age of four or five years. The doctor fi nds a site on the child’s thigh
muscle—or the deltoid muscle at the shoulder for the second dose—that is thick enough to
accommodate the needle. Stretching the skin flat, the doctor places the tip of the needle against
the muscular area. The doctor holds the syringe with two fingers—typically the index finger and
middle finger—just forward of the flange, which is like a flat plastic collar at the base of the barrel.
His or her thumb is on the flat disk of the plunger. The shaft of the needle is held at an angle of
90 degrees to the skin surface. The needle tip penetrates the child’s skin and travels through the
subcutaneous fat and into muscle, but not so far into the muscle as to cause injury. After pressing
the plunger of the syringe forward for a few seconds, the doctor withdraws the needle. The
whole procedure takes perhaps 60 to 90 seconds, if the child holds still. No child likes it, but it
causes lasting physical trauma for almost no one, and the value of the vaccine far outweighs any
unpleasantness.
4 The real difficulty faced by vaccination programs is rejection not because of the pain of
inoculation but because of the pernicious belief, increasingly common among American parents,
that vaccines like the MMR cause health problems, most particularly, that they can cause autism.
These falsehoods have dire consequences. If a parent chooses not to vaccinate a child, how could it
affect others in the community?
5 This question accurately implies that a continuum of selfi shness exists in this situation. At the
least-selfish end of the spectrum are public health officials who work in the face of great criticism
and irrational rancor from some parents to guard the herd immunity conferred by vaccination.
Also unselfish, though not so much on the firing line, are parents who heed evidence-based
advice and make sure their children get vaccinated. On the selfi sh end of the spectrum, the most
Continued

Cohesion 57
 taintedd persons include
l d the
h author
h off the
h ffallacious
ll Misleading Article,
article linking vaccination to autism (see sidebar) Troubling Reactions
and some of the publicity-seeking medical doctors Parents who decline vaccines for their
who fell into line behind it. Not quite so far on the children typically reject the vaccines because
they fear that the biological substance in
selfi sh end—but close—are the “anti-vaxxer” parents. a vaccine contains harmful chemicals that
Anti-vaxxer parents have made a calculation about cause neurological disorders. This erroneous
belief originated with an article about the
relative harm—obviously acting in the (misguided) connection between autism spectrum
belief that measles poses less a threat to their children disorder and vaccines that was published in
1998 in a medical journal. The author of the
than autism. There is also a calculation based on article claimed a link between the vaccines
self-interest that whatever harm may befall society and the disorder, but the study was deemed
to be flawed, and the journal later retracted
as a whole, it is less than the potential harm to their the article. The scientist who authored the
child. The parents may be following their most basic, paper was subsequently discredited and
barred from practicing medicine. Despite
and honorable, instincts to protect their children, but medical professionals finding the study and
we other members of the herd have a right to expect the doctor’s methods fraudulent, the panic
the article induced was widespread and
that this protection be informed by a thoughtful enduring. People began to follow the ideas
weighing of evidence, not credulous, knee-jerk that were touted in the bogus study as a way
to explain the frightening increase in the
iconoclasm. The twisted anti-vaxxer calculation and rate of autism cases in the United States.
its unintended consequences have set back a number The people who choose not to vaccinate are
now numerous enough to be considered a
of public health efforts in the United States. Indeed, movement.
anomalously among developed nations, the United In an effort to encourage parents to vaccinate
States has seen a troubling increase in the incidence of their children, health officials have conducted
several studies on vaccines and autism
diseases previously thought to be under control, such since the publication of the article and have
as measles. found absolutely no link between the two.
Along with the medical community, state
6 In 2000, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) governments have also gotten involved and
declared that measles was no longer endemic to the have begun taking legal action to protect
citizens. In response to a law passed in 2015,
United States. However, since that time, there have for example, California and Vermont will no
been several major outbreaks of the illness due to longer permit unvaccinated children to attend
public school without a valid medical reason
flagging vaccination rates. In 2014, the CDC reported for not being vaccinated. Whether because
634 measles cases for the year. Then in early 2015, of the law or the recent measles outbreak (or
other causes), childhood vaccination rates
a contagious person with measles passed the illness rose in most counties of California in 2015,
around while at a theme park in California, and the according to information released by the
California Department of Public Health.
outbreak that followed affected more than 100 people
in California alone. These outbreaks are troubling because of the severity of measles. The virus is
highly contagious and infects up to 90 percent of unprotected individuals exposed to the bug.

B. Read the questions and choose the best answers.

1. Which occurs last, after someone has contracted the measles virus?
a. A rash on one’s toes
b. Flulike symptoms
c. An oral rash
d. A rash on one’s torso
2. What is true about the hub of a syringe?
a. It is inside the base of the needle.
b. It is the material inside the barrel.
c. It is where the base of the needle connects to the syringe.
d. It is crosscut to make a sharp point.

58 BIOLOGY PART 1
 3. Which description of “anti-vaxxer” demonstrates a greater harm to the safety of a society?

PART 1
a. Those who are more concerned with autism than measles
b. Those who prioritize protecting their child over protecting a society in its entirety
c. Both categories are equally threatening to a society.
4. Which statements are true of a syringe if it is held vertically with the point at the top?
Choose TWO.
a. The sharpest part faces the doctor.
b. The flange is at the lowest part of the barrel.
c. The lumen is inside the barrel.
d. The plastic disk of the plunger is at the bottom.
e. The top inch is made of stainless steel.
5. When administering a vaccination, what should a doctor do?
a. Target the thigh for the second dose
b. Insert the needle at the proper angle
c. Get the needle deep into the muscle
d. Apply pressure to the plunger for at least one minute
6. Which event happened first?
a. More than 100 Californians contracted measles.
b. More than 500 Americans were diagnosed with measles.
c. A person infected with measles went to a US amusement park.
d. Measles was deemed to be low risk and not widespread in the United States.
C. Below is a list of features described in the reading. Match each feature with the pattern of cohesion
used to describe it in the reading.

Features Pattern of Cohesion

1. The symptoms of the measles virus a. spatial — top / bottom

2. The entire syringe for the measles vaccination b. characteristics on a continuum
3. The needle on the syringe c. temporal — process
4. How a doctor provides the vaccine to a child d. both temporal and spatial
5. The point of insertion of the vaccination needle e. temporal — time
6. The variation in “anti-vaxxers” f. spatial — both inside / outside and top / bottom
7. The prevalence of measles in the United States g. spatial —outside / inside

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

Cohesion 59
 READING-WRITING CONNECTION
USING OUTLINES AND GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

WHY IT’S USEFUL Using an outline or a graphic organizer while you read can be a useful way to help
you process what you have read and organize your thoughts for future reading, writing, or study. This is
particularly useful when reading a piece that contains many cohesive patterns.

When reading complex academic texts, it is easy to get bogged down in the details. Creating a visual
representation of the ideas in the text is a useful strategy. Specifically, utilizing an outline or graphic
organizer can aid in clarifying the nuances and complexities of such a reading, especially one that
employs a diverse set of cohesive devices and writing patterns.
Recording information in visual form also creates a shorter, more approachable and personalized
documentation of the reading, for future reference. Whether it be to help with writing a paper, studying
for an exam, or synthesizing information from a variety of sources, creating a strong outline or graphic
organizer makes a task more manageable.

SELECTING A STYLE OF VISUAL ORGANIZER

While the exact style of organizer you use is largely contingent on the type of text you are reading and
your personal preference, the first step is to determine the information that it will contain.
Information
• What is your purpose? That is, what will you be doing with your notes, and how much
information will you be recording in the visual organizer?
• How familiar are you with the information? The less familiar you are, the more necessary it may
be to record information in order to help you understand and remember it.
• What is the most important information to record? It is impossible and impractical to reproduce
an entire text in an outline or graphic organizer, so figure out what information is relevant and
pertinent and what is extraneous.
• Which type(s) of cohesive devices seem to dominate the text? This may determine the type of
organizer that is most appropriate.
Outlines
Outlines are useful because they typically replicate a text in its original order and are a familiar format
that can be easily understood. They also demonstrate clear levels of the most important details, their
subparts, and so on. However, they are often best suited for recreating readings that do not contain
complex structures, such as time sequences, which may
not be presented in a whole-and-subparts fashion. I. Important Point 1
Also it can sometimes be difficult to add more A. Information set 1 about Point 1
information after a section of an outline has been 1. Further detail 1
written—if you are writing by hand. This is not so much 2. Further detail 2
of an issue if you are creating your outline using a word B. Information set 2 about Point 1
processor. II. Important Point 2
A. Information set 1 about Point 2
The most important information in an outline should
1. Further detail 1
be left aligned, often with a Roman numeral, and each
a. Even further detail 1
subordinate detail should be indented according to
b. Even further detail 2
that same hierarchy. For each subsequent level, a new
2. Further detail 2
counting system is often used, such as letters and Arabic
B. Information set 2 about Point 2
numerals:

60 BIOLOGY PART 1
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

PART 1
Graphic organizers, often called mind maps, can be used as a more visual way of representing
information. An advantage of graphic organizers is that it is usually fairly easy to go back and add
information as new information comes about in the text. There are many different styles of graphic
organizers, some of which may work especially well with a given structure. In most cases, however,
multiple types of organizers could work for a given reading. Some special cases:
• Temporal Description: When organizing a reading that has a temporal cohesive pattern, it is
often helpful to create a visual that reflects that process. For example, a timeline can be used to
show a sequence of events that happen over time. The following is another example of a kind of
visual that could be used to detail a process:

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:

(with details) (with details) (with details) (with details)

• Spatial Description: If a text is describing the physical arrangement of something—say, inside-

to-outside or left-to-right—it may be useful to create a graphic organizer that mimics that spatial
description. This is also true for other types of description that include a lot of detail but do
not present a strong temporal component. With some spatial descriptions, it may be even more
beneficial to draw a simple picture of the thing or scene being described, rather than trying to
represent it with a graphic organizer.

Detail
1

Detail Main Detail

4 Idea 2

Detail
3

• Compare / Contrast: A Venn diagram is a very common graphic organizer used to demonstrate how
two (or more) things are similar to and different from one another. Differences are included in the
portion of the circles that do not overlap, and similarities are contained in the circles’ intersection.

Unique to Similarities Unique to

Item 1 between Item 2
only Items 1 and 2 only

Cohesion 61
 EXERCISE 3
A. Read the following paragraph. Then create an outline
in the box to the right.
Similar to the hepatitis B vaccination, the
vaccination for chickenpox also contains a small
amount of the actual virus. The vaccination is
designed to build immunity in those who receive
the shot and to prevent them from contracting
the disease. If someone who was not vaccinated
contracts the virus, the symptoms, while not
pleasant, typically run their course in less than
ten days and are not incredibly severe. However,
the disease is much worse for certain groups of
people. This usually includes those with weakened
immune systems, very young children, and older
adults.
B. Read the following paragraph. Then complete the graphic organizer.

While there is little debate that getting the chickenpox vaccination is better than contracting
the actual disease, there are still some side effects of the vaccination of which people should
be aware. Some minor side effects include a fever, a rash, fatigue, and a headache. If these
occur, they will not likely last long. In more extreme cases, side effects may include seizures,
breathing problems, and a change in behavior. If any of these latter symptoms do appear, a
doctor should be contacted immediately.

62 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
C. Read the passage.

Poliovirus
CULTURE NOTE
Everybody learns in a
different way based on how
their brains work and on
their natural tendencies.
While schools in some
cultures are very teacher
fronted and consist primarily
of lectures—which suits
auditory learners—other
cultures put greater
emphasis on other or varied
learning styles. Some people
are visual learners, meaning
they oen learn best via
pictures and diagrams.
Others are kinesthetic
learners, meaning they
are hands-on and like to
involve physical movement
when they learn. The most
effective notes, outlines, and
1 In the early 1950s in the United States, an epidemic swept graphic organizers are those
through cities and towns, leaving more than 20,000 individuals that reflect one’s personal
learning style. For example,
paralyzed and more than three thousand dead. The crippling disease visual learners may benefit
was caused by the poliomyelitis virus, a type of enterovirus that from a graphic organizer
that uses boxes and arrows
inhabits the gastrointestinal tract and spreads through droplets from to represent a process
coughing and sneezing, and through feces. A few years after the described in a text.
outbreak reached its peak in 1952, doctors developed a polio vaccine
that very quickly made the disease rare in the United States, and in the
late 1980s, health officials made a plan to do the same for the entire
globe. Nearly 30 years later, however, physicians are still fighting to
vaccinate vulnerable population groups in the nations of Pakistan
and Afghanistan. An examination of polio eradication endeavors
reveals that though health officials have made enormous progress, they
still face obstacles in regions of the world plagued by violence, poverty,
and endemic polio.
2 Polio, which mainly affects children, can cause a rapid onset of
paralysis in approximately 1 out of every 200 cases of the illness. In
addition, 5 to 10 percent of people who experience these paralytic
symptoms will die from complications of the disease. If polio patients
are lucky enough to recover their mobility and avoid permanent
paralysis, the disease still causes neurological problems later in life.
In 1988, 350,000 cases of polio in 125 nations were reported. That
year, health officials formed an international Global Polio Eradication
Initiative and began an aggressive campaign to rid the world of polio.
Nearly three decades later, the statistics reveal incredible success.
Cases of polio worldwide have decreased by 99 percent, and the
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the eradication
efforts have prevented paralysis in 13 million people and saved the
lives of 1.5 million children.
Continued

Cohesion 63
 3 While the force leading this feat is made up of international
partners, the key tool against the virus is the vaccine for polio.
Known as the oral polio vaccine, the vaccine uses a weakened form
of the virus to build antibodies in the body and create an immune
response that lingers in the mucous membranes. This live attenuated
(weakened) vaccine provides protection, but it also carries risk. In
rare cases, the attenuated pathogen in the oral polio vaccine could
revert to its virulent form and cause the disease, which is known as
vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) and occurs in approximately
1 in every 2.7 million first doses of the vaccine. The virus might
then travel throughout a community, particularly if the community
has unvaccinated individuals. This mutation and infection, known
as circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), has occurred
approximately 24 times since 2005, and it has caused more than
750 cases of polio. cVDPV is considered a risk not only to individuals
but also to eradication efforts because even if “wild” polio strains are
eradicated, the vaccine itself could continue to cause the spread of
polio.
4 Neither VAPP nor cVDPV can occur if the inactivated polio vaccine,
which does not contain live viruses, is the agent of inoculation.
Nations in which polio is no longer endemic, such as the United States,
use this inactivated polio vaccine despite its somewhat lower level of
protection because the risk associated with the oral vaccine outweighs
the benefits. However, in nations where wild polio strains are still
common, the use of the oral polio vaccine is considered the best choice
epidemiologically because it protects against all types of polio, gives
long-lasting immunity, and provides passive immunization within a
community, according to the Global Polio Eradication Initiative. Once
wild polio strains are no longer endemic to a nation, health officials
recommend switching to the inactive vaccine.
5 In the two remaining nations with endemic polio, Pakistan and
Afghanistan, more challenges exist against eradicating polio than
simply combating the virus. Health workers continually face violent
threats and attacks from members of the community who believe the
vaccine causes harm to the community. For example, in January 2016,
a suicide bomber blew up an eradication center, citing the common
fear that the vaccination effort is a secret plan to sterilize children or to
infiltrate the countryside with Western spies. Medical aid workers in
Nigeria have faced similar attacks, but the campaign workers remained
heroically persistent, and Nigeria was removed from WHO’s list of
polio-endemic nations in 2015.
p

64 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
6 That persistence will be necessary to finally rid the world of polio
since even a few cases of the disease can lead to worldwide outbreaks.
To attain eradication of an illness, particularly in nations destabilized
by political fragility and poverty, it will be important for health care
workers to make vaccinations part of routine health care programs
and find community-based allies who will take ownership of the
eradication initiatives, be it for polio, measles, or any other infectious
disease. In the case of polio eradication, once the human-created
problems are resolved, the polio vaccine can be given to everyone,
and then health care workers can switch the vaccine type to the
inactivated vaccine, which will prevent the rare incidence of vaccine-
derived poliovirus. In closing, it is worthwhile to note that despite
the difficulties that health officials face, the Global Polio Eradication
Initiative has helped millions of children avoid polio. In addition, the
initiative has trained local epidemiologists and put into place disease
surveillance systems that can alert officials to other infectious diseases
in the future.

D. Complete the following steps, based on the reading.

1. Create a graphic organizer that depicts the chronology of polio-related events described in
the article. Be sure to include the following years and time periods: 1950s, 1952, 1980s, 1988,
2015, 2016.
2. Create an outline that includes the most important facts about polio described in Paragraph 2.
3. Use a graphic organizer to present the most important information about the oral polio vaccination
discussed in Paragraph 3.
4. Make an outline or graphic organizer based on Paragraph 4 that contrasts nations with and
without widespread cases of polio.
5. Using an outline or graphic organizer, demonstrate your understanding of modern attempts to
eradicate the polio virus, as described in Paragraph 6.
Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

Cohesion 65
 LANGUAGE SKILL
RECOGNIZING COLLOCATIONS

WHY IT’S USEFUL To really know a vocabulary item, you have to recognize and understand the
collocations in which it commonly occurs. If you understand collocational groups as you read, you will be
far more efficient than if you read word by word.

Collocations are common combinations of vocabulary items. If two items occur together often, they
strongly collocate with each other. (Collocation comes from Latin words meaning “being located
together.”) Native speakers and other proficient speakers of English have strong intuitions about which
items strongly collocate. They also have strong intuitions about which vocabulary items do not strongly
collocate with each other.
That is why, for example, when they want to speak of the action of producing homework, native and
proficient speakers of English are very likely to use the verb do and very likely to think that the verb
make “sounds weird.” These intuitions can be confirmed by looking at large databases of language (called
corpora; singular corpus). In fact, computer analysis of a corpus of several hundred million words shows
that forms of the verb do are the most likely words to occur with the word homework—more than twice
as likely as any other verb.
Consider this example. The strong collocations appear in bold.
Edward Jenner, a young British physician, established in 1796 that cowpox inoculations
can confer immunity against the dreaded disease smallpox—for which the death rate
was typically 35 percent. Jenner was certainly not the first person to come up with the
idea of inoculating against smallpox, nor was he even the first to use cowpox to do so.
However, by conducting a simple experiment, he made it crystal clear that there was
a causal relationship between exposure to cowpox and immunity to smallpox. Jenner’s
experiment was simple but posed a huge risk to someone else, an eight-year-old boy
named James Phipps. It’s hard to believe, but James’s father allowed Jenner to inject the
boy with cowpox serum from an infected milkmaid and then two months later, to give
him injections, one in each arm, of actual smallpox material. James did not come down
with the disease because he had developed immunity to it. There is no way that any
physician today could do what Jenner did. It would violate every standard, ethical and
legal, that governs the behavior of medical researchers in modern times.
The many strong collocations in this paragraph hint at the degree to which English is strongly patterned
into vocabulary chunks. You can give or confer immunity. This immunity can be to or against a disease.
Diseases are often dreaded. You can pose a risk, come down with a disease, violate a standard, and govern
behavior.
How do you strengthen your knowledge of collocations? The most effective way is to read a lot so that
you often see collocational groups in action. After enough exposure, certain combinations just seem
“right” or seem to “go together.” At that point, you will have begun to develop the same instincts that
guide native and proficient English speakers.

66 BIOLOGY PART 1
Also, as we note in the section Using Dictionaries to Strengthen Vocabulary (p. 16), your dictionary can

PART 1
help you learn collocations. Collocations may be indicated in the dictionary by being set in bold, in
italics, or within example sentences. Consider the entry for disease from the Longman Advanced American
Dictionary.
dis.ease/dI'ziz/ S3 W1 noun
1 [countable, uncountable] MEDICINE an illness of the body or mind, that affects a person, animal, or plant:
Thousands of people are dying of hunger and disease.
Heart disease is a leading cause of death in the U.S. Some
Tina suffers from a rare brain disease. collocations
The viruses cause disease. shown in
She contracted the disease (=became infected with the disease) through a mosquito bite. example
Unclean drinking water can spread disease (=cause other people to become infected). sentences
There is no known cure for the disease.

2 [countable] something that is seriously wrong with society, or with someone’s mind, behavior, etc.:
Loneliness is a disease of our urban communities.
[Origin: 1300–1400 Old French desaise, from aise relaxed feeling, comfort] Other collocations noted
— diseased adjective in related vocabulary items
see also HEART DISEASE, ILLNESS, SOCIAL DISEASE, VENEREAL DISEASE

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
have a disease (also suffer from a disease formal)
How long have you had the disease?
About three million people suffer from the disease.
catch/get a disease (also contract a disease formal)
He contracted the disease while traveling in Africa.
develop a disease
A few years ago, she developed a serious lung disease.
carry a disease (=be able to pass it on)
They tried to kill the insects that carried the disease.
spread a disease/pass on a disease (also transmit a disease formal)
Parents may transmit the disease to their children.
die of/from (a) disease
He was hospitalized and nearly died from a mysterious disease.
cause a disease
Smoking is probably the major factor causing heart disease.
diagnose a disease (also diagnose somebody with a disease) (=say what a disease is)
The disease is difficult to diagnose.
He was diagnosed with the disease 10 years ago.
prevent a disease
It has been claimed that fiber in the diet can help prevent many serious diseases.
treat a disease
The disease can be treated with antibiotics.
cure a disease
The plant was believed to cure diseases.
fight (a) disease (=try to stop it continuing)
Some bacteria help the human body fight disease.
a disease spreads
The government has no idea how far the disease has spread.

Cohesion 67
 TIP
Metaphor and Collocation Oen, the factor that determines whether two items are strongly collocated is metaphor. If English
typically accepts two concepts as being related metaphorically, words for the two concepts may fit together. For example,
collocations such as The traffic flowed smoothly or The governor got some money flowing to the project are possible
because, in English, both traffic and money are considered metaphorically liquid. They can both flow.

EXERCISE 4
A. Reread “The MMR Vaccine and Anti-Vaxxers” on page 56. The following target vocabulary words
appear in that reading in acceptable collocations. The dictionary entries here illustrate other
acceptable collocations. Which example sentences (a, b, c, d) feature the target word in a collocation
that is found in the reading or the dictionary entry? Choose TWO or more.
1. cal.cu.la.tion /,kælky 'leI∫ n/ noun [countable usually plural, uncountable]
e e

1 MATH the act of adding, multiplying, dividing, etc. numbers in order to find out an amount, price, or value:
Ellie looked at the report and did some quick calculations.
by somebody’s calculations/according to somebody’s calculations
By our calculations, it will cost about $12 million to build.
2 careful planning in order to get what you want:
He defeated his opponent with cold political calculation.
3 when you think carefully about what the probable results will be if you do something

a. To estimate how long his hike would take, he made a quick calculation based on his
experience.
b. By my calculations, this dinner is going to cost us more than we paid for groceries for the
entire week.
c. It is easy to predict how the stock market will change over the next year with one calculation
at recent trends.
d. The bank robbers plotted their scheme with cold calculation.
2. con.se.quence /'kans , kwεns, -kw ns/ w3
e e AWL noun

1 [countable usually plural] something that happens as a result of a particular action or situation:
Ignoring safety procedures can have potentially tragic consequences.
consequence of
The economic consequences of vandalism are enormous.
You should be aware of the consequences of your actions.
suffer/face the consequences (=accept and deal with bad results of something you did)
He broke the law, and now he must face the consequences.
2 as a consequence (of something) as a result of something:
Tyler rarely paid for anything and, as a consequence, had no idea what things cost.
3 of little/no/any consequence without much importance or value:
Your opinion is of little consequence to me.

a. Because she wanted to see the movie so badly, the long line outside the theater was of little
consequence to her.
b. Meeting her favorite musician was a resulting consequence of getting backstage passes to the
concert.
c. Failing his final exam was an unintended consequence of a late night hanging out with friends
and not studying.
d. When the boy lied to his parents, he had to suffer the consequences of his poor choice after
his parents found out what he had done.

68 BIOLOGY PART 1
3.

PART 1
fight1 /faIt/ s1 w1 verb (past tense and past participle fought /f ct/)

1 HIT PEOPLE [intransitive, transitive] to use physical force, for example hitting or kicking, or weapons to try to hurt someone:
The children fought and pushed in line.
fight with
The two boys are always fighting with each other.
fight about/over/for
They were fighting over a woman.
She and her brother used to fight like cats and dogs (=fight violently).

a. The woman and her husband sometimes fight on the best politician for which to vote.
b. The siblings have always fought like cats and dogs, even though they really do love each other.
c. The doctor prescribed antibiotics to help fight off the infection the patient got from the cut.
d. Her immature attitude caused her to constantly fight with her friends over insignificant issues.
4. nose1 /noUz/ s1 w2 noun

1 ON YOUR FACE [countable] the part of a person’s or animal’s face used for smelling or breathing:
He broke his nose playing football.
the guy with the big nose
Here’s a Kleenex–blow your nose (=clear it by blowing).
Robin has a sore throat and a runny nose (=liquid is coming out of her nose because she has a cold).
Davey, don’t pick your nose (=clean it with your finger)!
Her eyes were red and her nose was running (=liquid was coming out of it).
2 (right) under somebody’s nose so close to someone that he or she should notice something, but does not:
The drugs were smuggled in under the noses of customs officers.
3 stick/poke your nose into something to show too much interest in private matters that do not concern you:
No one wants the government sticking its nose into the personal business of citizens.
see also NOSY

a. Even though she got over her cold, she is still suffering from a runny nose.
b. He was extremely nosy, so his friends needed to tell him to stop sticking his nose into places
it didn’t belong.
c. The mother always keeps her nose at her kids’ business because she wants to make sure they
stay out of trouble.
d. Because he just had surgery for his broken nose, the doctors warned him to not blow his nose
until it begins to heal.
5. pro.cess1 /'prasεs, 'proυ-/ s1 w1 AWL noun [countable]

1 DEVELOPMENTS SCIENCE a series of things that happen naturally and result in gradual change:
The aging process is natural and unavoidable.
Listening is an improtant part of the learning process.
2 ACTIONS
nose a series of actions that someone takes in order to achieve a particular result:
Some rebel groups oppose the peace process.
The American political process can be confusing to foreigners.
a process of (doing) something
It’s time to start the process of applying to colleges.
a process for (doing) something
The airline has tried to improve the process for checking in passengers.
Making the cheese was a slow process.
What’s the next step in the process.
3 be in the process of doing something to have started doing something and not yet be finished:
• Our office is in the process of upgrading all the computers.
4 process of elimination a way of discovering the cause of something, a right answer, or the truth
by carefully examining each possibility until only the correct one is left:
• A process of elimination may help you find out why your child can’t sleep.
a. Even though they were finished baking the cake, they still had to complete the most important step
in the process: frosting it.

Cohesion 69
 b. Although not the standard way of doing things, her process for preparing for exams worked well
for her personal studying style.
c. Through the process of elimination, they found the one wire that was broken and preventing the
lights from working.
d. As a professor in military sciences, he is responsible for delivering many lectures on the complex
war process.
6. val.ue1 /'vælyu/ s2 w1 noun

1 MONEY
a) [countable, uncountable] the amount of money that something is worth, or the qualities that
something has that make it worth the money that it costs:
Real estate values are rising once again.
value of
The exact value of the painting is not known.
We have seen a rapid increase in the value of technology stocks.
The dollar has fallen in value against the yen.
of value
(=worth a lot of money)
The only item of value was a small bronze statue.
see also MARKET VALUE, STREET VALUE
b) [countable, uncountable] used to talk about whether something is worth the amount of money that
you paid for it:
value for your money/dollars
Customers are demanding more value for their money.
something is a good/great/poor etc. value (for the money)
The software is a great value and easy to use.
c) [countable] used in advertising to mean a price that is lower than usual

a. Because the children had been spoiled their whole lives, their parents were worried that they had
never learned the value of a dollar.
b. Thanks to the excellent real estate market, the house the young couple just bought was a great
value based on its size and condition.
c. Even though he thought the figurines would be good collectors’ items and that he would become
rich off of them in a few years, it turns out that they had significantly fallen in value over the
past five years.
d. She decided to buy the car immediately because of its excellent value at the money.
B. Compare answers with a partner.

Go to to complete a skill practice.

70 BIOLOGY PART 1
 PART 1
APPLY YOUR SKILLS
WHY IT’S USEFUL By applying the skills you have learned in this unit, you can successfully read this
thought-provoking reading about the latest type of vaccinations.

BEFORE YOU READ

A. Discuss these questions with one or more students.
1. If you could create a vaccination for any disease that exists today, what would it be and why? Do
you think it is scientifically possible to eradicate all serious diseases on Earth?
2. Do you think companies that create vaccinations should be able to become rich off of selling their
drug? Why or why not?
3. Would you consider trying a vaccination that is still in the clinical trial phase or is allowed in other
countries but not your own? Where would you draw the line? Explain.
B. Imagine that you will be participating in a small group discussion about the passage “DNA Vaccines,”
which begins on the next page. Your group will be discussing the following questions. Keep these
questions in mind as you read the passage.
1. When did DNA vaccines first begin being developed? Are they widely available today?
2. How are DNA vaccines created?
3. What occurs on a cellular level when DNA vaccines enter the body? What is the end result?
4. Why are DNA vaccines considered safer than attenuated vaccines?
5. What is one reason why DNA vaccines remain in clinical trials?
C. Review the Unit Skills Summary. As you read the passage, apply skills you learned in this unit.

UNIT SKILLS SUMMARY

Understand cohesion.
• Recognize patterns of cohesion to understand how ideas relate to one other.
Recognize cause / effect, compare / contrast, and problem / solution cohesion.
• Develop your understanding of how an author produces unified ideas through three types
of cohesion.
Understand cohesion in descriptions.
• Recognize the pattern of information in a description to develop accurate mental images of an object,
person, place, or process.
Use outlines and graphic organizers.
• Use an outline or graphic organizer to help you organize your thoughts and understand what
you read.
Recognize collocations.
• Recognize and understand the collocations in which a vocabulary item commonly occurs.

Cohesion 71
READ
A. Read the passage. Annotate and take notes as necessary.

DNA Vaccines attempting to convert the DNA vaccine into a

liquid form that could be used as nasal spray.
3 After the DNA vaccine is injected into
1 In the more than two centuries since vaccination the|body, it accomplishes two goals: creating a
became a mainstream medical approach, strong cellular response and building a potent
medical researchers have struggled to stay ahead humoral, or antibody, response. Once injected,
in the contest with mutating microbes and to DNA vaccinations prompt helper T cells and B
create vaccines that are safer and more directly cells to multiply and produce memory cells, as
targeted. The established home territory of well as activate cytotoxic “killer” T cells, which
vaccination involves live attenuated and inactive are the toughest pathogen fighters. This type
vaccines (see “Live Attenuated Vaccines and of dual cellular and humoral response gives
Inactivated Vaccines,” p. 53). A little further out long-lasting immunity, similar to what most
from the medical home country are subunit and live attenuated vaccines achieve; however,
conjugate vaccines, which were actually not they are much safer than a live-virus vaccine.
possible before modern technological advances. Attenuated vaccines, though very effective, are
The outer frontier of vaccines is now in the realm capable of occasionally causing the illness they
of DNA vaccines, which research first began to are meant to provide protection against. Because
test only in the 1990s. Though the vast majority DNA vaccine plasmids are not living, and thus
of DNA vaccines are still in clinical trials, the nonreplicating, there is no risk that they may
global market for research and development for cause an illness. For these reasons, DNA vaccines
the vaccines has grown tremendously over the hold enormous promise in the development
past several years. Given DNA vaccines’ ability to of both prophylactic vaccines, such as those
elicit strong immune responses, as well as their that target a pathogen, as well as therapeutic
relative safety, they could eventually achieve vaccinations, which fight cancer.
the goal of inoculating patients against the 4 Because of the advantages of DNA vaccines,
most devastating maladies of our age, including their release to the public is highly anticipated.
malaria, HIV, and cancer. However, unfortunately, virtually all remain
2 When compared with more-established in clinical trials. So far, in clinical trials with
methods, DNA vaccines have an altogether human patients, DNA vaccines have shown
different approach. Neither attenuated nor mixed results. While they are both cost effective
killed pathogens are involved, nor are pathogen and well tolerated by patients, some concerns
subunits isolated. Instead, DNA vaccines utilize hamper their advancement. In particular, these
the genetic material from the virus or bacteria are related to their ability to disrupt cellular
to elicit an immune response. To create a DNA processes and produce anti-DNA antibodies,
vaccine, scientists first isolate a gene from the resulting in too low a level of immunogenicity.
target pathogen. They then splice the viral gene This essentially means that they are not
into a double-stranded DNA vector. This vector, effective enough. It is worthwhile to note,
also known as a bacterial plasmid, is a circular however, that the technology for improving the
genetic structure that can be replicated and vaccines’ efficacy has advanced by leaps and
purified in a laboratory. Once the plasmid is bounds since the 1990s.
established, the vaccine is ready to be injected. 5 Though DNA vaccines are not yet established
In some cases, plasmid is layered on the outside in a vaccination schedule or routinely given to
of gold beads or particles. It is then shot directly HIV or cancer patients, it is likely that this will
into tissue through a “gene gun,” which uses change in the relatively near future. If global
high-pressure gas to insert particles into living market reports are any indication, scientists
tissue. Research indicates that scientists are also foresee continued breakthroughs in the vaccines

72 BIOLOGY PART 1
 sooner rather than later. The global DNA vaccine are in uncharted waters with the development

PART 1
market was valued at nearly $244 million in 2013 of DNA vaccines, but they are hopeful that in
but is expected to grow to $2.7 billion by 2019, the not-so-distant future, advancements will
according to some market research. In addition, lead to the eradication of currently incurable
new biotechnologies and nanotechnologies illnesses.
are helping to improve the vaccines. Scientists

B. Reread the questions in Before You Read, Part B. Is there anything you cannot answer? What reading
skills can you use to help you find the answers?
Go to to read the passage again and answer critical thinking questions.

THINKING CRITICALLY
In “DNA Vaccines,” you read that DNA vaccines have levels of immunogenicity that are lower than they
should be, which is why essentially all of them remain in clinical trials. Research the vaccine used against
one of these illnesses: typhoid fever, yellow fever, or rotavirus. Then answer the following questions:
• Did this vaccine encounter the same problem as DNA vaccines do (too low a level of immunogenicity)
when it was in clinical trials? If so, what steps were taken for it to be approved for use?
• If it did not, were there any other issues during clinical trials, such as participants experiencing
adverse side effects? If so, what were those issues?
• What steps were taken to get this vaccine past clinical trials and approved for use? How long did the
entire vaccine development and approval process take?
• Are there any attempts to develop DNA vaccines for the disease you chose?
• Based on your findings and answers, what conclusions can you draw about the disease and vaccine
you researched?

THINKING VISUALLY
Study the graph. Based on what you read in “DNA Vaccines” as well as what you read earlier in the unit
about other more established vaccine types, what do you think might account for projections shown in
the graph? Consider specific features of DNA vaccines, including but not limited to the following: the
process through which they are created, their method of inoculation, their effectiveness, and any known
advantages and disadvantages.

GLOBAL MARKET FOR DNA VACCINES

3.0 billion

2.5 billion
$Millions/Billions

2.0 billion

1.5 billion

1.0 billion

500 million

0
2013 2014 2019
Years
A compound annual growth rate [CAGR] of 54.8% over the
five-year period from 2014 through 2019

Cohesion 73
 THINKING ABOUT LANGUAGE
Read these excerpts from “DNA Vaccines” and notice the collocations in bold. Use the collocation
feature of a print or online dictionary, an online corpus, or an Internet browser to search for each
collocation. For each collocation, choose two example sentences that use the collocation and write
them on the lines. Remember to cite your sources.
1. In the more than two centuries since vaccination became a mainstream medical approach, medical
researchers have struggled to stay ahead in the contest with mutating microbes and to create
vaccines that are safer and more directly targeted.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
2. Though the vast majority of DNA vaccines are still in clinical trials, the global market for research
and development for the vaccines has grown tremendously over the past several years.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:

Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
3. For these reasons, DNA vaccines hold enormous promise in the development of both prophylactic
vaccines, such as those that target a pathogen, as well as therapeutic vaccinations, which fight
cancer.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
4. So far, in clinical trials with human patients, DNA vaccines have shown mixed results.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:

74 BIOLOGY PART 1
5. It is worthwhile to note, however, that the technology for improving the vaccines’ efficacy has

PART 1
advanced by leaps and bounds since the 1990s.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
6. If global market reports are any indication, scientists foresee continued breakthroughs in the
vaccines sooner rather than later.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
7. The global DNA vaccine market was valued at nearly $244 million in 2013 but is expected to grow
to $2.7 billion by 2019, according to some market research.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
8. Scientists are in uncharted waters with the development of DNA vaccines, and they are hopeful
that in the not-so-distant future, advancements will lead to the eradication of currently incurable
illnesses.
Sentence 1:

Source:

Sentence 2:

Source:
Go to to listen to Professor Siegel and to complete a self-assessment.

Cohesion 75