materials

Review
Application of Coal Gangue as a Coarse Aggregate in Green
Concrete Production: A Review
Shan Gao 1,2, *, Sumei Zhang 1 and Lanhui Guo 1

1 School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China;

smzhang@hit.edu.cn (S.Z.); guolanhui@hit.edu.cn (L.G.)
2 Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Safety and Durability of Concrete Structures, Xijing University,
Xi’an 710123, China
* Correspondence: gaoshan@hit.edu.cn

Abstract: Among the techniques for converting stacked coal gangue to reusable material, one of
the most effective ways is to use coal gangue as a coarse aggregate in green concrete productions.
The physical and chemical properties of rock and spontaneous-combustion coal gangue are gener-
ally suitable for being used as a coarse aggregate in green concrete. Coal gangue concrete is not
recommended to be used in subsurface structures, as its water absorption law would be changed
under a large replacement ratio. The mechanical performance of coal gangue concrete is degraded by
raising the replacement ratio. Over-low and -high concrete grades are not suggested to be used as
coal gangue aggregate, unless extra admixtures or specific methods are used. The influence of coal
gangue on the durability of coal gangue concrete is remarkable, resulting from the porous structure of
coal gangue that provides more transmission channels for air and liquid in concrete, but is beneficial




for thermal insulation. The usage of coal gangue in structural concrete members is still limited. The

 mechanical behavior of some structural members using coal gangue concrete has been reported.
Citation: Gao, S.; Zhang, S.; Guo, L. Among them, concrete filled steel tubes are a preferable configuration for using coal gangue concrete,
Application of Coal Gangue as a regarding both the mechanical and durability performance.
Coarse Aggregate in Green Concrete
Production: A Review. Materials 2021, Keywords: coal gangue; green concrete; coarse aggregate; structural member; eco-friendly production
14, 6803. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma14226803

Academic Editor: Alessandro

1. Introduction
P. Fantilli Even though many kinds of new energy and renewable fuels have been explored
nowadays, coal is still the main energy for many countries in the world, especially for
Received: 11 October 2021 countries in Asia Pacific region, such as China, Indonesia, and Vietnam. In fact, the increase
Accepted: 8 November 2021 of global coal production in 2019 resulted from the significant production increases of China
Published: 11 November 2021 and Vietnam, while that of other regions in the world declined, as shown in Figure 1 [1].
Coal still accounts for more than 70% of energy expenditure in China [2], while the world
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral coal expenditure fell to its lowest level in 16 years, as a result of being displaced by natural
with regard to jurisdictional claims in gas and renewables.
published maps and institutional affil- Along with the excavation and washing of coal in the production process, large
iations.
amounts of rock-like coal gangue (CG) accompanying the carboniferous beds are dis-
charged as industrial residues, accounting for around 10–20% of the coal production [2–4].
In the largest coal production country, namely China, more than 700 million tons of coal
gangue was expected in 2020, with the annual rate of 300–350 million tons [4,5], not to
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. mention that almost 5 billion tons of that have been accumulated in China [4,6] and the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. number for Europe is 175 million tons [2].
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Materials 2021, 14, 6803. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226803 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2021, 14, 6803 2 of 22

Figure 1. Coal consumption by region [1].

Even though the storage location of coal gangue is normally far away from downtown
areas, the considerable stockpile of coal gangue still threatens human society, besides the
natural ecosystem. Firstly, from the point of geotechnical engineering, rock-like coal gangue
has to be stored in dumps, which obviously occupy enormous land resources that can
be used for farming and construction. Furthermore, normal disordered gangue stacking
tends to result in debris flow [2,4,5]. Secondly, it is well-known that the composition of
coal gangue changes along with storage time and environment [7]. In other words, even
though the major chemical compositions of gangue are SiO2 and Al2 O3 in the form of
quartz and feldspar [3], certain traces of various heavy metal elements, including Pb2+ ,
Zn2+ , and Cu2+ , are still contained in coal gangue. After long-term weathering and soaking,
the leaching of heavy metals would result in the contamination of soil, groundwater, and
surface water, further harming the surrounding ecosystem and human health through
bioaccumulation [2,4,6,7]. Last but not least, stocked coal gangue is also an emission
resource of volatile organic chemical gas. The heat continuously accumulating inside the
stocked coal gangue leads to the spontaneous combustion of coal gangue in the form of fire,
even blast disasters, due to the existence of unburned coal, pyrite, and oxygen, releasing a
large amount of harmful gases, including SO2 , NOx , and CO, into the atmosphere. It is a
pity that this air pollution from coal gangue is hard to control [2,4].
The gangue utilization rate of the main developed regions, such as US and Europe,
is more than 90%. In contrast, that value in the largest coal gangue production country,
namely China, is only about 60–70%, while the coal gangue utilization of China through
combustion and calcination normally results in secondary pollution [4,6]. How to deal
with the accumulation of coal gangue and improve its utilization rate has become one of
the most crucial issues related to the sustainable development of the coal industry.

2. Utilization of Coal Gangue

For years, researchers have been working on the effective utilization of the enormous
stocked coal gangue. In China, more than a half of discharged coal gangue is used for
land reclamation—one third of that is used for power generation and the rest is used for
producing building materials [2,4].
However, the main compositions of natural rock coal gangue are inactive SiO2 and
Al2 O3 , whose cementitious ability is rather weak. Calcination or spontaneous combustion
are necessary to add CaO to coal gangue. For now, the percentage of calcined gangue
combination with Portland cement is still low, normally less than 15% [3,6]. In contrast, as
additive and fine aggregates, calcined gangue could also be used to prepare cementitious
material, and is a promising replacement for fly ash and slag [8,9]. Meanwhile, coal gangue
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 3 of 22

can be crashed and directly used as a lightweight aggregate, with a good internal curing
capacity, but a high demand for water for mixing [6,10,11].
Besides power generation, the current utilization methods of coal gangue, including
land reclamation and producing cementitious materials, tend to cause secondary envi-
ronmental contamination and extra energy consumption, as the calcination and superfine
grinding of coal gangue seem inevitable. In contrast, the utilization of coal gangue as
a coarse aggregate has a relatively low energy consumption and environmental impact.
However, currently, most of the studies on the utilization of coal gangue focus on produc-
ing cementitious materials and additives. The limited studies on the utilization of coal
gangue as a coarse aggregate only consider the mechanical and durability performance of
the concrete material. The structural application of coal gangue coarse aggregate concrete,
such as in beams, columns, and walls, is rather little and is not deep enough, which also
includes design methods for structural members with coal gangue concrete.
Hereafter, this paper introduces the direct utilization of coal gangue for preparing
structural concrete as a replacement of coarse aggregates, aiming at sustainable, com-
prehensive, and efficient cleaner production. Through this review, it is hoped that more
structural applications of coal gangue coarse aggregate concrete would be proposed and
studied experimentally and theoretically.

3. Methods
The references for the review were searched for in December 2020 in Scopus and
the China National Knowledge Internet database, with the consideration of the following
factors [4]:
(1) The presence of terms “coal gangue” and “coarse aggregate” in the documents;
(2) The considered period: 1990–2020;
(3) The publication form of paper: “Article” or “Review”;
(4) Searching area: “Engineering” and “Material”.
It should be mentioned that as the focus of this review is the coal gangue utilization
of coarse aggregates, most of the references regarding gangue utilization in producing
cementitious materials are not mentioned. In fact, studies on gangue utilization of coarse
aggregates for the preparation of concrete mainly performed by Chinese researchers are
much less than that for the production of cementitious materials, as China remains the
largest production country in the world and the coal consumption in other countries and
regions has been dropping for decades. Referring to the application of coal gangue in
concrete structural members, the relevant studies have only been performed by Chinese
researchers for the same reason. The main work of this review is summarized in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Flowchart of the review.

Materials 2021, 14, 6803 4 of 22

4. Properties of Coal Gangue Aggregate

4.1. Physical Properties
Natural coal gangue (namely rock coal gangue) is a rock-like mining waste that
normally appears from gray to black. The color changes to whitish gray and even red after
spontaneous combustion or after being calcinated, according to its iron oxide content and
weathering degree [2]. According to Chinese standard JGJ-52-2006, the physical properties
of rock coal gangue (RCG) and spontaneous-combustion coal gangue (SCG) vary from
different origins in China, as summarized in Table 1 [12–24].

Table 1. Physical properties of coal gangue aggregate from different origins in China.

Region of Apparent Density Bulk Density Water Absorption Crushing Value Void Ratio
Type Province Ref.
China (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (%) (%) (%)
Heilongjiang 2588 1289 3.8 18.9 50.2 [13]
Liaoning 2497 - 9.80 25.2 - [12]
Northeast Liaoning 2630 1550 8.5 16.6 22.0 [14]
SCG Liaoning 2276 1220 7.55 21.2 52.8 [15]
Anhui 2630 976 9.2 16.6 57.9 [16]
South Jiangsu 2624 1430 4.88 24.4 - [17]
Northeast Liaoning 2653 1489 3.15 9.9 49.5 [15]
Shanxi 2083 1130 4.7 18.7 - [18]
Shanxi 2689 1201 11.4 18.1 - [19]
North Beijing 2640 - 1.8 22.6 - [20]
RCG Henan 2510 1320 1.7 19.1 47.5 [21]
Henan 2540 1264 3.9 17.9 51.5 [22]
Northwest Shaanxi 2090 - 4.92 19.0 - [23]
Jiangsu 2712 - 1.7 16.8 - [24]
South Jiangsu 2620 1612 3.9 18.6 [17]

The apparent density of gangue is approximately 2600 kg/m3 , which is similar to

natural stone, while its bulk density is approximately 1200 kg/m3 , which belongs to light-
weight aggregate. The water absorption and crushing value of gangue (approximately
5% and 20% respectively) are relatively larger than those of natural stone (approximately
2% and 15%, respectively) due to its higher carbon content. Although calcination would
reduce the carbon content in RCG, its water absorption and crushing value would also be
further enlarged. Even though some crashing values of CG in Table 1 are close to or even
smaller than the conventional crashing values of natural rock, these values are still larger
than those of the natural rock collected from the local in the corresponding references.
As the replacement of natural coarse aggregate, both RCG and SCG seem to be a
little fragile to be used in concrete, which may likely result in the fracture in coal gangue
aggregate itself, besides the fracture in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ).

4.2. Chemical Properties

According to its chemical properties, coal gangue could be categorized into four types,
namely claystone gangue (SiO2 : 40–70% and Al2 O3 : 15–30%), sandstone gangue (SiO2 > 70%),
aluminous stone gangue (Al2 O3 > 40%), and calcareous stone gangue (CaO > 30%) [25].
Table 2 lists the mineralogical composition of coal gangue in various countries [26]. Typical
coal gangue contains 50–70% clay minerals, 20–30% quartz, and 10–20% other minerals and
carbon impurity. Compared with Europe and South America, the content of kaolinite in
the coal gangue of China and USSR is richer, showing more potential for reuse, as kaolinite
is apt to be activated. Instead, the content of illite in the coal gangue of Europe is much
richer than that in USSR and China.
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 5 of 22

Table 2. Mineralogical composition of coal gangue in various countries/% [26].

Minerals Czechoslovakia Germany Spain Britain USSR China

Illite 10–45 41–66 20–60 10–31 5–30 10–30
Kaolinite 24–45 4–25 3–30 10–40 1–60 10–67
Chlorite 0–15 1–3 0–7 2–7 – 2–11
Quartz 10–50 13–27 5–57 15–25 – 15–35
Iron ore 0–25 0.5–5 – 2-10 0.2–8 2–10
Organic matters 0–25 5–10 4–30 5–25 8–40 5–25

In general, as coal gangue is actually a transition substance between rock and coal, its
chemical composition is similar to that of natural coarse aggregate, which also confirms
the feasibility of being a coarse aggregate in concrete production.
As listed in Table 3, the content of SiO2 is always maximum among the chemical
composition in coal gangue, regardless of the origins, while the content of Al2 O3 is normally
half that of SiO2 . The major chemical compositions of coal gangue, namely SiO2 and Al2 O3 ,
tend to increase after spontaneous-combustion or being calcinated, but still vary from
different origins. As the content of (SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 ) in gangue normally accounts
for more than 70%, coal gangue could be treated as a pozzolanic material, regardless of
its origin [2].

Table 3. Chemical composition of CG (mass fraction)/%.

Type Region Province SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO Na2 O K2 O TiO2 P2 O5 SO3 Loss Ref.
Heilongjiang 61.0 23.6 6.70 1.18 0.52 - - - - - 2.50 [11]
Northeast
Heilongjiang 34.1 26.0 0.49 0.67 0.61 - 0.16 - - 0.28 32.8 [27]
of China
Liaoning 50.3 26.3 6.11 7.74 2.00 1.10 3.28 1.13 0.15 0.93 - [15]
Beijing 49.9 24.4 6.42 0.82 1.59 1.46 2.06 0.88 - 0.12 11.8 [3]
Shandong 48.8 19.0 4.47 2.03 2.29 1.43 0.19 - - - 16.8 [3]
North
Henan 59.9 20.7 6.70 2.00 1.80 0.65 2.40 - - 1.53 - [7]
of China
Shanxi 35.1 16.8 27.3 3.82 1.60 - - - - 3.00 0.83 [19]
Hebei 48.3 23.1 4.30 4.10 1.70 0.10 1.50 0.80 0.10 1.00 14.7 [28]
RCG Northwest
Shaanxi 49.5 33.3 7.60 6.09 0.97 0.52 0.94 0.83 - - - [23]
of China
South Jiangsu 55.5 18.2 5.42 3.38 1.23 0.64 1.67 - - 0.64 13.3 [3]
of China Jiangsu 59. 8 29.4 1.44 0.68 0.51 0.08 1.76 - - - - [8]
Poland - 58.9 20.5 6.63 0.35 1.93 0.54 3.19 1.05 0.06 0.17 5.50 [5]
No. 1 43.7 21.4 5.57 0.89 0.77 0.11 0.16 1.05 0.16 1.02 25.2
Italy No. 2 46.8 17.2 7.67 7.60 0.99 0.15 2.40 0.78 0.16 0.34 15.8 [29]
No. 3 57.2 18.7 6.25 1.86 1.42 0.46 3.59 0.95 0.14 0.08 9.28
Northeast
Liaoning 55.6 21.0 6.57 3.65 2.50 1.90 4.10 0.84 0.24 0.82 - [15]
of China
North
Shanxi 56.6 36.8 1.95 0.62 0.22 0.42 - 2.10 - - - [9]
of China
SCG Northwest
Shaanxi 55.2 31.1 2.94 1.31 0.75 0.12 1.13 1.12 0.07 - 5.94 [30]
of China
No. 1 56.4 26.3 6.42 1.06 1.07 4.02 0.17 1.21 0.20 0.65 2.38
Italy No. 2 52.3 19.5 8.35 8.41 1.21 2.65 0.20 0.85 0.17 0.49 5.61 [29]
No. 3 61.9 20.2 6.77 2.00 1.57 3.78 0.53 1.01 0.15 0.11 1.81

4.3. Trace Metal

The heavy metal content of coal gangue and the permissible values in soils and surface
lands are listed in Table 4. Similar to the chemical composition, the heavy metals in gangue
also vary according to the origins. The Cr content of coal gangue in Italy is much higher
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 6 of 22

than that in China and Poland, while the As content of coal gangue in China is a little
higher than the permissible value. Besides this, the heavy metal content of gangue is much
lower than the permission level of the Polish Regulation of the Ministry of Environment of
9 September 2002 for soil quality standards and earth quality standards. In addition, the
short-term leachability of the heavy metals is relatively weak [5]. In this case, in terms of
environmental protection, coal gangue could also be used as a coarse aggregate in green
concrete production. However, more data regarding the heavy metal content in coal gangue
should be collected from testing in order to propose a more accurate requirement regarding
the heavy metal content of discharged coal gangue. In addition, the content of heavy metal
in discharged coal gangue should be tested before being used in a concrete mixture so as to
make sure that its utilization would not pose an environmental, health, and safety concern.

Table 4. Content of heavy metals in coal gangue/mg kg− 1 .

Type Region Province As Ba Cd Co Cr Cu Hg Mo Ni Pb Sn Zn Ref.

RCG China Jiangsu 27.3 - 0.58 - 42.3 24.3 0.24 - 20.5 4.32 - 39.5 [31]
No. 1 - - - - 190 - - - 56 11 - 27
SCG Italy No. 2 - - - - 228 - - - 43 5 - 46 [29]
No. 3 - - - - 308 - - - 57 10 - 37
RCG Poland - <2 84.5 2.9 14.6 61.9 48.3 0.04 <2 41.2 20 3 89.5 [5]
Permission content in Poland 20 200 4 20 150 150 2 10 100 100 20 300 [5]

5. Properties of Coal Gangue Concrete

Even though using crashed and sieved coal gangue as a coarse aggregate is the most
convenient and energy-saving method to utilize coal gangue, the feasibility of this method
still depends on the properties of coal gangue. The performance of coal gangue concrete
needs to meet the standard for preparing the concrete in construction. Calcination is
beneficial for improving the interfacial bond between coal gangue and cement mortar.

5.1. Workability
5.1.1. Water Absorption
It is foreseeable that the water absorption of coal gangue concrete would be increased
by raising the coal gangue replacement ratio, as its water absorption is higher than that of
natural gravel. Figure 3a shows the permeability coefficient of the concrete under 25% and
30% replacement ratios. The increase of the pore phase conductivity by increasing the coal
gangue replacement is supposed to result in an increase of the permeability coefficient [31].
Furthermore, the water absorption law tested according to ASTM C1585 was remarkably
changed, as shown in Figure 3b. The inflection point for the water absorption speed in the
curves became more and more obvious with the increase of the replacement ratio. Under a
large replacement ratio, coal gangue aggregate in concrete became almost saturated in a
short time, and then the unsaturated mortar and natural aggregates continued to absorb
water, with a water absorption speed much lower than that of the coal gangue. Comparing
the results in [31,32], as shown in Figure 3b, it seems a coal gangue replacement ratio lower
than 30% would not significantly affect the water absorption of the concrete. In general, coal
gangue concrete is not recommended for use in subsurface structures; besides, it is obvious
that a large water absorption would reduce the strength of the coal gangue concrete.
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 7 of 22

Figure 3. Effect of rock coal gangue replacement on the water absorption of coal gangue concrete. (a) Permeability
coefficient [31]; (b) Absorption depth [32].

5.1.2. Slump
As coal gangue (CG) shows a larger water absorption capacity than natural aggregate,
the workability of coal gangue concrete would obviously be decreased by raising the CG
replacement ratio according to Chinese standard GB 50164-2011, as shown in Figure 4.
Under a 50% CG replacement ratio, the slump of the coal gangue concrete would be
reduced by about 10%, while the number would be 20% under 100% CG replacement ratio.
As the properties of CG vary from the origin, the difference between RCG and SCG shown
in Figure 5 is subtle [33,34]. To enhance its workability, adding fly ash and superplasticizer
in coal gangue concrete are both effective and simple methods [35,36]. Additional water
consumption for coal gangue could also be a choice to enhance the workability, but would
result in a strength reduction of coal gangue concrete resulting from the extra water [37]. It
is surprising from Figure 4 that the pre-soaking method is not as effective as it is supposed
to be, which may be also due to the properties of coal gangue varying from the origin.

Figure 4. Effect of coal gangue replacement on the slump of coal gangue concrete.
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 8 of 22

Figure 5. Effect of coal gangue replacement on the compressive strength of coal gangue concrete. (a) Compressive strength;
(b) Failure pattern.

5.2. Mechanical Performance

5.2.1. Compressive Strength
It is assumed that the porous structure of CG results in a strength reduction of coal
gangue concrete. As shown in Figure 5a, the compressive strength of coal gangue concrete
tested according to Chinese standard GB 50010-2010 decreases approximately linearly with
the rise of the replacement ratio, regardless of concrete strength and the type of coal gangue.
Under 100% CG replacement ratio, the compressive strength of coal gangue concrete
decreased by around 15–20% [12,15,32,34]. Figure 5b indicates that the failure pattern of
coal gangue concrete is different according to the concrete grade [24]. Under a low concrete
grade, the failure of coal gangue concrete occurs in the mortar, where the coal gangue
shows little effect. In contrast, under a high concrete grade, the failure of coal gangue
concrete happens in both the mortar and coal gangue aggregate. In this case, the types of
coal gangue aggregate contribute to the compressive strength of coal gangue concrete. As
mentioned above, calcinating CG would activate the cementitious composition in it and
improve the strength of the mortar, but would degrade the strength of the coal gangue itself.
In addition, an over-low concrete grade, for example lower than C20, is not suggested
for use as a coal gangue aggregate, as the mortar is not enough to fully cover the coarse
aggregate, which may lead to a significant reduction in the mechanical properties of coal
gangue concrete [38].
Similar to ordinary concrete, adding steel fiber could reinforce the mechanical prop-
erties of coal gangue concrete. The compressive strength of coal gangue concrete with
2% steel fiber would be improved by 16.7% [39]. Furthermore, calcianting RCG [40] and
presoaking SCG [17] would also achieve the same effect.
As presented in Figure 6, even though a general descending trend in the elastic
modulus of coal gangue concrete was found when raising the CG replacement ratio, the
comparsion between the RCG concrete and SCG concrete was contrary between [12]
and [15]. In other words, the elastic modulus of RCG concrete was larger than that of
the SCG concrete [12], whiet the former was smaller than the latter in [15], except for
the 100% replacement ratio. Besides the discreetness of coal gangue properties, the pre-
soaking method, which is supposed to effectvely improve the mechanical behaviors of
SCG concrete, rather than those of RCG concrete, was used in [15].
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 9 of 22

Figure 6. Effect of coal gangue replacement on the elastic modulus of coal gangue concrete.

Figure 7 presents the stress−strain relationship of the concrete with different contents
of RCG and SCG [15]. It indicates that increasing both the RCG and SCG replacement
ratios would increase the peak strain of the coal gangue concrete. The drop beyond the
peak in the curves of RCG concrete was sharper than that of the SCG concrete, due to
the porous structure of SCG. These phenomena imply that the ductility of SCG concrete
is better than that of RCG concrete. Based on the tested stress−strain relationship of
coal gangue concrete and the model in Chinese standard GB 50010-2010, a dimensionless
model (x = ε/εc , y = σ/σc ) for both RCG and SCG concrete is proposed for the first time, as
follows [15]. The proposed model should consider the aggregate replacement ratio and CG
types. However, more data regarding the stress−strain relationship model of CG concrete
are still needed to validate the model, as it was empirically obtained and the properties of
CG vary according to the origin.

ax + (3 − 2a) x2 + ( a − 2) x3 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

y= (1)
x/(b( x − 1)2 + x ), x > 1

where a is (−0.0112r + 1.844) and (7 × 10r−5 − 0.0117r2 + 1.6866) for RCG and SCG,
respectively, and b is (0.1052r + 1.824) and (−0.0118r + 2.38) for RCG and SCG, respectively.

5.2.2. Splitting Tensile Strength

As shown in Figure 8, generally, the splitting tensile strength of coal gangue concrete
decreases as the CG replacement ratio increases. However, due to the discreetness of
thecoal gangue properties, a minimum value was observed in the results of RCG concrete
in [15] under 50% CG replacement ratio. By using CG as the coarse aggregate, more
splitting tensile damage was found in the coarse aggregate, namely coal gangue, rather
than in the bond between the coarse aggregate and the matrix.

5.3. Durability Performance

5.3.1. Shrinkage
The cracks resulting from shrinkage affect the durability of concrete, especially for
concrete with CG whose water absorption characteristic is different to the natural coarse
aggregate. Figure 9a shows the effect of concrete grade on the coal gangue concrete
shrinkage tested according to the GB/T 50082-2009 standard and ASTM C157. It is obvious
that higher-grade coal gangue concrete shows larger shrinkage. It is also interesting that
the early shrinkage of coal gangue concrete is smaller than that of normal concrete, which
results from the inner curing effect of coal gangue with a large water absorption [41]. As
shown in Figure 9b, the increase of shrinkage due to the increase of curing temperature
would be enlarged by raising the CG replacement ratio [42]. As expected, the concrete
using an SCG aggregate and large replacement ratio showed large shrinkage, as shown
in Figure 9c [12]. However, a totally opposite trend, where increasing the replacement
ratio decreased the shrinkage of concrete was still observed, as seen in Figure 9d [43]. This
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 10 of 22

finding may result from the larger volume of coal gangue used in the concrete mixture
under the same mass replacement ratio of the coarse aggregate, which would reduce the
shrinkage of the mortar matrix.

Figure 7. Stress−strain curves of the coal gangue concrete [15].

Figure 8. Effect of coal gangue replacement on splitting tensile strength of coal gangue concrete.

5.3.2. Freeze−Thaw Resistance

The failure of concrete under freezing−thawing cycles results from the frost−heave
stress related to the capillary water absorption properties [44]. Due to the large frost−heave
stress resulting from the porous structure of CG, the mechanical performance of coal gangue
concrete was significantly affected by freezing−thawing cycles from the test complying
with Chinese standard GB/T 50082-2009, which was enlarged by raising the CG replace-
ment ratio [32,45]. The freezing−thawing mass loss of coal gangue concrete would also be
enlarged by increasing the water−cement ratio [46].
Based on the tested results, a dimensionless model (x = ε/εc , y = σ/σc ) of the stress−strain
relationship is proposed for coal gangue concrete after freezing−thawing cycles [23]. The
model modified from the model in Chinese standard GB 50010-2010 considers the effects of
the CG replacement ratio and the cycle number of freezing−thawing, rather than the CG
type. Therefore, similar to the model proposed in [15], even though this model fit well with
the test results, it was also empirically obtained, which means that more data are needed in
order to validate it.
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 11 of 22

Figure 9. Effect of coal gangue replacement on the shrinkage of coal gangue concrete. (a) Concrete grade [41]; (b) Curing
condition [42]; (c) Coal gangue type [12]; (d) Replacement ratio (RCG) [43].

(1.92 − µN ) x + (1.08 + µN ) x2 − (0.08 + µN ) x3 , 0 ≤ x < 1


y= (2)
x/((1.3 + ηN )( x − 1)2 + x ), x ≥ 1
where µ is (0.0025e0.0552rCG), η is (0.0035 + 0.0011rCG), N is the cycle number of freezing−thawing,
and rCG is the CG replacement ratio.
The admixture of fly ash and silica fume [47], organic anti-freezing agent [48], and
polypropylene fiber [49] are added into the coal gangue concrete to enhance its freeze−thawing
resistance. Up to 1% of organic anti-freezing agent, namely ethylene glycol, could improve
the freeze−thawing resistance of coal gangue concrete by 10–30%, which is believed to be
one of the most effective methods.

5.3.3. Carbonization Resistance

The transmission of CO2 in concrete is mainly affected by the porosity ratio and
connected channels. The coal gangue aggregate generally has more pores than natural
gravel. The air containing CO2 enters into the concrete more easily, resulting in a poor
durability of the concrete [50]. Therefore, it is obvious that increasing the coal gangue
replacement ratio would reduce the carbonization resistance of coal gangue concrete (seen
in Figure 10, showing the results from the test complying with Chinese standard GB/T
50082-2009) [51].
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 12 of 22

Figure 10. Carbonization depth−SCG replacement ratio relationship.

Figure 10 also implies a finding that the carbonization depth of SCG concrete is
negatively related to its strength, which was also found in other relavent tests [52,53]. A
formula describing the relationship between carbonization depth dc and strength f CG of
SCG concrete after 28 days of curing is proposed as follows [53]. This empirical model is
not only related to one parameter, namely CG strength, but is also valid in the scope of
concrete strength.
dc = −0.31 f CG + 29.6, (18.7 ≤ f c ≤ 51.2) (3)
Compared with RCG, the concrete using 700 ◦ C-calcinated coal gangue has a better
carbonization resistance than that of RCG concrete. C-S-H hydrogel, which is produced
by the second hydration reaction among the SiO2 , Al2 O3 , and cement hydration product
Ca(OH)2 produced after the calcination of the gangue aggregate, compacts the pores
and reduces the CO2 transmission channel in concrete. A formula for predicting the
carbonization depth of RCG concrete regarding age (t), water−cement ratio (mw /mc ),
and coal gangue replacement ratio (rCG ) is proposed [54]. Compared with Equation (3)
from [53], this empirical formula considers the effects of three different parameters, instead
of just the concrete strength. However, as mentioned by the authors themselves, this
formula is only suitable for RCG, rather than SCG.
√
dc = 0.098 t + 50.66mw /mc + 2.015rCG − 17 (4)

5.3.4. Chloride Resistance

More capillary pores in SCG are the main reason for the poor chloride resistance of coal
gangue concrete. Therefore, in the coal gangue concrete with a low water−cement ratio,
the gel pores and capillary pores are filled with hydrated gel, increasing the compactness of
the concrete larger, decreasing the electric flux, and enhancing the chloride ion penetration
resistance [55–57].
To improve the chloride resistance of coal gangue concrete, calcination [24], adding
steel fiber [39], and adding the mineral admixture and superplasticizer [58] are effective
ways that could reduce the micro cracks of mortar matrix and change the ion permeation
path. As shown in Figure 11, where the results are from the test complying with ASTM C
1202-05, adding fly ash would reduce the strength of the coal gangue concrete, but increase
its chloride resistance (namely decreasing the chloride migration coefficient), regardless of
the water−cement ratio [57].
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 13 of 22

Figure 11. Relationship between chloride migration coefficient and strength of coal gangue
concrete [57].

5.4. Thermal Characteristic

As mentioned above, increasing the CG content would normally degrade the me-
chanical and durability performance of the coal gangue concrete. In contrast, the porous
structure of CG is beneficial for thermal insulation. Therefore, a novel type of thermal
insulation coal gangue concrete using coal gangue is proposed [19]. Besides coal gangue,
glazed hollow bead (GHB), nano-silica (NS), and ultra-fine slag (UFS) are also used to
improve the performance of the novel concrete. As shown in Figure 12, increasing the
CG content of the concrete would significantly reduce its thermal conductivity coefficient,
even though the GHB content marks the maximum influence on the thermal conductivity
coefficient of the concrete, while the NS and UFS content show subtle effects.

Figure 12. Thermal conductivity coefficient of the novel coal gangue concrete [19].

6. Application of Coal Gangue Concrete

6.1. Reinforced Coal Gangue Concrete
6.1.1. Beam
In [59–61], the mechanical performance of SCG concrete and the flexural performance
of reinforced coal gangue concrete beam are both studied. As shown in Figure 13, the
reduction of the ultimate moment for reinforced coal gangue concrete beams is a little
larger than that of the coal gangue concrete itself, while the cracking moment of reinforced
coal gangue concrete seems unrelated to the coal gangue concrete replacement ratio, which
may result from the various properties of coal gangue. In general, the ultimate moment
reduction of reinforced coal gangue concrete beam is below 10%, which seems acceptable in
practical engineering. Furthermore, [59–61] also indicate that the current design method in
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 14 of 22

Chinese standards could be directly used to predict the flexural resistance of the reinforced
coal gangue concrete beam by using the corresponding compressive strength of the coal
gangue concrete.

Figure 13. Flexural performance reduction of the reinforced coal gangue concrete beam.

As shown in Figure 14 [62], the compressive strength reduction of coal gangue concrete
is remarkable, which results in a remarkable reduction in the shear resistance of the reinforce
coal gangue concrete beam. Regardless of the CG replacement ratio, the beams show a
shear–compression failure pattern. The shear resistance of reinforced coal gangue concrete
beams could also be predicted by the current design method using Chinese standards.

6.1.2. Column
The reinforced concrete columns using RCG show similar failure patterns to the
normal reinforced concrete columns under axial and eccentric compression [63], except
that the cracking load of the columns is reduced by increasing the CG replacement ratio.
The effects of the eccentric ratio and CG replacement ratio on the resistance reduction of
the columns are shown in Figure 15. The compressive resistance of reinforced coal gangue
concrete columns could be predicted by the current design method in Chinese standards.
In contrast, a large coal gangue replacement and axial compression ratio is not suggested
in the columns under seismic loads [64].

6.1.3. Wall
As shown in Figure 16, the failure pattern of coal gangue concrete shear wall under
cyclic loads is similar to that of a normal concrete shear wall, even though the failure of
coal gangue concrete shear wall tends to be slightly more severe when raising the CG
replacement ratio [65,66]. About a 10% reduction in the horizontal resistance of the wall
was caused when using a 100% SCG replacement ratio, while the ultimate horizontal
displacement of the wall was reduced by 3%. By considering the degradation of shear
resistance under cyclic loads, namely a 30% reduction, the current design method in
Chinese standards was modified for the shear resistance of coal gangue concrete wall [67].
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 15 of 22

Figure 14. Shear performance of a reinforced coal gangue concrete beam [62]. (a) Shear resistance reduction;
(b) Shear−compression failure patterns.

Figure 15. Compressive performance of reinforced coal gangue concrete columns.

6.2. Coal Gangue Concrete Filled Steel Tube

As mentioned above, the mechanical and durability performance of concrete is de-
graded when using coal gangue concrete. Therefore, concrete filled steel tubes (CFSTs)
are an applicative configuration for using coal gangue concrete, as the external tube not
only enhances the mechanical behavior of the internal core coal gangue concrete, but also
protects it from the effect of severe environment [68–70].
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 16 of 22

Figure 16. Failure patterns of coal gangue concrete wall [65].

Similar to reinforced coal gangue concrete stubs, the failure pattern of CFST stubs
with coal gangue is also barely influenced by the CG replacement ratio, regardless of the
concrete grade, as shown in Figure 17a. The axial strength of CFST with coal gangue is
linearly related to the RCG replacement ratio [71]. Under a 100% replacement ratio, the
axial capacity of CFST with coal gangue is reduced by 38%, while the compressive strength
of coal gangue concrete is reduced by 50%. The current design method in Chinese standard
GB50936-2014 for normal CFST was modified regarding the effect of CG replacement ratio,
as follows [72]. The corresponding error of the modified method was in the range of ±10%.
Even though this semi-empirical prediction method is proposed here for the first time,
it is only valid for the CG from specific origins, as with the above-mentioned formulas
regarding CG concrete.
CGCFST
0.176 f y −0.104kCGC
sr fc
Nup (r ) = ( Ac + As )(1.212 + ( + 0.974) ξ + ( + 0.031) ξ 2 )kCGC
sr fc (5)
213 14.4
where k CGC
sr is the strength reduction factor of coal gangue concrete,
kCGC
sr = 1 − 0.909r 2
CG + 0.425rCG .

6.3. Steel−Coal Gangue Concrete Composite Structure

6.3.1. Wall
Some researchers have proposed setting an internal steel plate into reinforced coal
gangue concrete walls to enhance their seismic capacity [73,74], as shown in Figure 18.
Even though this configuration is supposed to be beneficial, and both experimental and
numerical studies have been conducted in [73,74], the effect of the CG replacement ratio
has not been represented in these studies, which mostly focus on the effect of the internal
steel plate, rather than the coal gangue concrete. In addition, the simplified theoretical
prediction for the shear resistance and the seismic model of this coal gangue concrete shear
wall with internal steel plate is also not presented.
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 17 of 22

Figure 17. Compressive performance of coal gangue concrete filled steel tubes [72]. (a) Failure
pattern; (b) Axial strength prediction.

Figure 18. Coal gangue concrete shear wall with an internal steel plate [73,74]. (a) Profile of the tested
composite wall; (b) Finite element model of the composite wall.

6.3.2. Slab
As a light-weight aggregate (bulk density less than 1200 kg/m3 [75]), coal gangue is
also preferable in concrete slabs, especially with profiled steel sheeting, namely composite
slabs, as shown in Figure 19. However, the performance of the slab with coal gangue
concrete and profiled steel sheeting is still limited. Some preliminary studies confirm the
feasibility of using coal gangue concrete in composite slab with profiled steel sheeting,
even though the deflection of the slab with coal gangue concrete is about 10% larger than
that with normal concrete [76,77].
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 18 of 22

Figure 19. Composite slab with coal gangue concrete and profiled steel sheeting.

7. Discussion and Research Gap

Based on the above analysis, generally, the properties of coal gangue coarse aggregates
are feasible for substituting natural coarse aggregates in the preparation of green concrete.
The mechanical performance, durability performance, and even the thermal characteristic
of the coal gangue coarse aggregate concrete have been investigated. Even though the
properties of coal gangue vary according to origins, the usage of coal gangue coarse
aggregate would decrease the mechanical and durability performance, but improve the
thermal characteristic of the concrete. The mechanical behaviour of coal gangue concrete is
generally acceptable in practical applications, while its durability is relatively poor. The
proposed stress−strain models of coal gangue concrete could be used in the numerical and
theoretical prediction for its mechanical performance [77,78]. However, these models are
empirically-based, and are highly related to the properties of the local coal gangue.
In contrast, the application of coal gangue coarse concrete in structural members
is relatively limited. The mechanical performance of reinforced concrete, CFST, and
steel−concrete composite structures with coal gangue concrete have been investigated
considering the structural members of beams, columns, and walls. In particular, most
of the formulas for the load-bearing capacity prediction of these members do not even
consider the influence of the CG replacement ratio [79,80].
It is worthy of attention that CFST is an applicative configuration for using coal gangue
concrete, even without a thorough study on its durability performance, since the external
tube could protect core coal gangue concrete from the effect of severe environments. The
prediction method for the axial resistance of CFST with coal gangue by directly considering
the influence of the CG replacement ratio is relatively accurate and simple for practical
application.
It has been found that structural concrete-based coal gangue has several issues that,
need to be resolved before its usage in the structural engineering. The following research
gaps have been identified.
(1) The physical properties of RCG and SCG should be investigated comparatively in
particular, since they are quite crucial to the properties of coal gangue concrete. In
other words, the physical change of coal gangue as a coarse aggregate in concrete
mixture before and after spontaneous/artificial combustion should be compared and
identified quantitatively.
(2) Even though the main content in the chemical composition of RCG and SCG is
actually stable, heavy metal and organic matter leaching of RCG and SCG should be
studied comparatively. More specific permission regarding heavy metal and organic
matter leaching in coal gangue should be issued by governments to avoid posing
environmental, health, and safety concerns.
(3) The workability of coal gangue concrete significantly varies from the gangue origins,
which makes the improvement method ineffective in some cases. This phenomenon
may be solved if the physical properties of coal gangue are assessed more accurately.
A proper index to assess the workability of coal gangue concrete for practical use
should also be proposed based on more experimental data.
(4) Even though the degradation effect of coal gangue aggregate on the mechanical
properties of coal gangue concrete is obvious, the empirical stress−strain model
should be validated against more data. In particular, the elastic modulus and tensile
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 19 of 22

strength of coal gangue concrete have not been described through theoretical models,
not to mention bending and creep performance and damage accumulation process.
(5) The studies on the durability performance of coal gangue concrete are directly related
to the properties of the coal gangue aggregate. Therefore, the specific properties and
replacement ratio of coal gangue should be considered in the prediction formulas
regarding the durability performance of coal gangue concrete. More tests on the
durability performance of coal gangue concrete are still needed, such as the drying
and watering cycle, high temperature, abrasion resistance, and sulfate resistance.
(6) Besides the experimental and theoretical studies on the structural members with
coal gangue concrete are rather limited, the durability performance of those has
never been studied. Specifically, the interface bonding behavior between the steel
component and coal gangue coarse aggregate concrete under the severe environment
and long-term loading should be studied in detail. More design methods from
formal standards should be modified by considering the properties of coal gangue for
practical applications.

8. Conclusions
This paper has reviewed the utilization of coal gangue (CG) in green concrete as a
coarse aggregate. The mechanical and durability performance of coal gangue concrete and
the corresponding structural members have been analyzed from the reported literature.
The main conclusions are as follows:
(1) The physical and chemical properties of rock and spontaneous-combustion coal
gangue are generally suitable for being used as a coarse aggregate in green concrete,
even though these properties vary from the origin. The short-term heavy metal
leachability of coal gangue is also relatively weak. However, more specific permission
regarding heavy metal and organic matter leaching in coal gangue should be issued
by governments to avoid posing environmental, health, and safety concerns.
(2) Coal gangue concrete is not recommended to be used in subsurface structures, since
its water absorption law would be changed by increasing the CG replacement ratio.
The slump of coal gangue concrete with a 100% CG content would be reduced by
about 10–20%. Adding fly ash, superplasticizer, and additional water are effective
and simple ways to enhance the workability of coal gangue concrete. A proper index
to assess the workability of coal gangue concrete for practical use should also be
proposed based on more experimental data.
(3) The mechanical performance, including compressive strength, elastic modulus, and
splitting tensile strength of coal gangue concrete is degraded by raising the CG replace-
ment ratio. This degradation caused by the porous structure of CG varies significantly
from the CG origin. Over-low and -high concrete grades are not suggested to be used
as coal gangue aggregates, unless extra admixture or specific methods are used. The
models for describing the elastic modulus, tensile strength, bending strength, and
creep performance of coal gangue concrete are still needed for practical applications.
(4) The porous structure of coal gangue provides more transmission channels for air and
liquid in concrete. Therefore, the influence of CG on the durability of coal gangue
concrete is more remarkable than on its mechanical performance, which could be
reduced by adding super-fine admixture and calcination. In contrast, the porous
structure of CG is beneficial in the preparation of thermal insulation concrete. The
specific properties and replacement ratio of coal gangue should be considered in the
prediction formulas regarding the durability performance of coal gangue concrete.
(5) The application of coal gangue concrete in structural members is still limited. Even
though the static and seismic behavior of some structural members using coal gangue
concrete has been investigated, the durability of these structural members has never
been reported. Specifically, the interface bonding behavior between steel component
and coal gangue coarse aggregate concrete under the severe environment and long-
term loading should be studied in detail. Among them, concrete filled steel tubes
Materials 2021, 14, 6803 20 of 22

are a preferable configuration for using coal gangue concrete, regarding both the
mechanical and durability performance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, writing-original draft preparation, S.G.; methodology,

S.Z.; writing-review and editing, L.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Youth Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities (21JP138).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.Data Availability: The raw/processed data required
to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongo-
ing study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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