UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

The word ‘Environment’ is derived from the French word ‘Environner’

which means to encircle, around or surround. The biologist Jacob Van
Uerkal (1864-1944) introduced the term ‘environment’ in Ecology.

Ecology is the study of the interactions between an organism of some

kind and its environment.

Environment is the sum total of land, water, air, interrelationships

among themselves and also with the human beings and other living
organisms. As given by the Environment Protection Act 1986.

Elements of Environment

Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical,

biological and cultural elements inter-related in various ways,
individually as well as collectively. These elements are:

(1) Physical elements

Physical elements are space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils,

rocks and minerals. They determine the variable character of the human
habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations.

(2) Biological elements

Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and men

constitute the biosphere.

(3) Cultural elements

Cultural elements such as economical, social and political elements

are essentially man- made features, which make the cultural background.

Environmental Science is the interdisciplinary field and requires the

study of the interactions among the physical, chemical and biological
components of the Environment with a focus on environmental pollution and
degradation. Environmental Science deals with the study of processes in
soil, water, air and organisms which lead to pollution or environmental
damages and the scientific basis for the establishment of a standard which
can be considered acceptably clean, safe and healthy for human beings and
natural ecosystems

Environment studies is a multidisciplinary subject where different

aspects are dealt with in a holistic approach.

The science of Environment studies comprises various branches of

studies like chemistry, physics, life science, medical science,
agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering, geography, geology,
atmospheric science, etc. It is the science of physical phenomena in the
environment. It studies the sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate

Ecosystem is defined as a natural functional ecological unit

comprising living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living
(abiotic or physio chemical) environment that interact to form a stable
self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest
etc. are common examples of ecosystems.

LESSON 1 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson,the student should be able to:

1. describe the composition and structure of the atmosphere.

2. explain the importance of the ozone layer, its depletion, and
specific steps taken to address it.
3. distinguish between indoor and outdoor air pollution and how these
compare among industrialized and less industrialized countries
4. identify natural and anthropogenic sources of air pollution

The Earth is divided into four subsystems or sphere namely:

1. Atmos (gaseous) sphere

2. Hydro ( water) sphere
3. Lithos (rocky or stone ) sphere
4. Bios (life ) sphere

What is the atmosphere?

We all know that earth is a unique planet due to the presence of life. The
air is one among the necessary conditions for the existence of life on
this planet. The air is a mixture of several gases and it encompasses the
earth from all sides. The air surrounding the earth is called the
atmosphere.

● Atmosphere is the air surrounding the earth.

 ● The atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. It contains
life-giving gases like Oxygen for humans and animals and carbon
dioxide for plants.
● It envelops the earth all round and is held in place by the gravity of
the earth.
● It helps in stopping the ultraviolet rays harmful to life and
maintains the suitable temperature necessary for life.
● Generally, the atmosphere extends up to about 1600 km from the earth’s
surface. However, 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere is confined
to the height of 32 km from the earth’s surface.

Composition of the atmosphere

● The atmosphere is made up of different gases, water vapour and dust

particles.
● The composition of the atmosphere is not static and it changes
according to the time and place.
● Gases of the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide,
neon, helium, krypton and hydrogen.

● The atmosphere is a mixture of different types of gases.

● Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main gases in the atmosphere and 99
percent of the atmosphere is made up of these two gases.
● Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, hydrogen, etc.
form the remaining part of the atmosphere.
● The portion of the gases changes in the higher layers of the
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost negligible at the
heights of 120 km.
● Similarly, carbon dioxide (and water vapour) is found only up to 90 km
from the surface of the earth.

CARBON DIOXIDE:

● Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas.

● It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation (insolation) but
opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
● It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part
of it towards the earth’s surface.
● Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
● When the volume of other gases remains constant in the atmosphere, the
volume of the carbon dioxide has been rising in the past few decades
mainly because of the burning of fossil fuels. This rising volume of
carbon dioxide is the main reason for global warming.
OZONE GAS:

● Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found mainly

between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface.
● It acts as a filter and absorbs the ultraviolet rays radiating from
the sun and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth.
● The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is very little and is
limited to the ozone layer found in the stratosphere.

Water Vapour

● Gases form of water present in the atmosphere is called water vapour.

● It is the source of all kinds of precipitation.
● The amount of water vapour decreases with altitude. It also decreases
from the equator (or from the low latitudes) towards the poles (or
towards the high latitudes).
● Its maximum amount in the atmosphere could be up to 4% which is found
in the warm and wet regions.
● Water vapour reaches the atmosphere through evaporation and
transpiration. Evaporation takes place in the oceans, seas, rivers,
ponds and lakes while transpiration takes place from the plants, trees
and living beings.
● Water vapour absorbs part of the incoming solar radiation (insolation)
from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus acts
like a blanket allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too
hot.
● Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in the
air

● Dust Particles

● Dust particles are generally found in the lower layers of the

atmosphere.
● These particles are found in the form of sand, smoke-soot, oceanic
salt, ash, pollen, etc.
● Higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and
temperate regions due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and
polar regions.
● These dust particles help in the condensation of water vapour. During
the condensation, water vapour gets condensed in the form of droplets
around these dust particles and thus clouds are formed.
Structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the diversity
of temperature and density. They are:

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere (Ionosphere)
5. Exosphere

Troposphere

● It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.

● The height of this layer is about 18 km on the equator and 8 km on the
poles.
● The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because
heat is transported to great heights by strong convection currents.
● Troposphere contains dust particles and water vapour.
● This is the most important layer of the atmosphere because all kinds
of weather changes take place only in this layer.
● The air never remains static in this layer. Therefore this layer is
called a ‘changing sphere’ or troposphere.
● The environmental temperature decreases with increasing height of the
atmosphere. It decreases at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165
m of height. This is called Normal Lapse Rate.
● The zone separating the troposphere from the stratosphere is known as
tropopause.
● The air temperature at the tropopause is about – 80 degree Celsius
over the equator and about – 45 degree Celsius over the poles. The
 temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called
tropopause.

Stratosphere

● Stratosphere is found just above the troposphere.

● It extends up to a height of 50 km.
● The temperature remains almost the same in the lower part of this
layer up to the height of 20 km. After this, the temperature increases
slowly with the increase in the height. The temperature increases due
to the presence of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
● Weather related incidents do not take place in this layer. The air
blows horizontally here. Therefore this layer is considered ideal for
flying of aircraft.
● The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause.
● One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains a layer
of ozone gas.
● The relative thickness of the ozone layer is measured in Dobson Units.
● It is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from
approximately 20 to 30 km above the earth’s surface.
● It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other
parts of the atmosphere.
● It is the region of the stratosphere that absorbs most of the sun’s
ultra-violet radiations.

Mesosphere

● It is the third layer of the atmosphere spreading over the

stratosphere.
● It extends up to a height of 80 km.
● In this layer, the temperature starts decreasing with increasing
altitude and reaches up to – 100 degree Celsius at the height of 80
km.
● Meteors or falling stars occur in this layer.
● The upper limit of the mesosphere is known as mesopause.

Thermosphere

● This layer is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.

● It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence,

it is known as the ionosphere.
● Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth
by this layer and due to this, radio broadcasting has become possible.
● The temperature here starts increasing with heights.
Exosphere

● The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.

Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational
force. Therefore, the density of air is very less here

LESSON 2 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF HYDROSPHERE

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson ,the students should be able to :

1. define the term 'hydrosphere'

2. outline the Earth's water cycle
3. describe the Earth's various water reservoirs

The hydrosphere is one of the four spheres of the Earth system; the
other three are the geosphere or lithosphere (solid rocky part of Earth),
atmosphere (gases surrounding Earth), and biosphere (living things).

Types of water

1. sea water

2. ground (except soil water) water (30%)

3. Ice and snow (Arctic, Greenland, mountain regions, ice regions)

4. Surface water: lakes, reservoirs, rivers, swamps, soil water

5. Atmospheric water

6. Water in living organisms (bio related)

The hydrosphere consists of all of the water on, in and surrounding

Earth. The water in the hydrosphere is distributed among the ocean,
glaciers and ice caps, groundwater, surface water and water in the
atmosphere in the form of water vapor and clouds. The water is present in
all three phases: solid, liquid and gas. Life on Earth depends on the
water of the hydrosphere.

Earth is known as the water planet for good reason. More than 71% of
Earth’s surface is covered with water. The total amount of water on Earth
is approximately 333 million cubic miles (1,386 million cubic kilometers).
Only a small fraction of the total amount of water on Earth is available
for drinking, washing and irrigating crops because most of it is either
salty or frozen.
The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle, also known as the water cycle, describes how
all the water in the hydrosphere continually moves between oceans, lakes,
rivers, land and atmosphere. During the course of the water cycle, water
changes state from liquid to gas and back to liquid. The energy that
drives the hydrologic cycle comes from the sun. The steps in the water
cycle are evaporation, condensation, precipitation and runoff.
Transpiration is an additional element in the water cycle.

▪ Evaporation is the process by which water on the surface changes from

a liquid to a gas state, water vapor. Energy is required for
evaporation to take place.
▪ Condensation occurs when water vapor in the atmosphere cools and
collects into water droplets, forming clouds. The water loses energy
when it condenses.
▪ Precipitation consists of rain, hail, sleet or snow falling from
clouds back to Earth’s surface.
▪ Runoff is water from precipitation that flows over the surface into
rivers or streams, eventually returning to the ocean.
▪ Transpiration happens when water vapor returns to the air from the
leaves of plants.
Water that does not run off soaks into the ground and fills the spaces
between the soil and rock, becoming groundwater. This water may sometimes
be accessed by wells.
Structural composition of water

It is a term used for the total body of water of the earth. In other
words”, all the natural waters occurring on or below the surface of the
earth are known as hydrosphere. Thus the term includes the oceans, seas,
lakes, rivers, snow and ice, underground and atmospheric water.

● Sodium chloride 27.213

● Magnesium chloride 3.807
● Magnesium sulphate 1.658
● Calcium sulphate 1.260
● Potassium sulphate 0.863
● Calcium carbonate 0.123
● Magnesium bromide 0.076

Magnesium, calcium, sulphur and potassium are the other four major
elements in these salts. Sea-water also holds in solution small amounts of
all the gases of the atmosphere.

According to Brian Mason (Principles of Geochemistry, 1952) common

elements present in the ocean-water arc as follows:

Elements

1.Oxygen 6. Sulphur
2. Hydrogen 7. Calcium
3. Chlorine 8. Potassium
4. Sodium 9. Bromine
5. Magnesium 10. Carbon
(inorganic)

Sea water derives oxygen from the air and also through photosynthesis
by marine plants. The carbon dioxide content of seawater is also high. Its
sources are the atmosphere, river.
LESSON 3 EARTH’S LITHOSPHERE
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Describe the basic structure of the earth and the role of the
theory of plate tectonics plays in understanding movements of the
crust.
2. Explain the process of crustal development and the geologic
hazards associated with it.
3. Identify the process of crustal erosion and degradation and the
associated geologic hazards associated with it. 

Lithosphere is derived from the Greek word lithos meaning rocky or

stone. It is primarily the rock and stony part covering the whole earth
surface on which the interaction of the other Geospheres happen.

Joseph Barrell who first studied the motion of the lithosphere over a
molten layer like asthenosphere.

STRUCTURE OF LITHOSPHERE

OCEANIC lithosphere consists mainly of mafic( rich in magnesium and iron)

crust and ultramafic( over 90% mafic) mantle and is denser than
continental lithosphere.Crust below the ocean.

CONTINENTAL lithosphere is also called the continental crust. It is the

layer of igneous, sedimentary rock that forms the continents and the
continental shelves. This layer consists mostly of granitic rock. Crust
the is made up of land
CRUST is the outermost layer of the earth with average density of 2.8 –
3.0 g/cm3 and average thickness of 30km. It consists of the continental
crust and the oceanic crust. Life exists in this layer.

MANTLE is the second layer of the earth and extends from 30 km- 2900km
with an average density of 2.7 g/cm3. It contains 83% of the total volume
and 68% of the total mass of the earth. It is made up of silicate rich in
iron and magnesium and is divided from the crust by a discontinuity called
MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY. Liquid layer of the earth.

ASTHENOSPHERE part of the mantle with convection currents. (mantle)

CORE it is the deepest layer of the earth .It extend from a distance of
2900km-6371km with an average density of 4-3 -11 g/cm3. Mantle and core
boundary is called as WEICHART-GUTENBERG Discontinuity. Core volume is 16%
of earth’s total volume and core mass is 32% of earth total mass.

It is further divide into 2 sub- zones

● OUTER CORE- liquid layer made up of iron and nickel
● INNER CORE- solid layer made up of iron and nickel

Continental Drift

Evidence for Continental Drift

A. Theory of continental drift is the idea that the continents have
moved horizontally to their current locations.
1. This theory was developed by Alfred Wegener.
 2. Wegener believed that all of the continents were connected
as one large land mass (he called Pangea) about 200 million
years ago.
B. Fossils of Mesosaurus have been found in South America and Africa.
C. Glacial deposits and grooved bedrock were found in southern areas
of South America, Africa, India, and Australia.
D. Parts of the Appalachian mountains in the eastern US are similar to
those found in Greenland and western Europe.

How Could the Continents Drift?

● Rock, Fossil and Climate clues were the main evidence for continental
drift during Wegener’s lifetime.
● Wegener’s theory was often rejected because no one could explain how
the continents moved.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics
A. Theory of Plate Tectonics is the idea that the Earth’s crust and
upper mantle are broken into sections called plates that move around
on the mantle.
B. Composition of the Earth’s plates:
1. Lithosphere – the crust and part of the upper mantle
2. Asthenosphere – the plastic-like layer below the lithosphere

Plate Boundaries

There are three different plate boundaries:

Divergent Boundaries
Convergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries are the boundaries between two plates that are
diverging, or moving away from each other.

Convergent Boundaries are the boundaries between two plates that are
converging, or moving towards each other.
There are three types of convergent boundaries:
1. An ocean floor plate collides with a less dense continental
plate.
2. An ocean floor plate collides with another ocean floor plate.
3. A continental plate collides with another continental plate.

Transform Boundaries are the boundaries between two plates that are
sliding horizontally past one another.

Effects of Plate Tectonics

Landforms caused by plate tectonics:

a. rift valleys (divergent boundaries)

b. mountain ranges (continental-continental convergent

boundaries)

c. volcanoes (oceanic-continental convergent boundaries)

d. faults (transform boundaries)

Causes of Plate Tectonics

Convection Current is the driving force of plate tectonics in

which hot, plastic-like material from the mantle rises to the
lithosphere, moves horizontally, cools, and sinks back to the mantle.

The convection currents provide enough energy to move the plates in

the lithosphere
LESSON 4: ECOSYSTEM

Together, abiotic and biotic factors make up an ecosystem. Abiotic

factors are the nonliving parts of an environment. These include things
such as sunlight, temperature, wind, water, soil and naturally occurring
events such as storms, fires and volcanic eruptions. Biotic factors are
the living parts of an environment, such as plants, animals and
micro-organisms. Together, they are the biological factors that determine
a species' success. Each of these factors impacts others, and a mix of
both is necessary for an ecosystem to survive

Two main components of an Ecosystem

(1) Abiotic Components:

The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an
ecosystem form the abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the
structure, distribution, behaviour and inter-relationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors:

Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors:

Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.?

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a
mixture of weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral
particles, organic matter, and living organisms. Soils provide nutrients,
water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. The
vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this
component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon

dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of
evaporation, transpiration and precipitation cycle water between the
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.

Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to

evaporate and transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also
necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant
growth and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life.

Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up

to and even exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive
if their water content drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less
than 30-50%.

Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are

trans-located in plants. It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf
turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants
and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The
original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms
(Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic
components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be
classified into three main groups:

(A) Producers or autotrophs

The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap
solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using
simple inorganic compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process
is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their own food
they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder)

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the

producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in
the plant parts for their future use.

(B) Consumers:

The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own
food. Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are
known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other, trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are
called herbivores. Examples are rabbits, deer, goats, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary
carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers.
Example: Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers
and are not eaten up by any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.

C. Decomposers and scavengers break down dead plants and animals. They
also break down the waste (poop) of other organisms. Decomposers are very
important for any ecosystem. If they weren't in the ecosystem,
the plants would not get essential nutrients, and dead matter and waste
would pile up.

● Scavengers are animals that find dead animals or plants and eat them.
While they eat them, they break them into small bits.
Flies, wasps and cockroaches are scavengers. Earthworms are also
scavengers, but they only break down plants.
.
● . Decomposers are also called as reducers because they are able to
remove or degrade the dead bodies of organisms and due to their
small size they are known as micro consumers.

Once a scavenger is done, the decomposers take over, and finish the

job. Many kinds of decomposers are microscopic, meaning that they
can't be seen without a microscope. Others, like fungi, can be seen.

Different kinds of decomposers do different jobs in the ecosystem.

1. Some kinds of bacteria, prefer breaking down meat or waste

from carnivores.

2. Actinolites only break down dead plants, including hard to break

down plants and the waste of herbivores.

3. Kinds of fungi, prefer fruits and vegetables.