Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Region I
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF ILOCOS NORTE

General Biology 2
Quarter 1 – Module 5:
Systematics Based on
Evolutionary Relationships: Tree
of Life and Taxonomy

MELC: Explain how the structural and developmental

characteristics and relatedness of DNA sequences are
used in classifying living things
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-3)
Identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a
specific taxon relative to other taxa
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-4)

Prepared by:

HYA LIZA O. QUIBUYEN

Teacher I
Paoay Lake National High School
General Biology 2- Grade 11/12
Quarter 1 – Module 5: Systematics Based on Evolutionary Relationships: Tree
of Life and Taxonomy
First Edition, 2020

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 11
General Biology 2
Quarter 1 – Module 5:
Systematics Based on
Evolutionary Relationships: Tree
of Life and Taxonomy
Introductory Message
For the Facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module on: Systematics Based on

Evolutionary Relationships: Tree of Life and Taxonomy. This module was
collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators both from public and
private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in helping the learners
meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal,
social, and economic constraints in schooling.
This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and
independent learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also
aims to help learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the
body of the module:

Note to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that will help you in
guiding the learners

As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist
the learners as they do the tasks included in the module.
For the learner:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module on: Systematics Based on

Evolutionary Relationships: Tree of Life and Taxonomy. This module was designed to
provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent
learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of
the learning resource while being an active learner.
This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need This will give you an idea of the skills or competencies
to Know you are expected to learn in the module.

1
 This part includes an activity that aims to check what
What I Know
you already know about the lesson to take. If you get
all the answers correct (100%), you may decide to skip
this module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the

current lesson with the previous one.

In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced to

What’s New
you in various ways such as a story, a song, a poem,
a problem opener, an activity or a situation.

This section provides a brief discussion of the lesson.

What is it
This aims to help you discover and understand new
concepts and skills.

This comprises activities for independent practice to

What’s More
solidify your understanding and skills of the topic.
You may check the answers to the exercises using the
Answer Key at the end of the module.

What I have This includes questions or blank sentence/paragraph

Learned to be filled in to process what you learned from the
lesson.

What I Can This section provides an activity which will help you
Do transfer your new knowledge or skill into real life
situations or concerns.

This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of

Assessment
mastery in achieving the learning competency.

Additional In this portion, another activity will be given to you to

Activities enrich your knowledge or skill of the lesson learned.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

This is a list of all sources used in developing this

References module.

2
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not
alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. This unit enhances
your understanding of the basic principles and concepts of systematics and how
such discipline is aimed at answering evolutionary questions. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module consists of:

 Lesson 9– Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and
relatedness of DNA sequences are used in classifying living things.
 Lesson 10A-Identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon
relative to other taxa.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe the multiple lines of evidence used to infer evolutionary
relatedness;
2. discuss how anatomical, developmental and relatedness in DNA sequences
are used as evidence to infer the relatedness of taxa; and
3. explain that classification is based on evolutionary relatedness
4. describe the Linnaean system of classification;
5. classify organisms into a hierarchy; and
6. construct and use dichotomous keys for identification.

3
 What I Know
Find out how much you already know about the topics in this module. Choose the
letter of the best answer. Take note of the items that you were not able to answer
correctly and find the right answer as you go through this module.

1. The scientific term discipline concerned with naming organisms is called

a. Taxonomy b. Binomial nomenclature
b. Cladistics d. Systematics
2. The various taxonomic levels (viz, genera, classes, etc.) of the hierarchical
classification system differ from each other is based on ____________.
a. How widely the organisms assigned to each other are distributed
throughout the environment
b. The body sizes of the organisms assigned to each
c. Their inclusiveness
d. Morphological characters that are applicable to all organisms.
3. Which of these illustrates the correct representation of the binomial
scientific name for the African lion?
a. Panthera leo c. Panthera Leo
b. Panthera leo d. Panthera Leo
4. A phylogenic tree that is “rooted” is one _______________________.
a. That extends back to the origin of life on Earth.
b. At whose base is located the common ancestor of a taxa depicted on
that tree.
c. That illustrates the rampant gene swapping that occurred early in
life’s history
d. With very few branch points.
5. The correct sequence, from the most to the least comprehensive, of the
taxonomic level listed here is ______________________.
a. Family, phylum, class, kingdom, order, species, and genus.
b. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
c. Kingdom, phylum, order, class, family, genus, species.
d. Phylum, kingdom, order, class, species, family, and genus.
6. If, someday an archaen cell is discovered whose SSU-rRNA Sequence is
more similar to that of humans than the sequence of mouse SSU- rRNA
is to humans, the best explanation for this apparent discrepancy would
be _______________.
a. Homology
b. Homoplasty
c. Common ancestry
d. Co- evolution of humans and that Archean.
7. The best classification system is that of which most closely______________.
a. Unites organisms that possess similar morphologies
b. Conforms to traditional, Linnaean taxonomic practices
c. Reflects evolutionary history
d. Reflects the basic separation of prokaryotes from eukaryotes

4
8. Which of the following pairs are the best example of homologous
structures?
a. Bat wing and human arm
b. Owl wing and hornet wing
c. Porcupine quill and cactus spine
d. Bat forelimb and bird wing
9. The importance of computers and of computer software to modern
cladistics most closely linked to advances in_______________.
a. Light microscopy
b. Radiometric dating
c. Fossil discovery
d. Molecular genetics
10. Generally, within the lineage, the largest number of shared derived
characters should be found among two organisms that are members of
the same ____________.
a. Kingdom
b. Domain
c. Class
d. Family
11. Which of the following is not true of all horizontally oriented
phylogenetic trees, where time advances to the right?
a. Each branch point represents a point in absolute time.
b. Organisms represented at the base of such trees are ancestral to
those represented at higher levels
c. The more branch points that occur between two taxa, the more
divergent their DNA sequences should be
d. The common ancestors represented by rightmost branch point
existed more recently in time than the common ancestors
represented at the branch points located to the left.
12. When using a cladistics approach to systematics, which of the following
is considered most important for classification?
a. Shared primitive characters
b. Analogous primitive character
c. Shared derived character
d. The number of homoplasies
13. Cladograms (a type of phylogenic tree) constructed from evidence from
molecular systematics are based on similarities in
a. Morphology
b. The pattern of embryological development
c. Biochemical pathways
d. Mutations to homologous genes.
14. A phylogenic tree constructed using sequence different in mitochondrial
DNA would be most valid for discerning the evolutionary relatedness of
_______________.
a. Archaean and bacteria
b. Fungi and animals
c. Hawaiian silverwords
d. Sharks and dolphins

5
15. Which of the following statements represent the best explanation for the
observation that the nuclear DNA of wolves and domestic dogs have high
degree of homology?
a. Dogs and wolves have very similar morphologies
b. Dogs and wolves belong to the same order
c. Dogs and wolves are both members of the order Carnivora
d. Dogs and wolves shared a common ancestor very recently.

6
 Systematic Based on
Lesson
Evolutionary Relationships:
9
The Tree of Life

Welcome to the Alternative Delivery Module (ADM) on Systematics

Based on Evolutionary Relationships: Tree of Life and Taxonomy.

What’s In
Activity 1. Let’s Key Out!
Directions: There are six kingdoms, give an example for each kingdom

Animalia Plantae Fungi Eubacteria Archaea Protista

Examples

What is New
A skill that a young Filipino biologist needs to always have is a keen eye for
details. Having such, you can distinguish any particular entities and describe any
living specimens at hand. In most occasions, biologist must solely identify an
unknown specimen. A taxonomic key is suitable tool for this purpose, which an
organized set of couplets of mutually exclusive characteristics of biological
organisms. These taxonomic keys will begin with general characteristics and lead to
couplets indicating progressively specific characteristics.

What is It
How many species are here on Earth? For years, this question keeps on
perplexing many biologists. Speculations, wild guesses, and rough estimations point
as low as half million and as high as 100 million, or maybe even more. The Philippine
alone which is known to be a mega hotspot for biodiversity has a significant number
of endemic (an ecological state of a species being distinctive to a defined geographic
location) wildlife species which is roughly around 60,000 species of flora and fauna.

7
Concept of Species
Naming, identifying, describing, and classifying biological specimens are just
the basic duties of any young biologist. Ever since Darwin’s publication of On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, the scientific community has been
arduous to understand how different species are formed. Because of evolutionary
processes that occur on earth, there will always be a great chance that new species
will arise and are waiting to be discovered. Because of speciation, the task now of
many systematist will always be considered boundless.
Most biological information is given with reference to a species. There is a
whole discipline called Taxonomy that is dedicated to the delimitation of species,
which requires a species concept. Species concepts do not only define what a species
is; but by defining what a species is, they also define what speciation really is.
Pattern-Based Definitions.

1. The Darwinian definition (Darwin, 1859). A simple definition during the

time of Darwin was created, which simply noted that a species is a term
“arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely
resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term
variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms.
2. Morphological/phonetic species concept. A more clarifying definition was
presented in 1978 wherein a species is “the smallest group that are
consistently and persistently distinct, and distinguishable by ordinary means”
(Cronquist,1978). So basically, the min criterion of this definition is that for
as long as there is a clear morphological distinction from another group, it is
separate species. However, the problem with this definition is that it cannot
address cryptomorphic (sibling) species, which are morphologically similar
looking species but are genetically unrelated (Bickford et al.2007).
3. Phylogenetic species concept. A phylogenetic species is “an irreducible
(basal) cluster of organisms, diagnosably distinct from other such cluster, and
within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent”
(Cracraft,1989). This concept is also recommended for prokaryotes
(Stanley,2006) and has recently been referred to in several DNA barcoding and
DNA taxonomy studies. However, there are problems with this concept in
sexual as well as sexual reproduction.
4. Genotypic cluster species concept. Just as the phylogenetic species
concept, this concept in principle is applicable for asexual organisms as well
since it defines species as a genotypic cluster definition would result in the
undesirable consequences that each genetically different clone would be
identified as a separate species (Mallet, 1995).

Modes of Speciation
Given the philosophical and scientific definitions of species, the simplest way
to explain that for one species to become two (insipient species) is that separate
populations of the same species must become reproductively isolated. For
reproductive isolation to evolve, some change must occur in one or both lineages in
ecology, behavior, physiology, biochemistry, or genetic system that will make them
reproductively incompatible (De Queiroz,2005). The process on how one lineage
becomes incompatible with its closest relative lineage is the key question of jow new
species are formed.

8
 1. Allopatric speciation. Is the
evolution of reproductive barriers
between populations that are
geographically separated.
Speciation occurs because a
given group has been separated
from the parent group usually
because of the geographical
event (i.e., mountain building,
land, fragmentation etc.) as time
goes by. The isolated population
then undergo genotypic and/or
phenotypic diverse as: (a) they
become exposed to dissimilar
selective pressures;(b) undergo
genetic drift independently; or(c) different mutation arise in the two
populations (Hoskin et al,2005)). When the populations come back into
contact, they have evolved such that they are no longer capable of
exchanging genes.

This speciation mechanism

explains how the expedition of
Charles Darwin to the Galapagos
islands went through especially
when he noticed that the
tortoises could be distinguished
on each island and the finch
birds (know now as the Darwin
finches) differed from
one island to another.

Image from https://goo.gl/496slZ

There are two types of allopatric speciation:

9
a. Peripatric speciation. Involves
new species that developed from
reproductive isolation in small
marginal population of a species
that are prevented from
exchanging genes with the main
population. It is generally
hypothesized that founder
populations, because they are
small, have reduced genetic
variation and low fitness due to
genetic drift. Genetic drift
increases the frequency of alleles
that were documented to be rare
in the ancestral population.
Selection of new combinations of
alleles that are compatible with
the newly fixed alleles may occur
and allow increased fitness in the new conditions. This results
reorganization of the genome that makes it incompatible with the
ancestral population (Templeton,1980). A famous case study that
explains this mode of speciation was the Australian bird Petroica
multicolor.

b. Parapatric speciation. Involves the origin of new species over the

former range of the ancestral species. The population can only diverge
if there is relatively strong selection cross the geographic range of the
species. A stable hybrid zone may result if there is moderate selection
against the hybrids. When a strong selection against the hybrid occurs,
complete divergence can occur similar to reinforcement of reproductive
isolation in formerly allopatric populations. In the case of parapatric
speciation, population of plants on contaminated soils is one example.
Hybrid are formed in an environment with contaminated soils that are
unfit in either environment. Selection against hybrids has resulted in
divergence in floweringtime in adjascent popultions and selection for
self-pollination in the population on the contaminated soil (Bank et
al.,2012) A good example is Plantago major, a common European plant.

2. Sympatric speciation. Refers to the formation of two or more

descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the
same geographic location. Habitat change and difference in
reproductive cycle is a strong disruptive selection that may result in
divergent phenotypes. This produces hybrids that are unfit for the
environment for which the parental types are well suited. A common
example of sympatric speciation is found in insects that become
dependent on different host plant in the same area.

10
Lines of Evidence: The Science of evolution
At the heart of evolutionary theory is the basic idea that life has existed
for billions of years and has changed over time.
Overwhelming evidence supports this fact. Scientist continue to argue
about details of evolution, but the question of whether life has a long history
or not answered in the affirmative at least two centuries ago.
a. Fossil Evidence. The fossil
record provides snapshots
of the past that, when
assembles, illustrate a
panorama of evolutionary
change over the past 4
billion years. The picture
may be smudged in places
and ay have bits missing,
but fossil evidence clearly
shows that life old and has
changed over time.

b. Homologies. Evolutionary theory predicts that related organisms will

share similarities that are derived from common ancestors. Similar
characteristics due to relatedness are known as homologies.
Homologies can be revealed by comparing the anatomies of different
living things, looking at cellular similarities and differences, studying
embryological development, and studying vestigial structures within
individual organisms.

In the following photos of plants, the leaves are quite different from the
"normal" leaves we envision.

11
Frogs, birds, rabbits and lizards all have different forelimbs, reflecting their
different lifestyles. But those different forelimbs all share the same set of bones -
the humerus, the radius, and the ulna. These are the same bones seen in fossils
of the extinct transitional animal, Eusthenopteron, which demonstrates their
common ancestry.

c. Distribution in time and space.

Understanding the
history of life on Earth
requires a grasp of the
depth of time and breadth
of space. We must keep in
mind that the time
involved is vast compared
to a human lifetime and
the space necessary for
this to occur includes all
the water and land
surfaces of the world.
Establishing
chronologies, both
relative and absolute, and geographic change over time are essential for
viewing the motion picture that is the history of life on Earth.
D. Evidence by example. Although the history of life is always in the past,
there are many ways we can look at present-day organisms, as well as recent

12
history, to better understand what has occurred through deep time. Artificial
selection in agriculture or laboratories provides a model for natural selection.
Looking at interactions of organisms in ecosystems helps us to understand
how populations adapt over time. Experiments demonstrate selection and
adaptive advantage. And we can see nested hierarchies in taxonomies based
on common descent.
Classification is linked to Phylogeny

Biologists use phylogenetic trees for many purposes, including:

I. Testing hypotheses about evolution

II. Learning about the characteristics of extinct species and ancestral lineages
III. Classifying organisms

The connection between classification and phylogeny is that

hierarchical classification is reflected in the progressively finer branching of
phylogenetic trees. The branching patterns in some cases match the
hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups. In
other situations, however, certain similarities among organisms may lead
taxonomists to place a species within a group of organisms (for example genus
or family) other than the group to which it is closely related. If systematists
conclude that such mistake has occurred, the organism may be reclassified
(that is placed in a different genus or family) to accurately reflect its
evolutionary history.

13
Reconstructing Phylogenies

A Phylogeny is a history of the evolutionary descent of extant (i.e.,

presently living) or extinct (e.i., no longer living) taxa from ancestral forms. To
date, about 1.4 million species (including 750,000 insects, 250,000 plants
and 41,000 vertebrates) of the 5 to 50 million on earth have been scientifically
described and classified (Krempels,2003).

Primitive Vs Derived Characters

Species found at present evolved from previously existing species that
we call as ancestral species. The traits of the descendant species may involve
a descent with modification of traits (taxonomist use the term
character)9Krempels and Lee,2013). Any character that shows little or no
change from ancestral trait is said to be primitive and those that undergo
modification in terms of appearance and/or function in relation to its
ancestral trait is said to be derived character. A primitive character is known
as pleismorphy; a shared primitive character between two or more taxa is
symplesiomorphy; a derived character is apomorphy; a shared derived
character between two or more taxa is known as synapomorphy (Krempels
and Lee,2013). This particular concept is very important since the first step

14
in basic cladistics analysis is to determine which character states are
primitive and which are derived.

Homologous or Analogous Character

Given that closely related
species share common ancestor
and may often resemble each
other, overall similarity might
seem to be the best solution to
uncover the evolutionary
relationships. If similarity
between two character in two
separate taxa is attributable to
their presence in a common
ancestor, then these two
character are said to be homologous. For example, the forelimb bones of all
tetrapod (four-legged) vertebrates are homologous to one another because
they all evolved from the sme bones in a common tetrapod ancestor. Despite
the difference in sizes, shapes, and functions, they all develop from the same
embryonic sources and have evolved from the same ancestral tetrapod limb
bones.
However, not all physical similarities are homologous in nature. Most of
the time, when unrelated taxa adopt a similar way of life, their body parts may
take on similar functions and end up resembling one another due to
convergent evolution. When two species have a similar characteristic because
of convergent evolution, the feature is called analogous feature (homoplasy).
For example, a shark and aa dolphin both share fusiform shape that is well
adapted for rapid swimming. However, while the shark’s body evolved from
fishlike ancestor with a somewhat fusiform shape, the dolphin’s fishlike form
is secondarily derived from that of a terrestrial, four-legged mammalian
ancestor. Characteristics that evolved into similar form and function from
disparate ancestral sources are said to be analogous.

Analogous characters are sometimes

called homoplastic character or
homoplasies.

15
Symplesiomorphies vs. Synapomorphies
All living things share evolutionary history, however distantly, each
taxon shares certain very ancient (i.e.,primitive, or plesiomorphic) characters
with other taxa. Shared primitive characters cannot be used to separate
members of different taxa since everyone has them. However, more recently
evolved (i.e., derived, or apomorphic) characters can set one taxon apart from
another. Synapomorphies inherited from a common ancestor can inform the
systematist about relative recency of common descent. The more
synapomorphies two taxa have in common, the more recently they evolved
from a common ancestor (Krempels and lee,2013). For examples, the hand of
the first invertebrates to live on land had five digits. Many living terrestrial
vertebrates (such human, turtles, crocodiles, and frogs) also have five digits
because they inherited from this common ancestor. This feature is then
homologous in all of these species. In contrast, horses, zebras, and donkeys
have just single digit with hoof. This simply means that humans are more
closely related to horses, zebras, and donkeys even they have a homology in
common with turtles, crocodiles, and frogs. The five-digit condition is
primitive state (symplesiomorphic) for the number of digits. This was then
modified and reduced to just one digit in the common ancestor of horses,
donkeys, and zebras. The modified derived state (synpomorphic) does tell us
that horses, zebras, and donkeys share a very recent common ancestor, but
the primitive form is not an evidence that the species are particularly closely
related (Krempels and Lee,2013)

16
 What’s More

Activity 2: Think of ME!

Use the figure below to answer questions.

1. According to the figure, which species is most closely related to red pandas?

2. Although giant pandas and raccoons share some distinct anatomical similarities, they are
in different clades. What type of evidence do you think was used to construct this diagram?

Activity 3: Arrange Me Now!

Direction: Arrange the following jumbled letters and identify it. Write your
answers on the space provided.

Jumbled Word What am I?

G OYHOOLM
SEICEPS
AMSTYSCITE
LOVENO ITU
DENCEEVI

17
 What I have Learned
Activity 4. Let’s Dig the Treasure!
Direction: Direction: Hunt words related to Systematics and evolution by
encircling them. Write two words on the spaces below and define them.

C L A D I S T I C I S M I P
I M P A C T O F R A A V M H
M S P E C I A T I O N A B Y
X Y A N S H B A I N C B O L
F M S U R E N X M A E N S O
A P Y C A U S O E H S M P G
N A S D I A T N O R T S E E
W T T A C T I V I S R O C N
P R E F E A T U R E A R I Y
E I M I A M N O T A L I E S
R C W Y G O L O M O H H S A
I V I S I T A T I O N I M W
P I N C I R T A P A R A P E
A N M I N I M A L I S T I R
T T A N A L O G O U S T I I
R A D I A T I O N I S T M S
I G E G E N O T Y P I C E M
C E B R A N C H O U T Q U E
B S U D C H A B U S T O N R

What I Can Do

Activity 5. Performance Task

Direction: Examine the cladogram below. Each letter represents a derived

characteristic. Match the letter to its characteristic.

18
 1. ___________ wings
2. ___________ 6 legs
3. ___________Segmented body
4. ___________Double set of wings
5. ___________Cerci (back appendages)
6. ___________Crushing mouth
7. ___________legs
8. ___________curly antenna

Assessment

Direction: Read each item carefully and write the letter of the correct answer
before the item.

1. The legless condition that is observed in several groups of extant

reptiles is the result of __________________.
a. Their common ancestor having been legless
b. A shared adaptation to an arboreal (living in tree) lifestyle.
c. Several instances of the legless condition arising independently
of each other.
d. Individual lizards adapting to a fossorial (living in burrows)
lifestyle during their lifetimes.
2. Some molecular data place the giant panda in the bear family (Ursidae)
but place the lesser panda in the raccoon family (Procyonidae).
Consequently, the morphological similarities of these two species are
probably due to ___________________.
a. inheritance of acquired characteristics.
b. sexual selection.
c. inheritance of shared derived characters.
d. possession of analogous structures.

19
Use the figure to answer the following questions.

3. A common ancestor for both species C and E could be at position

number _______.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
4. The two extant species that are most closely related to each other are ___________.
a. A and B
b. B and C
c. C and D
d. D and A
5. Which species are extinct?
a. A and E
b. A and B
c. C and D
d. D and B
6. Which of the following is not true of all horizontally oriented phylogenetic
trees, where time advances to the right?
a. Each branch point represents a point in absolute time.
b. Organisms represented at the base of such trees are ancestral
to those represented at higher levels.
c. The more branch points that occur between two taxa, the more
divergent their DNA sequences should be.
d. The common ancestor represented by the rightmost branch
point existed more recently in time than the common
ancestors represented at branch points located to the left.
7. When using a cladistic approach to systematics, which of the following is
considered most important for classification?
a. shared primitive characters
b. analogous primitive characters
c. shared derived characters
d. the number of homoplasies

20
8. Based on this tree, which of the following statements is not correct?

a. The lineage leading to salamanders was the first to diverge from the
other lineages.
b. Salamanders are a sister group to the group containing lizards, goats,
and humans.
c. Salamanders are as closely related to goats as they are to humans.
d. Lizards are more closely related to salamanders than lizards are to
humans.
9. The common ancestors of birds and mammals were very early (stem) reptiles,
which almost certainly possessed 3-chambered hearts (2 atria, 1 ventricle).
Birds and mammals, however, are alike in having 4 -chambered hearts (2 atria,
2 ventricles). The 4-chambered hearts of birds and mammals are best described
as
a. structural homologies.
b. vestiges.
c. homoplasies.
d. the result of shared ancestry
10. Generally, within a lineage, the largest number of shared derived
characters should be found among two organisms that are members of
the same
a. kingdom.
b. class.
c. domain.
d. family

21
 Additional Activities
Directions: Construct a Phylogenic Tree by providing the given details.

Hair Eggs with Shells

Amniotic egg

Four limbs

Bony skeleton

Vertebrae

22
 23
Activity 4
C L A D I S T I C I S M I P
I M P A C T O F R A A V M H
M S P E C I A T I O N A B Y
X Y A N S H B A I N C B O L
F M S U R E N X M A E N S O
A P Y C A U S O E H S M P G
N A S D I A T N O R T S E E
W T T A C T I V I S R O C N
P R E F E A T U R E A R I Y
E I M I A M N O T A L I E S
R C W Y G O L O M O H H S A
I V I S I T A T I O N I M W
P I N C I R T A P A R A P E
A N M I N I M A L I S T I R
T T A N A L O G O U S T I I
R A D I A T I O N I S T M S
I G E G E N O T Y P I C E M
Assessment C E B R A N C H O U T Q U E
1. C B S U D C H A B U S T O N R
2. D
3. D
4. C Activity 4 Activity 3
5. A 1.F What I Know:
6. A 2. C Homology
7. C 3. A 1. A
4. G Species 2. C
8. D
9. C 5. E Systematics 3. B
10. D 6. D 4. B
7. B Evolution 5. B
8. H 6. B
Evidence 7. C
8. A
Human, Moss, Amoeba, Unicellular Streptococci, 9. D
animals algae, euglena organisms bacillus 10. D
insects, plants 11. A
jelly fish 12. C
13. D
Molds, 14. C
mushroom, 15. D
16.
yeast
Answer Key
Additional Activities

24
 Systematic Based on
Lesson
Evolutionary Relationships:
10A
Taxonomy

Welcome to the Alternative Delivery Module (ADM) Systematics Based

on Evolutionary Relationships: Tree of Life and Taxonomy

What’s In
Activity 1. Let’s Do it!
Directions: Let us key out (this is a jargon verb frequently used to describe
the process of identifying things with a taxonomic key) some of the well-known
medicinal plants in the Philippines by matching them with their appropriate
local name using the taxonomic key below. Use the space provided for your
answers.
A1. Elongated-pointed types of leaves, about 1 m, go to B
and flat
A2. Non-elongated go to C

B1. Leaves grow from a white stalk with bulbous Cympobogon

lower ends citratus
B2. Leaves attached to the woody aerial part of the Pandanus
plant amaryllifolius

C1. Hs circular leaflets from pinnately compound Moringa oleifera

leaf
C2. Has no circular leaflets go to D

D1. Lance-shape (lanceolated) more stretched than Vitex negundo

wide leaves
D2. Heart-shape leaves go to E

E1. Stems are thick with protuberances Tinospora rumphii

E2. Stems are soft and fleshy Peperomia pellucida

25
Lagundi Makabuhay Pandan
Specific Name: Specific Name: Specific Name:

Tanglad Malunggay Pansit-pansitan

Specific Name: Specific Name: Specific Name:

Note the Teachers

The teacher must consider the prerequisite skills needed in
the development of this competency including the schema or
background knowledge which may reinforce learning. This module
will help the learners bridge the gap of learning to attain mastery
of the lesson in its spiral progression.

26
 What is New
To efficiently study the countless organisms that occupy our biosphere,
we can attempt to classify and describe different organisms into groups that
will eventually reflect evolutionary relationships. A taxonomic key is a suitable
tool for this purpose, which is an organized set of couplet of mutually
exclusive characteristics of biological organisms. Because the key branches
split in two at each stage, it is called a dichotomous (from the Greek dicho
meaning “in two” or “split” and tom, meaning “to cut”) key. The paired
statements describe contrasting features found in the organisms being
classified. These taxonomic keys will begin with general characteristics and
lead to couplets indicating progressively specific characteristics. If the
organism falls into one category, you go to the next indicated couplet until
you can identify your specimen to the indicated taxonomy level. However,
there are instances that the identification of specimen requires you to consult
primary literatures to look at the species description. Indeed, identification of
unknown species can be quite challenging. Are you up for challenges?

What is It
How many species are here on Earth? For years, this question keeps on
perplexing many biologists. Speculations, wild guesses, and rough
estimations point as low as half million and as high as 100 million, or maybe
even more. The Philippine alone which is known to be a mega hotspot for
biodiversity has a significant number of endemic (an ecological state of a
species being distinctive to a defined geographic location) wildlife species
which is roughly around 60,000 species of flora and fauna.
Concept of Species
Naming, identifying, describing, and classifying biological specimens
are just the basic duties of any young biologist. Ever since Darwin’s
publication of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, the
scientific community has been arduous to understand how different species
are formed. Because of evolutionary processes that occur on earth, there will
always be a great chance that new species will arise and are waiting to be
discovered. Because of speciation, the task now of many systematist will
always be considered boundless.

27
 Most biological information is given with reference to a species. There
is a whole discipline called Taxonomy that is dedicated to the delimitation of
species, which requires a species concept. Species concepts do not only define
what a species is; but by defining what a species is, they also define what
speciation really is.

Taxonomy vs. Systematics

In strict definition, systematics is the study of the diversification of life

forms, both past and present, and their relationships among other organism
through time. Taxonomy, on the other hand, is the science of arranging and
classifying living organisms into groups called taxa.

Role Taxonomist Systematist

(1)Provides scientific names  

(2)Gives a detailed description of an organism  

(3) Collects and keeps volumes of specimen  

(4) Offers classification for the organisms,

constructing identification keys and data on  
their occurrence and distribution
(5)Investigation on evolutionary histories 

(6)Considers environmental adaptation of


species

Biological Nomenclature and Some Basic Rules

It is always important that a name would be assigned to any organism

and though some species can have thousands of common names throughout
the world, each has only single scientific name. Thus, a formal system of
naming species of living things was created and which follows a complete
organizational hierarchy, from species through domain. Each domain
contains related kingdoms and each kingdom consists of related phyla and so
on. Within each of these ranks, there may be larger and smaller taxa such as
subkingdom, super phylum, subclass, subspecies, etc.

28
 There are many ways to classify objects 9e.g., color, size, shape, genetic
sequence, etc.). The trick is to try to determine which characteristics are the
best to describe a particular species and to distinguish it from other similar
organisms. Whenever a new species is discovered a representative sample is
collected and used as the “type specimen” for that species; then it is described
in detail and becomes part of a permanent museum collection 9Ziser, 2006).
The scientific name of a species is a “binomial name”, which includes two
parts; the genus and the species epithets.

In summary, using human as an example, the major taxonomic ranks

are as follows (Krempels and Lee,2003)

DOMAIN (e.g., Animalia)

KINGDOM (e.g., Chordata)

PHYLUM (e.g., Chordata)

CLASS (e.g., Mammalia)

ORDER (e.g., Primates)

FAMILY (e.g., Pongidae)

GENUS (e.g., Homo)

SPECIES (e.g., Homo sapiens)

Carl Linne, a Swedish botanist,

created this system of nomenclature in
1735 as a Systema naturae. He then
changed his own name into Latin as
Carolus Linnaeuss. This is the name
that is known as the father of modern
taxonomy.

The application of binomial

nomenclature is now governed by
various internationally agreed codes of
rules. With all naturalists worldwide
adopting this approach to thinking up
names, several schools of thought were
founded that deals on the details for
different groups. It became ever more
apparent that a detailed body of rules was necessary to govern scientific

29
names. There were several initiatives to arrive at worldwide-accepted sets of
rules since mid-eighteen century. At present, the following nomenclature
codes govern the naming of species as follows:

 Algae, Fungi, and Plants- International Code of Nomenclature for algae,

fungi, and plants (ICN),
 Animals- International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
 Bacteria- International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB)
 Cultivated plants- International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated
Plants (ICNCP)
 Viruses- International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)

Some of the major rules in nomenclature, as guided by ICBN and ICZN, are the
following:

1. Names should be written in Latin.

2. The scientific name of an organism is always written with the genus
capitalized and the species epithet in lower case letters.
3. Because the words are Latinized, they should always have italicized.
4. When scientific names are written by hand, each separate word should
be underlined.
5. The first name to be validly and effectively published gets the priority.
This rule has caused numerous name changes, particularly on fossil
organisms.
6. All taxa must have an author when described. For example, Homo
sapiens L., the L stands for Linnaeus who first successfully described
and named the organisms.

Categories of classification

Have you ever wondered how you knew that

both Labrador and Chihuahua are dogs even
though they are different breeds? What makes a
sehorse and bangus to be both classified as
fishes even they live in two different types of
aquatic habitat? And what makes the giant whale
butanding to be classified similar to terrestrial
predators like lions and leopards? Having very
diversed forms of life on earth, classify is
undoubtedly a meticulous task. It does not only
involve one single step but a method of organized
series of sequential steps, in which taxa show a
category. To classify specific organisms, scientists use the similarities of differences
among species. Sometimes these distinguishing features of species are quite easy to
identify like the presence of scales, feathers or horns, number of legs, food

30
requirements, and environmental niche. But nowadays, seeing the differences can
also require special laboratory component when looking at the DNA of a species.

A taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism seen to form a

unit. A taxon is usually recognized using a particular name and ranking, especially
if and when it is accepted or becomes established. Generally, a taxon has three
facets:

1. The name of the taxon. The scientific name of a group is the most
important character used to describe a group of similar items. Once a
Latin or Greek word root is assigned, complicated names derived from
other languages become simple and easier to associate back to the
species (Krempels and Lee, 2013). For example, the name of Tangulus
nigricans, an endemic mouse deer in the Philippines locally known as
Pilandok, can be broken down into its Latin origins: Tragulus which
means “little goat” and nigricans which means “black” referring to the
dark coloration of this species.
2. The rank of the taxon. Biologist uses the taxon within the hierarchy
to locate the organisms grouping. For example, the taxon “Chordate” is
assigned the rank phylum. The taxon “Pongidae” is assigned the
taxonomic rank family. However, a taxon’s rank is not always similar
across all resources. For instance, some publications report
“Zygomycota”, “Ascomycota”, and “Basidiomycota” as subphyla within
phylum Mycota, whereas other assigns each of those three taxa the
rank of phylum within kingdom Fungi (Krempels and Lee, 2013, p.2)
This means that taxonomic classifications may change over time as new
data become available Bear in mind that the relative rank itself. For
example, it is important to know that all members of the larger taxon
“Carnivora” are classified within the still larger taxon “Mammalia”.
Thus, an author using this classification system will simply write
“Mammalia” rather than Class Mammalia” to avoid confusion as names
change their rank (Krempels and Lee,2013).
3. The content of a taxon. This is the key aspect of the taxon which uses
groupings of specific individuals within a single species, related species
within a single genus, related genera, and so on. This tells us which of
the organisms has a common ancestry (Krempels and Lee,2013).
Systemtics use a range of technique to give a classification to
organisms, which include: morphological characters, DNA sequencing,
protein analysis, developmental biology, karyology, ultrstructure, and
other information to determineevolutionary relationships (krempels and
Lee,2013). This scientific fields needs more of the new generations of
scientists to go on a quest to name known and unknown species.

31
 What’s More

Activity 2: Think of ME!

Use the figure below to answer questions. Answer true or false to the following
statements. Use the graphic to determine the answers.

1. ______ All rodents belong to the phylum Chordata.

2. ______ A fox belongs to the phylum Arthropoda.
3. ______ Snakes belong to the phylum Reptilia.
4. ______ Lions belong to the class mammalia

32
 5. ______ All arthropods belong to the Class Insecta
6. ______ Dogs belong to the order Felidae.

7. ______ All amphibians belong to the class Reptilia.

8. _______ All primates are mammals.
9. _______ The class mammalia includes dogs, cats and rats.
10. ______ A lion belongs to the genus Felis.

Activity 3: Arrange Me Now!

Direction: In each set, circle the pair that is most closely related.

1 snakes & crocodiles | snakes & frogs

2. rats & cats | cats & dogs
3. insects & lobsters | insects & birds
4. lions & tigers | lions & cougars
5. foxes & rats | foxes & dogs

What I have Learned

Activity 4: Take A Look at Me Now!

Direction: Examine the table showing the classification of four organisms.
Then answer the questions.
Taxon House Cat Mountain Domestic Human
Lion Dog
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Order Carnivora Carnivora Carnivora Primates
Family Felidae Felidae Canidae Hominidae
Genus Felis Felis Canis Homo
Species domesticus concolor familiaris sapiens

1. Which two organisms are most closely related? ______________________

2. What three taxa do all four organisms have in common?_____________
3. Write the scientific name for each of the organisms above.__________

33
Assessment
Directions. Read the question carefully and select the letter of the best answer.

1. Mosquito belongs to what kingdom?

a. Animalia
b. Fungi
c. Plantae
d. Protista
2. Taxonomy is the science of classifying living things. Which series place
the classification groups in the correct order?
a. Kingdom>class>phylum>order>genus>family>species
b. Kingdom>phylum>class>order>family>genus>species
c. Kingdom>phylum>order>class>genus>family>species
d. Kingdom>order>class>family>genus>phylum>species
3. In binomial nomenclature,
a. The first word identifies the color of the organism, nd the second
word tells where the organism is usually found.
b. The first word identifies the organism’s genus, and the second
word describes a feature of the organism or place where it was
found.
c. The first word tells where the organism lives, and the second
word tells who originally found the organism.
d. The first and second word both identify important
characteristics of the organism.
4. Blue-green algae belong to the _________ kingdom.
a. Monera
b. Protista
c. Plantae
d. Fungi
5. Which is not a phylum in the animal kingdom?
a. Nematodes
b. Coelenterates
c. Platyhelminthes
d. Monera
6. What phylum does the octopus belong to?
a. Porifera
b. Trancheophyta
c. Nematode
d. Mollusca
7. Which of the following all belong to the domain Eukarya?
a. Bacteria, Protist, Plantae
b. Plantae, Archaea, Fungi
c. Animalia, Fungi, Protist
d. Bacteria, Archaea, Protist
8. Which of the following is the least limiting level of classification?
a. Class
b. Genus
c. Order
d. Species

34
 Additional Activities

Direction: Fill in the taxa of the following organism.

Grizzly Bear

Domain:

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Class:

Order:

Family:

Genus:

Species:

35
Dandelion

Domain:

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Class:

Order:

Family:

Genus:

Species:

36
 37
Taxon Grizzly Bear Dandelion
Domain Eukarya Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Phylum Chordata Tracheophyta
Class Mammalia Angiospermae
Order Carnivora Asterates
Family Ursidae Asteraceae
Genus Ursus Taraxacum
Species Ursus arctos Taraxacum
afficinate
Additional Activities
Activity 4
1. House cat & mountain lion
2. Kindom, phylum, class
3. Felis domesticus
Felis concolor
Canis familiaris
Homo sapiens
Activity 2
1. T
2. F
Activity 3 3. F Activity 1
4. T
1. Snake & 5. F 1. Lagundi- Vitex negundo
crocodile 6. F 2. Makabuhay- Tinospora rumphii
2. Cats & dogs 7. T 3. Pandan- Pandanus amaryllifolius
3. Insects & lobsters 8. T 4. Tanglad- Cympobogon citratus
4. Lions & tigers 9. T 5. Malunggay- Moringa oleifera
5. Fox & dogs 10. F 6. Pansit-pansitan-Piperomia pellucida
Answer Key
References
Internet:

https://www.google.com/search?q=lagundi+leaves&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH836PH836&tbm=isch&sourc
e=iu&ictx=1&fir=PXLAtPn6w9fG6M%252CJLDmpCXVEmv0qM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kSvdBAkJIqJUpySNYnKBpLcCSK1Bg&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiopMi9kMDsAhUWxosBHRc_AooQ_h0wA3
oECAYQCA&biw=1366&bih=625#imgrc=2-3xLB68UIpl9M

https://www.google.com/search?q=makabuhay+leaf&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjFw4bXkcDsAhUSJqY
KHYrgC6YQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=makabuhay+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgJMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyBAgAEEM
yAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAOgcIABCxAxBDOggIABCxAxCDAToFCAAQsQNQjqxhWOK9YWDS52FoAHAA
eACAAf0EiAHHFJIBCzAuMi4yLjEuMi4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=20C
NX4XqD5LMmAWKwa-
wCg&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH836PH836#imgrc=CukGaB_nOWMrBM
https://www.google.com/search?q=pandan+leaves&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjFw4bXkcDsAhUSJqYK
HYrgC6YQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=pandan+leaves&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQsQMyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIA
DICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAA6BggAEAcQHlDWxwFY-
tABYIHaAWgAcAB4AIAB0gKIAdMJkgEHMC40LjEuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=
img&ei=20CNX4XqD5LMmAWKwa-
wCg&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH836PH836#imgrc=SUsaihO4zhOPaM
https://www.google.com/search?q=tangladleaves&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiJuImfmMDsAhWOG6Y
KHQyjCK8Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=tangladleaves&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIGCAAQBxAeULflBViH8gVghf0FaABwAHgDgA
H5BogB8hWSAQkwLjQuNS0yLjGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=vEeNX4n
qN463mAWMxqL4Cg&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH836PH836#imgrc=CcrbRlHngg4AZM

https://www.google.com/search?q=malunggay+leaves&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjkhqbPmMDsAhV
MfpQKHTq9B3cQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=malunggay+leaves&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQsQMyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAM
gIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAA6BggAEAcQHlDF5wRY_IMFYMOMBWgAcAB4AIABoASIAa8RkgELMC4
4LjAuMS4wLjGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=IkiNX-TtAsz80QS6-
p64Bw&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH836PH836#imgrc=H_tSZ6oEyzctrM
https://course-notes.org/files/uploads/biology/ch26.pdf

https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/cobblearning.net/dist/9/3511/files/2017/03/Cladogram-
Worksheet-Practice-KEY.pdf
https://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/taxonomy_interpret.html
https://www.biologycorner.com/2019/04/19/evolution-vida-chart/

Dagamac, Nikki Heherson A, Rea, Maria Angelica D., General Biology 2; REX Book
Store,856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. 1977 C.M Recto Avenue, Manila

38