Why Study Electromagnetics?

This course is about electromagnetics (EM), the

electrical foundation of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, or, how electricity really works.
•Linear Circuit is a simple part of EM, so it was taught
first.
•However, there are an increasing number of cases in
ECE where circuit theory fails (e.g. faster computers,
higher communications frequencies, power electronics,
power system transients,), and therefore EM must
supplement circuit theory. But, don’t worry…
•Also, EM is the basis for many devices (machinery,
antennas, etc.), and one of the physical foundations of
any active electronic device.
•Applications include: Fiber Optics, Microwave
Communication Systems, Antennas and Wave
Propagation, Optical Computing, Electromagnetic
Interference, Electromagnetic Compatibility, Biology and
Medicine/Biomedical Imaging.

Electromagnetics is Everywhere
Electromagnetics is fundamental to the
advancement of electrical and computer
technology!
What is Electromagnetics?
•Electromagnetics is the study of Charges: (i) at rest (ii)
in motion
•The subject of electromagnetics may be divided into 3
branches:
•Electrostatics: charges are at rest (no time-variation)
•Magnetostatics: charges are in steady-motion (no
time-variation)
•Electrodynamics: charges are in time-varying motion
(give rise to waves that propagate and carry energy and
information)
Why is Electromagnetics Difficult? Electric
and Magnetic Field:
•are 3-dimensional !
•are vectors !
•vary in space and as well as in time !
•are governed by PDEs (partial differential equations)
Therefore →
•Solution of electromagnetic problems requires a high
level of abstract thinking !
•Students must develop a deep physical
understanding ! Math is just a powerful tool !
Examples of Electromagnetic Applications

Communication Technology
What are electromagnetic waves?
•Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves made up
of electric and magnetic fields.
•All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed.
•In a vacuum (space), they travel at 300,000,000 m/s!
How do electromagnetic waves differ?
•Different electromagnetic waves carry different amounts
of energy.
•For example, microwaves carry less energy than X-rays.
•The amount of energy carried by an electromagnetic
wave depends on the wavelength:
•the shorter the wavelength, the higher its energy.
•Wavelength and frequency are linked properties of a
wave: the shorter the wavelength, the higher its
frequency.
•So, frequency also tells you about the energy of a wave:
•the higher its frequency, the higher is energy.
What happens when waves
hit a surface?
•When electromagnetic waves hit a
surface, they can be reflected, absorbed
or transmitted.
•How the waves behave, depends on
their energy and the type of material.
•For example, light waves are reflected
by skin but X-rays pass straight through.
•If electromagnetic waves are absorbed,
some of their energy is absorbed by the
material. This usually increases the
temperature of the material.
What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
•The electromagnetic waves are grouped into types that have
similar wavelengths and so have similar properties.

smaller wavelength → higher frequency → energy and

hazard Electromagnetic waves form a continuous series in order
of changing wavelength, frequency and energy. This series is called
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Vector Analysis
Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which
electromagnetic concepts are most conveniently
expressed and best comprehended.
SCALARS AND VECTORS
A quantity can be either a scalar or a vector.
A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude.
Quantities such as time, mass, distance,
temperature, electric potential, and population
are scalars. A vector has not only magnitude, but
direction in space.
A vector is a quantity that is described by both
magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities include velocity, force,
momentum, acceleration displacement, and
electric field intensity.
SCALARS AND VECTORS
To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it is
customary to represent a vector by a letter with
an arrow on top of it, such as A > and B > , or by a
letter in boldface type such as A and B. A scalar is
represented simply by a letter—for example, A, B,
U and V.
EM theory is essentially a study of some particular fields.
A field is a function that specifies a particular quantity
everywhere in a region.
A field may indicate variation of a quantity throughout
space and perhaps with time. If the quantity is scalar (or
vector), the field is said to be a scalar (or vector) field.
Examples of scalar fields are temperature distribution in
a building, sound intensity in a theater, electric potential
in a region, and refractive index of a stratified medium.
The gravitational force on a body in space and the
velocity of raindrops in the atmosphere are examples of
vector fields.
 Vector Addition

Associative Law:

Distributive Law:

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UNIT VECTOR
A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The
magnitude of A is a scalar written as A or IAI . A unit
vector aA along A is defined as a vector whose
magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is along A;
that is,

Note that IaAI = 1. Thus we may write A as

A = AaA
which completely specifies A in terms of its magnitude A and its
direction aA.
A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be
represented as
(Ax, Ay, Az) or Axax+ Ayay+Azaz
(a) Unit vectors ax, ay, and az, (b) components of A
along ax, ay, and az.

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Vector Expressions in Rectangular Coordinates

General Vector, B:

Magnitude of B:

Unit Vector in the

Direction of B:

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Example

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Rectangular Coordinate System

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Differential Volume Element

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 Orthogonal Vector Components
An orthogonal system is one in which the
coordinate surfaces are mutually perpendicular.

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Orthogonal Unit Vectors

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The Dot Product

Commutative Law:

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 Operational Use of the Dot Product

Given

Find

where we have used:

Note also:

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1-38
Cross Product

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 Operational Definition of the Cross Product in
Rectangular Coordinates

Begin with:

where
Therefore:

Or…

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Vector Product or Cross Product
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Cylindrical Coordinate Systems
The circular cylindrical coordinate system is very
convenient whenever we are dealing with problems
having cylindrical symmetry, such as dealing with a
coaxial transmission line.

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 Cylindrical Coordinate Systems

A horizontal plane

A circular cylinder

A vertical plane

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Cylindrical Coordinate Systems
Cylindrical Coordinate Systems

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Differential Volume in Cylindrical Coordinates
A differential volume element in the rectangular
coordinate system is generated by making differential
changes dx, dy, and dz along the unit vectors x, y and z,
respectively, as

dV = dddz

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Point Transformations in Cylindrical Coordinates

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Dot Products of Unit Vectors in Cylindrical and
Rectangular Coordinate Systems

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Spherical Coordinates
The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when
one is dealing with problems having a degree of
spherical symmetry.
 Spherical Coordinates
A cone centred around the
z axis (θ= constant

A vertical plane

A sphere of radius r from the origin

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Spherical Coordinates

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Spherical Coordinates

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Differential Volume in Spherical Coordinates

dV = r2sindrdd

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Dot Products of Unit Vectors in the Spherical
and Rectangular Coordinate Systems

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Example: Vector Component Transformation

Transform the field, , into spherical coordinates and components

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