EE 2513: Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

Lecture 5:
Vector Analysis (continued)
Gradient of a Scalar Field

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Integrals in Electromagnetics

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 Differential length vector
▪ Representation of differential length dl in
coordinate systems:

rectangular dl = dx aˆ x + dy aˆ y + dz aˆ z

cylindrical dl = d aˆ  + d aˆ + dz aˆ z

spherical dl = dr aˆ r + rd aˆ + r sin d aˆ

Metric coefficient
A metric coefficient converts a differential coordinate
change to a differential length change.

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Differential surface vector: cartesian coordinates

dV = aˆ x dx • (aˆ y dy  aˆ z dz) = dx dy dz
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 Direction of surface vector?
▪ Convention:

– If S is a closed surface enclosing a

volume V, then the direction of the
normal is outward from V.

– If S is an open surface, then the

direction of the normal is
determined by the right-hand rule
with respect to the direction in
which the perimeter of the open
surface is traversed.

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Differential surface vector: cylindrical coordinates

▪ Differential Surface Vector

– the cross product of the
differential length vectors
▪ Cylindrical Coordinates
Surfaces
– Circular cylinder centered around
the z-axis:

– Vertical plane extending from the

z-axis

– Flat plane parallel to

x-y plane

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 Differential volume element in cylindrical
coordinates
▪ The differential volume element is the scalar triple
product of the differential length changes in each of the
three coordinate directions

dV = aˆ d • (aˆ  d  aˆ z dz) =  d d dz

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Differential surface vector and differential volume

element in spherical coordinates

r = constant, dS r = aˆ r d  aˆ r sin  d = aˆ r r sin  d d
2


θ = constant, dS = aˆ r sin  d  aˆ r dr = aˆ r sin  dr d

ϕ = constant, dS = aˆ r dr  aˆ r d = aˆ r dr d

The differential volume element is given as:

dV = aˆ r dr • (aˆ r d  aˆ r sin  d )

= r 2 sin  dr d d

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 Integrals: Example
▪ Example 3.1

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Flux Representation of a Vector Field

▪ It is convenient to represent a vector field
graphically using flux lines or streamlines.
▪ The direction of the field at a point is tangential to
the flux line at that point.
▪ Two ways of representing magnitude of fields:
– The density of the flux lines is proportional to the
magnitude of the field. The stronger the field, the
greater is the number of lines per unit volume.
– Length of flux lines is proportional to the magnitude
of field

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 Circulation of a Vector Field
▪ The circulation of a vector field around a closed
contour, C, is given by

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Flux of a Vector Field

▪ The flux of a vector field through a surface S,
open or closed is given by

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 Circulation: Example 3.2

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Practice exercise 3.2

Calculate the circulation of

A =  cos aˆ  + z sin  aˆ z

around the edge L of the wedge defined by 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 2,

0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 60°, z = 0 as shown in Figure.

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 Del: Vector Differential Operator
▪ The vector differential   
operator in three coordinate = aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z
x y z
systems are given as:
 1  
= aˆ  + aˆ + aˆ z
   z
 1  1 
= aˆ r + aˆ + aˆ
▪ The operator is used in: r r  r sin  

– Gradient V

– Divergence  • A

– Curl  A
– Laplacian  2V
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Gradient of scalar field in 3D

▪ Gradient of a scalar field V in Cartesian,

cylindrical and spherical coordinates is given as:
V V V
V = aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z
x y z
V 1 V V
V = aˆ  + aˆ + aˆ z
   z
V 1 V 1 V
V = aˆ r + aˆ + aˆ
r r  r sin  
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 Concept of Gradient
▪ The expression for gradient is obtained as follows:
– Consider a scalar field in 3-D, the following expression is
obtained in calculus:

– Let

where dl is the differential displacement vector and θ is the

angle between G and dl.
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Concept of Gradient

▪ Therefore the maximum value dV/dl is given as:

▪ Thus G has its magnitude and direction as those of the

maximum rate of change of V

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 Example: Gradient in two dimensions

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Example: Gradient in 2D

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 Example: Gradient in 2D
▪ To see how this vector field relates to the surface height
ℎ(x,y), let’s place the vector field on top of topographic
plot:
▪ The gradient of a scalar
field provides a vector
field that states how
the scalar value is
changing throughout
space
– A change that has both
magnitude and direction.

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Example: Gradient in 2D
▪ The vectors point in the
direction of maximum
change (i.e., they point
straight up the mountain!).
▪ The vectors always point
orthogonal to the
topographic contours (i.e.,
the contours of equal
surface height).

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 Directional Derivative vs Gradient
▪ The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of change
in V per unit distance.
▪ V points in the direction of max. rate of change in V.
▪ V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface
that passes through that point dV
V = aˆ n
dn
▪ The projection (or component) of V in the direction of a
unit vector a is V • a and is called the directional
derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in
the direction of a. dV
= V • aˆl
dl
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Gradient of scalar field

▪ Properties of a Gradient Operator
– Addition

– Product

– High Order

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 Gradient of a Scalar Field: Example
▪ Example 3.3

▪ Example 3.4

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