Chapter One: Introduction to Environmental Studies

1.1. Definition of Environment

The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environner” which means
“surrounding”. Thus, environment is ones surrounding. Our surrounding includes biotic
factors like human beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc. and abiotic factors such as light,
air, water, soil, etc. Environment is a complex of many variables, which surrounds man as
well as the living organisms. Environment includes water, air and land and the
interrelationships which exist among and between water, air and land and human beings and
other living creatures such as plants, animals and microorganisms.

Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and our place in it.
Environmental science is a group of sciences that attempt to explain how life on the earth is
sustained, what leads to environmental problems, and how these problems can be solved. It is
highly interdisciplinary. Generally, environmental science is the science of the complex
interactions which occurs amongst terrestrial, atmospheric, aquatic, living and
anthropological environment. It includes all the physical, chemical and biological science. In
other words, environmental science is study about the earth, air, water, living organisms and
the impact of human being on environment.

1.2. The Multidisciplinary Nature of an Environmental science

Environmental science integrates information from biology, chemistry, geography,

agriculture, and many other fields. It also incorporates knowledge of social organization,
politics and the humanities.

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 The multidisciplinary nature of environmental science is
illustrated in
Following diagram
Physical Science, (physics,
Life Science
chemistry,
(Biology, biochemistry,
Microbiology etc) Basic and Earth science, Atmospheric
Applied Studies Science)

Environmental Studies Technology

Modeling
Civil, Chemical,
Mathematics, Hydraulics, Nano
Statistics, Management and
Computer science Awareness
Economics, Sociology, Law,
Education, Management, Mass
Communication

Life sciences like zoology, microbiology, botany, biochemistry and genetics help in
understanding the biotic components and their interactions. Genetics and biotechnology helps
to find solutions to environmental problems. Physical sciences: helps to understand the
physical and chemical structure of abiotic components along with mass and energy transfer.
Mathematics, statistics and computer science serves as effective tools environmental
modeling. Civil engineering, hydraulics, chemical engineering and nano technology provides
the technical solutions to environmental pollution control and waste treatment. Environmental
laws provide guidelines and legal measures for effective management and protection of the
environment. Environmental education and mass communication are instrumental in
disseminating environmental awareness.

Scope of Environmental Studies:

Environmental Studies encompasses large number of areas which mainly include:

 Natural Resource- Conservation and Management
 Ecology and Biodiversity
 Environment Pollution and Control
 Economic development and associate socio-cultural issues
 Human population and environment.

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It can also include highly specialized issues like Environmental Science, Environmental
Engineering and Environmental Management.

1.3. Environmentalism

 Environmentalism is used as a general term to refer to concern for the environment and
particularly actions or advocacy to limit negative human impacts on the environment.
 Environmentalism is a movement that arose in response to global environmental crises.
 It encompasses theories about the nature and causes of environmental problems, moral
views about our relation to nature, and attempts to define and bring about an
environmentally sound society.
1.4. Components of Environment and their Interaction
1.4.1. Major Component of Environment

Our environment has been classified into four major components: These include Atmosphere,
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, and Biosphere.

1. Atmosphere

The cover of the air, that envelope the earth is known as the atmosphere. Atmosphere is a thin
layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which protects the solid earth
and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun. It is a complex fluid system of
gases and suspended particles. The gases like nitrogen, oxygen, Argon, carbon dioxide and
water vapor etc together makeup of the total volume of atmosphere. Without the atmosphere
there would be no cloud, winds, storms, and hence no weather. Among other functions, it acts
as a great canopy to protect the earth’s surface from the full range of solar effect by day and
prevent excessive losses of heat by night. That is it helps in maintaining habitable
temperature on this marvelous planet by maintaining the heat balances.

Composition of atmosphere

The atmosphere composed of: Various gases, Water vapor and Subatomic particles. The
major gases of pollution-free dry air in the lower atmosphere are nitrogen; oxygen; Argon
and carbon dioxide (account more than 99% of dry air). Minor (trace) gases like neon,
helium, methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ozone (account 0-1%). Without water in the
atmosphere, there would be no water on the earth.

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 There are five concentric layers within the atmosphere, which include the troposphere, the
stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.

Figure 1. The Structure of the Atmosphere

Troposphere: it is the layer of air nearest to the ground. Temperature decreases with height.
The average temperature drops from 15ºC at sea level to –56.5ºC at 11,000 m above sea
level. Mixing of the air molecules due to their constant movement (winds) keeps the
composition of the gases more or less same throughout the troposphere. An exception to this
is water vapor. Most water vapor evaporates from the surface of the Earth and is found in the
lower troposphere. Most of the weather occurs in the troposphere. Tropopause is the top of
the troposphere, which is a transition layer between Troposphere and Stratosphere.

Stratosphere: it is the layer of air above the troposphere where temperature increases with
height. The average temperature rises to –2.5ºC at 50,000 m above sea level. Ozone is found
in higher concentrations between 20 and 30 km above the surface. Hence sometimes this
layer is referred to as the “ozone layer”. Ozone absorbs radiant energy from the sun and
hence warmer temperatures are encountered in the stratosphere. Stratopause is the top of the
stratosphere, which is a transition layer between Stratosphere and Mesosphere.
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Mesosphere: it is the layer of air above the stratosphere where temperature decreases with
height. The average temperature decreases to –90°C at 90,000 m. This is the coldest layer of
the atmosphere. Mesopause is the top of the mesosphere, which is a transition layer between
Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

Thermosphere: it is the layer of air above the mesosphere. The temperatures in the
thermosphere increase with increasing height, but there are not many molecules in this layer.
The air becomes less and less dense as we reach space.

2. Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc
Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological cycle or water
cycle.
3. Lithosphere

Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. The earth is a cold
spherical solid planet of the solar system, which spins in its axis and revolves around the sun
at a certain constant distance. Lithosphere mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc.
Lithosphere is divided into three layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner).

4. Biosphere It is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s
surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-
organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea.
Biology is concerned with how millions of species of animals, plants and other organisms
grow, feed, move, reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in different environments.
Its subject matter is useful to other sciences and professions that deal with life, such as
agriculture, forestry and medicine. The richness of biosphere depends upon a number of
factors like rainfall, temperature, geographical reference etc. Apart from the physical
environmental factors, the man made environment includes human groups, the material
infrastructures built by man, the production relationships and institutional systems that he has
devised. The social environment shows the way in which human societies have organized
themselves and how they function in order to satisfy their needs (Kumarasamy et al., 2004).

1.4.2. Types of interactions in the environment

1. Man-Environment Interaction: The interaction of man on the natural system can be

looked at from two viewpoints. The impacts of natural environmental forces on man like

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floods, earth quake and landslides. The impact of man upon the environment like air and
water pollution, extinction of animal and plant species, and accelerate rate of erosion.

2. Man and the lithosphere: man interacts with the lithosphere in several ways and the result
of the interaction may be positive or negative. Land provides soil, minerals, nutrients, stone
and gravel, earth quake, mudflows, iceberg, landslide and human provide compost, land
degradation

3. Man and ecosystem interaction: an ecosystem is an area on the earth surface consisting
of organisms’ interaction each other and with non-living things. Living and non-living things
interaction like, photosynthesis.

1.5. Types of Resources

Resource is anything we get from the environment to meet our needs and desires. Natural
resources classified into following categories.

Nonrenewable resource: is one for which the natural replenishment feedback loop can
safely be ignored. These available in finite quantities or else the rate of replenishment for
these resources are so low that it does not offer a potential for augmenting the stock in any
reasonable time frame. Example: Petroleum, Coal, minerals.

Renewable resources: Natural resources that can be depleted in the short run if overused but
normally will be replaces through processes. These resources are capable of natural
regeneration in to useful products within time span relevant to man. These resources are
potentially renewable, provided their capacity to regenerate not damaged by natural
catastrophe or manmade activity. Example: water, plant/soil nutrients, fish

Continues resources: It continues to be available and cannot be degrade with the mass
utilization. Example: solar energy, wind energy, gravity, geothermal energy etc.

1.5.1. Sustainability and resource consumption

Sustainable natural resource consumption is the optimum consumption of natural resources

that never declining exploitation. Over-use is the main causes for depletion of natural
resources. However, optimum resource allocation depends on the type of resources.

Sustainable rate of exploitation for renewable resources: Renewable resources have the
capacity to renew them. However, renewable resources have a potential to be depleted if the

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resource utilization rate exceeds the natural regeneration capacity. For instance, Fish stocks
shrinks when the utilization rate exceeds its reproduction rate.

1.5.2. Common resources and tragedy of the commons

The tragedy of the commons: individuals acting according to one’s own self-interest behave
contrary to the best interests of the whole group by depleting some common resources. It is
the Contrasting interests among users of common resources. e.g. use of forest resources.

Communal resources: Are resources owned by none and available to all users free of charges.
Ex, Communal grazing land, rivers, forests. It is an area lies beyond the territorial claim of
any nation. Ex, clean air, migratory birds, ozone, fish in open Ocean, trans-boundary water
bodies…..

Common resources like Grazing lands, forests, air, and water are very vulnerable for
degradation. WHY?

 Because in case of common resource utilization,

 There is unregulated exploitation of resources
 No one has the incentive to care for a resource.
No one has the incentive to care for a resource. Everyone takes what he or she can until the
resource is depleted.
Therefore, Private ownership, encouraging voluntary organization to enforce responsible
use, and governmental regulations are required.
1.5.3. Resources and environmental valuation
All human activities depend on the natural environment. Environmental resources like rivers,
oceans, land, air, water, and the diverse species of living things are put to different and
sometimes competing uses by people. They from the ecological processes on which life
depends, they provide inputs to the production of goods and services, and they act as sinks for
waste and pollution. They have uses which we do not fully understand. Environmental
resources also have value beyond their direct use. For example, some resources are important
for cultural, religious or scientific reasons. From an economic perspective, value can be
associated equally with the consumption of goods and services purchased in markets and with
the service from environmental amenities for which no payments are made. In this sense,
anything from which an individual gains satisfaction is deemed to be of value, so long as the
individual is willing to give up scarce resources for it. The total economic value of
environmental amenities comprises explicit use benefits as well as implicit nonuse benefits.

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Use benefits are those that accrue from the physical use of environmental resources such as
visiting a national park, benefits from agricultural production, selling of forest products,
fishery etc. nonuse benefits on the other hand, refers to the benefits individuals may obtain
from environmental resources without directly using or visiting them.
Direct Use: Direct use value is most obvious value category, as the economic benefits can be
calculated by making use of market information. The outputs of the resource can be directly
consumed:
- A forest may yield annually a certain amount of wood that can be sold or used for heating
and construction;
- Pastures provide space for some livestock
- a lake provides fish to fisherman;
- enjoying nature (recreation).
Many studies show that cleaner air (a natural resource) leads to less respiratory diseases and
considerably less mortality. So health costs can be influenced positively by improving air
quality. As the output (clean air) directly can be consumed, it is still classified as “direct use”,
but assessing the money value will already be more difficult than
Indirect use: Indirect use of natural recourses relates to functional benefits, the outputs
provide a social benefit from ecosystem functioning (e.g. water purification, erosion
protection or carbon sequestration).
Option use value: Option value, where individuals are willing to pay for the future use of the
resource (e.g. future visits to national parks, clean surface and ground water, avoiding of
erosion to enable future use of pastures).
Two types of non-use value of environment can be distinguished:
Bequest values: This reflects the publics’ willingness to pay to ensure future generations to
enjoy the same environmental benefit in the years to come. This relates to the willingness to
pay for preserving existing habitats, species and ecosystems. It also includes the willingness
to pay to prevent for irreversible changes (for example: extinction of species).
Existence value: This non-use value reflects the “moral” or philosophical reasons for
environmental protection, unrelated to any current or future use. It is related to the for
example the scientific society and the value from knowledge of continued existence of
species, habitats and ecosystems.

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 Chapter Two: Environmental Aspect of Sustainable Development
2.1. Concepts of sustainability

When the World Commission on Environment and Development presented their 1987 report,
Our Common Future, they sought to address the problem of conflicts between environment
and development goals by formulating a definition of sustainable development:

Development that meets the needs and aspirations of the current generation without
compromising the ability to meet those of future generations
The concept of sustainable development is “Development without Destruction”
 In practice this means lower global production and consumption and lower economic
growth
 Living within our planet’s means
 The Earth can sustain humans and other organisms for the future
 Leaving our descendants with a rich, full world
 Developing solutions that work in the long term
 Requires keeping fully functioning ecological systems
 Sustainability involves:
 Poverty reduction
 Renewable energy sources
 Soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, organic agriculture
 Pollution reduction
 Habitat and species protection
 Recycling
 Fighting global climate change
In the extensive discussion and use of the concept since then, there has generally been
recognition of three aspects of sustainable development:
Economic: An economically sustainable system must be able to produce goods and services
on a continuing basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt, and to
avoid extreme sectoral imbalances which damage agricultural or industrial production.

Environmental: An environmentally sustainable system must maintain a stable resource

base, avoiding over-exploitation of renewable resource systems or environmental sink
functions, and depleting non-renewable resources only to the extent that investment is made

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in adequate substitutes. This includes maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric stability, and
other ecosystem functions not ordinarily classed as economic resources.

Social: A socially sustainable system must achieve distributional equity, adequate provision
of social services including health and education, gender equity, and political accountability
and participation.

Using these lessons from nature the following guidelines are suggested for achieving
sustainable development.

 Reduce the input of matter and energy resources to prevent excessive depletion and
degradation of resources.
 Shift from exhaustible and potentially polluting fossil and nuclear fuels to less
harmful, renewable energy obtained directly/indirectly from the sun.
 Use potentially renewable resources no faster than the rate at which they are
regenerated.
 Reduce use and waste of matter resources by making things that last no longer and
are easier to recycle, reuse and repair.
 Slow human population growth to help reduce stress on global life support.
 Emphasize pollution prevention and waste reduction instead of pollution cleanup and
waste management.
 Recycle: recycling and buying products made with recycling materials has many far-reaching
benefits. It reduces pressure on raw materials, reduces mining, and the fuel and other costs
associated with extracting, transporting and processing minerals.
 Make informed choices: we can make a shift in our purchasing practice by choosing
sustainable goods and services. Before we buy something, make sure we really need it. For
instance, you could have food in your refrigerator that you have not used yet. This is the first
step avoiding food waste. Read the ingredients and make sure the food was made with
sustainable methods.
 Efficient waste management is an important factor in reducing environmental impact
and promoting sustainability.
2.1.1. Ecosystem and use of resources

An ecosystem is a dynamic community comprising populations of plants, animals,

microorganisms and the non-living environment interacting together as a functional unit.
Environmental factors, such as soil type, position in the landscape, climate and water

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availability, determine the presence and distribution of ecosystems. The main inputs to
ecosystems are sunlight, soil, nutrients and water, while wastes from one part of the system
form fuel for other parts. A key output is biomass (or carbon-based life) regenerating itself.

An ecosystem functions by continually cycling energy and materials through living

organisms that grow, reproduce and then die. This cycling of energy and materials through
living organisms has evolved in response to a mix of disturbances (eg. fires or floods),
stresses (eg. droughts or diseases) and ecological interactions (eg. competition or predation)
over millions of years. Recent changes in the frequency and intensity of these disturbances
and stresses raises important issues about the ability of species and ecosystems to survive and
adapt.

Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. In
2005, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identified and categorized ecosystems and their
resulting services, identified the links between these services and human societies, and the
direct and indirect drivers and feedback loops. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
framework identified ecosystem services within four categories:

1. Provisioning services
 Products obtained from ecosystems, including fresh water, food, fibre, genetic
resources, bio chemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals.
2. Regulating services,
 benefits obtained from the regulation of natural processes, including air quality,
climate, water/flood, erosion, water purification, disease and pest control, pollination,
buffering pollution, disease regulation, natural hazard protection, pest regulation
3. Supporting services,
 Services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services, including
soil formation, photosynthesis, primary production, nutrient cycling and water cycling.
4. Cultural services,
 Non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment,
cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic enjoyment.
 Cultural services, such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits.
 Spiritual and religious values
 Knowledge system, sense of place
 Education and inspiration

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  Recreation and aesthetic values

The exhaustion of reserves is in large part due to the use of raw materials. Of course, there
are other causes; land, for example, is also needed for housing and infrastructure. But the use
of raw materials largely determines the rate of consumption of natural resources. The
extraction and use of natural resources are responsible for environmental problems all over
the world, and the social and economic impacts of their use cannot always be justified.

The use of natural resources can lead to a variety of environmental impacts:

 Direct impacts of extraction, for example the impacts on nature and the landscape of
opencast
mining.
 Disruption of materials cycles by the introduction of previously unavailable matter into
the biosphere (such as carbon, phosphate and heavy metals), or major movements of
materials through the biosphere (e.g. the nutrients N and P), or the loss of natural areas
(loss of fixed C, N and P as a result of deforestation and erosion).
2.2. Environmental sustainability

As meeting the resource and services needs of current and future generations without
compromising the health of the ecosystems that provide them, …and more specifically,

Environmental sustainability could be defined as a condition of balance, resilience, and

interconnectedness that allows human society to satisfy its needs while neither exceeding the
capacity of its supporting ecosystems to continue to regenerate the services necessary to
meet those needs nor by our actions diminishing biological diversity.

There are numerous definitions of sustainable development, and much debate about what
constitutes environmentally sustainable development. In the broadest sense, sustainability
refers to the capacity of socio-ecological systems to persist unimpaired into the future
(Raskin et al. 1996). ‘Environmental sustainability’ refers to the maintenance of the
ecosystem and the natural resource base. Environmental degradation signifies failure in this
regard. It takes three forms: depletion of resources; pollution, or overuse of the waste-
absorbing capacity of the environment; and reduction in biodiversity - a loss of some types
of resources. ‘Social sustainability’ is the term used to refer to the social conditions
necessary to support environmental sustainability (Hardoy et al. 1992). This stresses the fact
that natural resources are used within a social context and that it is the rules and values

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associated with this context that determine the distribution of resources within the present
generation and the next.

More recently, there has been more emphasis on the notion of ‘resilience’. Ecologists have
reached a better understanding both of the processes involved in the ecosystem’s capacity to
recover from shocks and stresses (such as drought) and of people’s capacities to facilitate the
recovery of the ecosystem and to diversify their livelihood activities from natural resource-
based to money or market-based activities. Dimensions and goals of environmentally
sustainable development is encapsulated by the Brundtland definition: ‘meeting the needs of
present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs’ (WCED 1987). It is recognized that meeting essential needs requires economic
growth and equity facilitated by ‘political systems that secure effective citizen participation
in decision-making’ (ibid.). ESD has several dimensions implying different types of needs:
economic, social, political and ecological. However despite the multi-dimensional nature of
ESD there is a common goal: development that enhances rather than depletes environmental
capital or assets. Hardoy et al. (1992) point out that environmental capital can be divided
into three broad types:

 The ‘natural sink’ capacity of local and global systems to absorb or break down organic
wastes and absorb gases without adverse effects on climate or the stratospheric ozone
layer;
 The finite stock of non-renewable resources, e.g. fossil fuels and other minerals.
Biological diversity, one key part of environmental capital, might also be considered a
nonrenewable resource
 Renewable resources such as crops and trees which are renewable only within finite limits
set by the ecosystem within which they grow. Fresh water resources are also finite; in the
case of aquifers, human use often exceeds their natural rate of recharge and as such is
unsustainable.

Dimensions of environmentally sustainable development

A. Economic dimensions: economic needs such as adequate livelihood and productive
assets, and systems, and how these interact with the environment.
B. Social and cultural dimensions: social and cultural needs and systems, e.g. health,
education, shelter, equity, cultural institutions and norms, and their relationship with the
environment.

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 C. Political dimensions: political needs (ability to participate in decision-making
processes) and systems, and how they influence the environment.
D. Ecological dimensions: the maintenance of ecosystems and the natural resource base.

2.3. Economic Development and Environmental management

2.3. Growth Verses the environment

The majority of the world focuses on economic growth even if it comes at the expense of the
environment. The environment quality comes only after basic needs such as food and
housing are met. As the countries become richer, they can afford to clean up pollution from
the past and as public demand for cleaner environmental increase, government can enact and
enforce stricter pollution control regulation. This is the Environment Kuzent’s curve
(EKC) hypothesis and is supposed to explain why environmental quality has improved in
richer countries. “Pollute first; clean later”.

Figure 2. Environmental Kuzent’s curve

The implied inverted-U relationship between environmental degradation and economic

growth came to be known as the “environmental Kuznets curve,” by analogy with the
income inequality relationship postulated by Kuznets.
The shape of the curve can be explained as the GDP/ economic development rises, so does
the environmental degradation.

 At low incomes, pollution abatement is undesirable as individuals a better off using their limited
income to meet their basic consumption needs
 Once a certain level of income is achieved, individuals begin considering the trade-off between
environmental quality and consumption, and environmental damage increases at a lower rate

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 After a certain point, spending on the abatement dominates individuals prefer improvements in
environment quality over further consumption, and environmental quality begins to improve
alongside economic growth.

However, the validity of this hypothesis has been seriously questioned.

 There is no evidence that the level of global pollutants such as carbon dioxide start falling
after countries become richer.
 It is not clear how much damage we can cause to our ecological systems before which they
start undergoing irreversible change. They may has unpredictable change.
 The improvement in environmental quality after an income threshold may have more to do
with the ability of developed nations shift polluting industries to developing nations at low
economic cost and low public demand for polices that lead to a clear environment.

Thus, in the planning of development projects, we should explicitly identify trade-offs

between economic benefit and ecological impact. To determine what trade-offs are
acceptable, we must design transparent mechanisms that allow for meaningful discussion
through a participatory process, in which all the groups affected by the projects are involved.
Views held wrongly that environmental protection is the obstacle to rapid growth. The
reality, however, is that it will not be possible to sustain high growth in the coming years
without environmental care.

2.4. Poverty and the Environment

Poverty is viewed as encompassing both income and non-income dimensions of

deprivation, lack of empowerment, and extreme vulnerability to external shocks.
Environment refers to the living and non-living components of the natural world, and to the
interactions between them, that support life on earth. The environment is a provider of goods
and services and is a recipient of waste products.
Poverty and environment linkages are dynamic and context-specific. Rural poor are
concerned with secure access to and the quality of natural resources; urban poor are
concerned with access to clean water, energy, sanitation, and security of housing, and poor
women are concerned with safe and close access to potable water and energy supplies.
The poor are both victims and agents of environmental degradation: victims in that they are
more likely to live in ecologically vulnerable areas, agents in that they may have no option
but deplete environmental resources thus contributing to environmental degradation.

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2.5. Globalization and the Environment

What is Globalization?
There are many definitions of globalization. According to Scholte, provides a classification
of at least five broad sets of definitions:
Globalization as internationalization፡ the “global” in globalization is viewed “as simply
another adjective to describe cross-border relations between countries.” It describes the
growth in international exchange and interdependence.
Globalization as liberalization: Removing government imposed restrictions on movements
between countries.
Globalization as universalization: Process of spreading ideas and experiences to people at
all corners of the earth so that aspirations and experiences around the world become
harmonized.
Globalization as westernization or modernization: The social structures of modernity
(capitalism, industrialism, etc.) are spread the world over, destroying cultures and local self-
determination in the process.

Globalization as deterritorialization: Process of the “reconfiguration of geography, so that

social space is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances
and territorial borders.”

Process of spreading ideas and experiences to people at all corners of the earth so that
Global environmental concerns were born out of the recognition that ecological processes do
not always respect national boundaries and that environmental problems often have impacts
beyond borders; sometimes globally.
The relationship between the environment and globalization—although often overlooked—
is critical to both domains. The environment itself is inherently global, with life-sustaining
ecosystems and watersheds frequently crossing national boundaries; air pollution moving
across entire continents and oceans; and a single shared atmosphere providing climate
protection and shielding us from harsh UV rays. Monitoring and responding to
environmental issues frequently provokes a need for coordinated global or regional
governance. Moreover, the environment is intrinsically linked to economic development,
providing natural resources that fuel growth and ecosystem services that underpin both life
and livelihoods. Indeed, at least one author suggests that “the economy is a wholly-owned
subsidiary of the ecology.

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 By way of exploring the linkages between environment and globalization, let us posit five
key propositions on how these two areas are linked, with a special focus on those linkages
that are particularly pertinent for policy-making and policy-makers.

 The rapid acceleration in global economic activity and our dramatically increased demands
for critical, finite natural resources undermine our pursuit of continued economic prosperity.
First, natural resources are the raw materials behind much of global economic growth.
Second, there is ultimately a finite amount of these resources available for human use.
Third, and importantly, the quantum of resources being used has grown exponentially in
recent years, especially with the spectacular economic expansion of large developing
economies—such as India and China—and increasing global prosperity.
Fourth, we are already witnessing increasing global competition for such resources; and not
just market, but geopolitical forces are being mobilized to ensure continued supplies and
controls over critical resources.
 The linked processes of globalization and environmental degradation pose new security
threats to an already insecure world. They impact the vulnerability of ecosystems and
societies, and the least resilient ecosystems. The livelihoods of the poorest communities are
most at risk.
 Consumption—in both North and South—will define the future of globalization as well as
the global environment.
 Concerns about the global market and global environment will become even more
intertwined and each will become increasingly dependent on the other.

2.6. Rural Development and the environment

Urban poverty causes environmental degradation in two ways: Industrialization and urban
air pollution, and Congestion and availability of clean water and sanitation. Poor people are
the main victims of a bad environment: they are more vulnerable to the loss of biological
resources, extreme environmental stress can force the poor to migrate, inequality reinforces
environmental pressure, and government policies can create or reinforce vicious cycle of
poverty-environment interaction. Poor people are agents of environmental degradation
(poverty and exploitation). Poor people have shorter time horizons, which exacerbates
environmental degradation. Poverty increases risk-aversion and discount rates, aggravating
environmental pressure. Incomplete property rights reinforce the vicious poverty-
environment circle. Population pressure exacerbates both poverty and environmental
degradation. Policy opportunities to reduce poverty and improve environment.

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Improve governance, integrate poverty-environment issues into national development
frameworks, strengthen decentralization, empower poor and marginalized groups, address
gender dimensions, strengthen anti-corruption measures, reduce environment-related
conflict, improve poverty-environment monitoring and assessment, enhance the assets of the
poor. Strengthen resource rights of the poor, enhance poor’s capacity to manage
environment, expand access to environmentally-sound and locally appropriate technology,
reduce environmental vulnerability of the poor. Improve the quality of growth, integrate
poverty-environment issues into economic policy reforms, increase the use of environmental
valuation, encourage private sector involvement in environmental management , implement
pro-poor environmental fiscal reform, reform domestic international and industrial policies,
industrial emissions abatement policies, reform trade policies, enhance the contribution of
multilateral environmental agreements to poverty reduction, encourage sustainable
consumption and production, enhance the effectiveness of development cooperation and
debt relief

2.7. Threats to environmental sustainability

The human activities of an increasing world population together with the accompanying
rapid industrial development, are leading to degradation of the environment on a very large
scale. Five of the most important causes of unsustainability are human induced climate
change, deforestation and land use change, over consumption of resources, over generation
of waste and over fishing. All these increasingly affect human communities and ecosystems;
in particular, they threaten food and water supplies and lead to large-scale loss of
Biodiversity and loss of Soil.

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 Chapter Three: The Relationships between Society and the Environment

Objectives: At the end of this chapter, students will be able to

 Explain the relationship of human population with resource consumption, human health and
carrying capacity
 Describe the environmental ethics

2.1. Human Population and Resource utilization

World population is growing at the unpredictable rate of almost 82 million people per year
or 1.08% per year (1.12% in 2018, 1.12% in 2017, and 1.14% in 2016) and human activities
are producing major changes in global environment. For example in 2018, the world’s
population grew at a rate of 1.12%. The current 7.713 billion people in July 1, 2019, which
is expected to be, exceed 8 billion by 2030, 9 billion by 2040 and 10 billion by 2055. China
is the 1st with the 1.436 billion, and India is the 2 nd 1.371 billion people. Regarding to
Ethiopia, currently, she is 12th populous country, she has over 113. 228 million people, and it
is expected 139,620,178 by 2030, 190,869,632 by 2050 with a growth rate of 2.46%.
The yearly increase of population during the last 40 to 50 years has been much faster. Why
are recent growths so rapid? Due to declines in death rates more rapidly than birth rates.
Because of economic development and raising standards of living, improvements in medical
technology particularly in Europe & N. America, and only deaths fall in developing
countries while births gone down less significantly.
When considering the effect of population growth on sustainability, we have to look at the
impact of population growth on: Resource Scarcity: Food, Energy (coal, oil, uranium), and
Raw materials (iron, copper, wood, water). Environmental Impacts: Pollution, Soil
degradation, Deforestation, and Global Warming. Population growth would not be
sustainable if it has important negative impacts that will jeopardize the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.

3.2. Population Growth theory

3.2.1. Malthus Theory

He proposed that while resources tend to grow arithmetic manner population grows
geometric manner (doubling). At that point, the population would be restrained through
mass famine and starvation. Malthus argued for population control through moral restraint to
avoid this happening. As the population of a species exceeds the amount of available

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resources it decreases sometimes sharply since the lack of resources causes mortality. This
process keeps the population check and ensures it does not exceed the amount of resources.
He concludes that wars, famines, plagues, and natural disasters would be the means of
controlling the size of human population.

3.2.2. Ester Boserup (1965)

As resources became scarce humans use their brainpower to develop new technologies,
substitute materials or efficient use of resources. As a result, mankind is better off after
periods of resource shortage as we develop better ways or innovation. With every stomach
comes a pair of hands. Example china and Japan can develop with large population growth.

3.2.3. Carrying capacity and Impacts of Increasing population on Environment

Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of individuals of a species that can be
sustained by an environment without decreasing the capacity of the environment to sustain
that same amount in the future.
The increased population will need more land to live, thereby reducing forests; will have
more cattle to graze needing conversion of forestland in to pasture land; or will need more
goods, which will increase industrialization and commercialization; will need more fuels and
energy to meet our modern life styles. All such activities are likely to cause severe adverse
environmental impacts.
In the near future, it will become impossible to meet the demands for food from the existing
agro-systems. Therefore, we may need more land to be brought under cultivation; or we will
need more water to bring additional area under irrigation for increasing the quantum of
production of food and fibers. We may need more land for urbanization to house the
increased number of human beings. Our pasturelands will be over-grazed by the increasing
number of domestic animals. Minerals and metals may become scarcely available. The seas
and oceans may not have enough fish left to be withdrawn for human food. Industrial and
commercial growth will create ever-greater problems due to the pollution of soil, water and
air. The degradation of forests and other ecosystems may lead to the extinction of thousands
of species benefiting the natural ecosystems of their great potential value. The loss of forests
will reduce oxygen and increase carbon dioxide in the air atmosphere, thereby accelerating
general global warming. The changing life style will also lead to accelerated consumptions
of natural resources and energy sources. These are only some of the adverse environmental
effects which are likely be caused by the increasing human population.

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These adverse effects can, however, be minimized by created by a mass awareness
movement that may encourage the people to change their way of life. Such a movement
must also give top priority to the stabilization of the population, along with reducing our
energy demands, and conserving resources by cycling and recovery. The industry will have
to adopt environmental friendly models and technologies to minimize resource consumption,
pollution, and waste generation.

3.3. Environment and Human Health

Environment and human health are very closely connected, since any adverse impacts
caused on the environment will surely cause consequential adverse impacts on the health of
human being. A polluted environment will not only cause diseases of various types in the
bodies of the present human generations, but may also cause long term genetic effects in the
bodies of future human generations. The extent of pollution present in the environment, in
fact, represents the health of the environment, as it is directly related to the human health. A
Healthy environment is the one, which contains minimum pollution and provides good
health to its inhabitants.
Besides causing various types of diseases in the human body, a polluted environment may
accentuate serious climatic changes, which may cause pronounced effects on human health.
For example, unprecedented rainfall due to climate change may trigger malaria and water-
borne diseases. Sever climatic changes may natural disasters like storms, floods, etc; which
may, may besides killing human, spread epidemics. The sever climate changes, thus, cause
untimely rains and storms at some places and droughts at others, thereby causing spread of
epidemics. Even mild climate changes may cause adverse health effects, especially on
elderly and sensitive people, as human body needs time to adjust to the changing climate.
A healthy environment is evidently provides good human health; whereas, an unhealthy
environment is the one which causes adverse impacts on human health. Protecting the
environment means keeping people healthy. The impact of environmental pollution on the
health of the population is a growing area of concern. Environmental pollution resulted in
1/4th of human disease (WHO). Pollution in its various forms and exposure to hazardous
chemicals are important causes of the environment-related burden of disease. The source of
pollution for the environment is many and varied.
Chemicals can reach the environment, for example, through: emissions from industries,
pesticides in agriculture, waste incineration and leakage from waste disposal sites. Toxic
materials found in air, water and soil could find their way into the human body through:

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 Inhalation – movement of air from the external environment through the airways during
breathing.
 Ingestion – the consumption of a substance by an organism either man or animals
 Absorption – the movement and uptake of substances into cells or across tissues such as skin
by way of diffusion or osmosis.

A Healthy environment is the one, which contains minimum pollution and provides good
health to its inhabitants. A healthy environment is evidently provides good human health;
whereas, an unhealthy environment is the one which causes adverse impacts on human
health.

3.4. Environmental Ethics

The term ethics and moral are often used interchangeably. However, ethics is the science or
theory that guides moral behavior. It, thus, forms the basis for distinguishing “right conduct
from wrong conduct”. Morals are the application of these ethical principles. It considers the
ethical relationship between people and the natural world and the kind of decisions people
have to make about the environment: Should humans be forced to live a simpler lifestyle in
order to protect and preserve the environment? Should we continue to cut down trees?
Should we continue to manufacture petrol-driven cars when we have the technology to make
cars, which do not pollute the environment? Should we knowingly cause the extinction of
other species? What are our environmental obligations to future generations?
Environmental ethics simply tries to answer the questions of, how humans should relate to
their environment, how we should use the Earth’s resources and how we should treat other
species. According to Alan Marshall, over the past twenty years there have been three main
ethical approaches to the environment: Libertarian extension or deep ecology, Ecologic
extension or eco-holism, and Conservation ethics or shallow ecology.

1. Libertarian extension or deep ecology: All life forms have value and human life as just one
part of the biosphere. It rejects the anthropocentric view. It intends to preserve the integrity,
diversity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is not right to see the natural world
simply in terms of its economic worth to humans. Arne Naess (1973), argued for the
intrinsic value and inherent worth of the environment. Every being, has an equal right to live
and blossom. He called this ecosophy: philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium.
Nature does not exist to serve humans; humans are simply a part of nature and all species
have a right to exist for their own sake, regardless of their usefulness to humans. Naess

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 proposes therefore that humans should radically reduce the Earth’s population, abandon all
goals of economic growth, conserve diversity of species, live in small, self-reliant
communities, and “Touch the Earth lightly’.
2. Ecologic extension – eco-holism: Consider the interdependence of all ecosystems and sees
the environment as a whole entity, valuable in itself. This is often known as eco-holism and
its most popular form is James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis. Life tends to make the
environment stable for the flourishing of all life. It challenges the importance of mankind in
the environment. Humans are part of living whole. It proposes organisms interact with their
surroundings to form a self-regulating complex system to maintain the condition for life on
the planet earth. This theory opposes the Darwinian idea of the survival of the fittest. The
biomass regulates the condition on the planet. The world is not a result of chance but of self-
engineering. This theory challenges humans to change their perceptions and see themselves
as part of a whole.
3. Conservation ethics – shallow ecology

This approach takes a conflicting view to the two previous ones – the only value in animals
and plants is their extrinsic, instrumental value for humans. They are a means to an end –
conservation is important for our welfare and that of future generations. Conservation
ethics looks at the worth of the environment in terms of its utility or usefulness to humans.

3.5. Human Rights and Environmental conservation

International concerns with human rights, health and environmental protection have
expanded considerably in the past several decades. In response, the international community
has created a vast array of international legal instruments, specialized organs, and agencies
at the global and regional levels to respond to identified problems in each of the three areas.
The first international effort to seek the inclusion of the right to healthy environment under
the human rights was made in 1972 UN conference on Human Environment held at
Stockholm Sweden. There are three different approaches since 1972 in relation to
environment conservation, health and human right.
The first approach: Closest to that of the Stockholm Declaration, understands environmental
protection as a pre-condition to the enjoyment of internationally guaranteed human rights,
especially the rights to life and health.
The second rights-based approach: most common since 1992, held in Rio, Brazil in the UN
conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) popularly called the “Earth
Summit”, emphasis was laid on sustainable development and environmental protection.

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 Human right comes first instead of viewing environmental protection as an essential element
of human rights; it views certain human rights as essential elements to achieving
environmental protection
The third and most recent approach: views the links as indivisible and inseparable. In the
constitution of the FDRE article 92 sub articles 1 to 4 clearly states that the environment
should be protected. 92 (1): government shall endeavor to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a
clean and healthy environment. 92 (2): the design and implementation of programs and
projects of development shall not damage or destroy the environment. 92 (3): people have
the right to full consultation and to the expression of views in the planning and
implementation of environmental policies and projects that affect them directly. 92 (4):
government and citizens shall have the duty to protect the environment.

3.6. Environmental Decision-making

It is the process of making choices, which has implication for the environment. Choice by
groups about consumption, choice by corporations about energy use, which products to use,
produce and sell. The relative importance of different air and water quality objectives, etc. It
includes choices by individuals, municipals, national or international agencies, etc. about:
Environmental regulations and Energy us. Land use system and Resource extraction guide
line, etc.
Criteria for evaluating environmental decisions:

o Human and environmental wellbeing: their relative importance.

o Competence about facts and values: account of the scientific information.
o Fairness in process and outcome: equal say of all parties
o a reliance on human strengths rather than weaknesses
o The opportunity to learn: involvement of many people with their voices

3.7. Civic responsibility and social competence

Civic refers to “belonging to a citizen, or citizenship, municipal or civil society“.

Responsibility refers to "the state, quality of being responsible, or something for which one
is responsible such as a duty, obligation or burden“
No country of the world has escaped environmental disasters caused by unethical human
actions. Environmental disasters are caused by manmade (anthropogenic) causes, which
indicate totally unethical behavior of corporate, companies, and individuals who are all part
and parcel such companies. Environmental degradations and disasters can be minimized by

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creating environmental awareness, which is possible only spreading environmental
education.
Civic responsibility of the society includes participation in government, volunteers and
memberships of voluntary associations, supporting various issues of political, economic,
civil, and environmental or quality of life, etc. Each person has a responsibility to contribute
to the preservation and enhancement of the environment. Majority of environmental
problems are caused by individual behavior. Households have a considerable role in
polluting the environment and discharging domestic wastes to the environment. Individual
behavior and the norm (either personal or social) of the society have impact on responsibility
of society towards the environment and their level of competence. As a result, a new norm
of environmental responsibility should be developed. Civil society should play a major role
in different key areas as information collection and dissemination, policy development
consultation, policy implementation, assessment and monitoring, and advocacy for
environmental justice.

3.7. International Environmental Conventions and protocols

Without a healthy and clean environment, human beings will be deprived of their right to a
healthy and productive life. Environment and more specifically environmental pollution
have no political boundaries. The air pollution in one region can be transmitted to thousands
of miles without the manmade barriers. A number of efforts are being made at international
and national levels to maintain the equilibrium and resilience characteristics of the
ecosystem with the objective to make them sustainable and productive. These efforts are
given the nomenclature of international conventions or conferences and protocols.
A convention is a formal agreement between States. It is a meeting or gathering to
formulate or deliberate on generally accepted principle, framework in which the parties
decide the basic guidelines. The generic term ‘convention’ is thus synonymous with the
generic term ‘treaty’. Conventions are normally open for participation by the international
community as a whole, or by a large number of States.
A protocol, on the other hand, contains specific aims or legal obligations agreed upon by the
members who gather in a convention or conferences. The term ‘protocol’ is used for an
additional legal instrument that complements and add to a treaty. A protocol may be on any
topic relevant to the original treaty and is used either to: further address something in the
original treaty, address a new or emerging concern or add a procedure for the operation and
enforcement of the treaty.

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After industrial revolution in the late 18th century, the necessity of environmental law is
realized by the international community. Then, Environmental law as a distinct system arose
in the 1960s in the major industrial economies as it was becoming clear that the cumulative
negative environmental effects of human activities were becoming unsustainable in the long
term.
The first international effort to seek the inclusion of the right to healthy environment under
the human rights was made in the 1972 UN conference on human Environment held at
Stockholm Sweden. This conference concluded on 16.06.1972 with adopting of a
Declaration, consisting of a preamble and 26 principles. Principle 1 of this declaration
established a foundation for linking human rights and environment protection. This
Declaration proclaimed that the “man’s environment, the natural and man-made, are
essential to the well- being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights –even right to life
itself”.
In the United Nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC or FCCC) is an
international environmental teaty created at the united nation conference on environment and
development (UNCED), informally known as “Earth Summit”, and held in Rio de Janerio
(Brazil) from June 3 to 14, 1992, emphasis was laid on sustainable development and
environmental protection. Through principle 10 of this Rio-Declaration, a link was
formulated between human rights and environmental protection, largely on procedural
terms.
There are many international conventions on climate protection like in 1979 Geneva
Convention on long-range transboundary air pollution, ozone layer like Vienna convention
for the protection of Ozone layer in 1985, climate change like United Nations framework
convention on climate change in 1992, and marine, water and environmental protection.
Similarly, there are protocols such as 1984 Geneva protocol, Helsinki protocol in1988 and
etc. on climate change, Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer (1987),
Kyoto Protocol and parise agreement in 2016 etc.

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 Chapter Four: Pollution and Environment

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to

 Define pollution and environmental pollution
 List the types of pollution
 Explain the causes, effects and controlling mechanisms of different pollution types
3.1. Meaning of pollution
Pollution is derived from Latin word ‘polluere’ which means ‘to contaminate’ any feature of environment.
It can be defined as an addition of any substance or form of energy to the environment at a rate faster than
it can be dispersed or stored in a harmless form. It is also defined as the introduction of contaminates into
the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or
energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the component of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/ energies or naturally occurring contaminates.
Environmental pollution: it is defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of any component of the environment caused by natural disastrous events and man-mad
changes. For example from natural disaster events, volcanic eruption releases enormous amounts of dust
particles and poisonous gases in to the environment, which may bring drastic environmental change.
Similarly, the Earthquakes and tsunamis have found to be having disastrous environmental impacts,
extending over large regions of the world. Floods and forest fires are natural events, which may sometimes
devastate the whole ecosystem. However, such ecosystems return to their normal state after some time. It
can, thus, be concluded that the natural disasters do effect our ecosystems quit badly, but all these effects
are reversible and of temporary in nature. Ecosystems, after undergoing some natural disasters, do recover
from the damage, and start all over again. The environment, thus, has the natural inherent capacity to
return to its original state after the natural disastrous events. On the other hand, man-made change
brought about the environment, such as the conversion of forest land in to agricultural or pasture land; or
release of extra-ordinary amounts of CO 2 and CFCs in to the atmosphere due to human actions, do not
have reversible effects, and they permanently damage the environment.
The agents, which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants are anything, living,
non-living, or any physical agent (e.g. heat, sound etc.), that in its excess makes any part of the
environment undesirable. For instance, the polluted water is undesirable for drinking, recreation, visual
enjoyment or as a habitat for the aquatic life normal to it. In other word, a pollutant may be defined as a
physical, chemical or biological substance unintentionally released into the environment, which is harmful
to living organisms. In terms of eco-system, the pollutants can be classified inti two basic groups: non-
degradable pollutants and degradable or biodegradable.

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Non-degradable: cannot be degraded or broken down by natural processes. They cannot be decomposed
easily by bacteria. They may react with other compounds in the environment to produce toxins. E.g. Toxic
elements like lead or mercury and nuclear wastes, plastics, some synthetic fibers, pesticides etc. They are
subdivided into two classes, waste (e.g. glass, plastic, phenolic, aluminum cans, etc.) and poisons (e.g.
radioactive substances, pesticides, smog gases, heavy metals like mercury, lead and their salts).
Degradable or Biodegradable pollutants: these are natural organic substances, which can be
decomposed, removed or consumed by natural processes like biological or microbial action or by some
engineered systems, like sewage treatment plants. They are rapidly broken by natural processes. For
example, they are easily decomposed by microorganisms, or bacteria, they include all organic substances
of plants/animals origin like domestic sewage, discarded vegetables etc. Further degradable pollutants
categorized into two: (i) rapidly degradable or non-persistent pollutant (e.g. waste of animals and
plants degradation is very faster process) and (ii) slowly degradable or persistent pollutant (the
degradation is very slower process, it seems, as the amount of pollutants remains unchanged with time).
3.2. Types of pollution
For our convenience, the environment is divided in three compartments, i.e. air, water, soil (land). We
therefore, divide the environmental pollutions in to three categories, i.e. air pollution; water pollution; and
soil pollution. Apart from these, we can recognize other forms of pollution such as noise pollution, thermal
pollution, radioactive pollution and so on.
3.2.1. Air Pollution:
At present, the air is polluted with numerous pollutants, some of which are gaseous, while others are
particulates. Some of the most important and globally present air pollutants are SO 2, NO2, CO, CO2, HC,
etc.
i. Causes of Air Pollution
Air pollution is principally caused by the industrial activity. Most industries consume many coal or
petroleum products (the so-called fossil fuels), and their burning produces various gaseous pollutants. SO 2,
CO, and CO2 are the common pollutants produced by this activity. Other gaseous pollutants are also
produced by different industries that use various organic chemicals. Methane (CH 2), for example, can be
produced by such industries and is produced by anaerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic matter
by anaerobic bacteria (which flourishes in the absence of oxygen). As well as ruminant livestock
domesticated by human beings.
Cement producing factories cause immense air pollution, emitting huge quantities of dust. Ash is
generated by coal-burning power stations and furnaces. Mining and ore processing also cause serious
particulate air pollution like release dust and chemicals. Pesticide manufacturing industries often have to
use poisonous gases from the plant can cause a major disaster.
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 Apart from industries, air pollution is largely caused by automobiles. In highly urbanized areas, the
mixture of air pollutants produces secondary air pollutants, giving rise to photochemical smog. The term
photochemical implies that the reactions are helped by the sunlight. All coal burning machines and thermal
power plants produce lots of unburnt carbon. Motor cars, heavy transport vehicles, rail engines, generators,
and other equipment’s using diesel oil, cause significant air pollution by generating particulate matter,
especially carbon.
Agricultural activities are also release different gases from insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizer. Air
conditioners, refrigerators, and some sprays use chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) gas. This has proved to be one
of the most harmful gaseous pollutants of the century, as the compound is found to be destructive of the
atmospheric ozone layer, which protects us from the harmful ultra violet radiations from the sunrays,
causing ozone depletion, having global impacts. Jet airplanes also cause air pollution; and, so is the case
with satellite launching vehicles (Rockets).
The air pollution, can thus, be caused by numerous activities, and humanity will have to be conscious of
the pollutants that are being released by human activities in to our atmosphere, which is common to the
entire world.
ii. Effects of Air Pollution
A variety of air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health and the environment.
It can cause serious environmental damages to the groundwater, soil and air, affects the lakes, rivers, and
oceans, through acid rains that adversely affect aquatic animals and plants, temperature inversion, and
global climate change. It is cause of premature death in people with heart; irritate the eyes, lung disease,
and respiratory disorder because of gases like SO 2 and NO2. CO2 is a greenhouse gas in that it traps the
heat reflected back from the Earth, causing a rise in the overall temperature of the Earth. Its excess
presence in the atmosphere may cause global warming, which may lead to melting of the ice on the polar
caps. Ozone depletion is another global impact of the air pollution, threatening the health and survival of
humans. Thus, air pollution adversely affects not only the humans and animals, but also the plant life and
forests on land, thereby affecting the entire terrestrial ecosystems.
iii. Control measures of air pollution
Make a good choice about transportation. Use public mode of transportation: encourage people to use
more and more public mode of transportation to reduce pollution, and when we can, walk, and ride a bike.
Reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned, and use geothermal, wind and solar energy. Emphasis on
reuse and recycling, develop advanced technologies, and use energies efficiently. Reduce industrial
pollutants through declining the emission rate to the permissible level, chemical treatment and
technological advancement.

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 3.2.2. Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances–chemicals contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean,
aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the
environment. It is a contamination of water sources (ponds, lakes, rivers underground water and ocean)
with undesirable substances, which make it, unfit for usage.
i. Causes of water pollution
A major source of water pollution is runoff from agricultural fields, industrial sites or urban areas. Runoff
disrupts the water body’s natural balance. For example, agricultural runoff typically includes fertilizer or
toxic chemicals. The toxic chemicals have the capability to change the color of water. Fertilizer can cause
algal/algae blooms, choking out other plants and decreasing the amount of available oxygen necessary for
the survival of other species.
Raw sewage is another type of water pollutant. The sewage and wastewater that is produced by each
household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries harmful
bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. When swage gets into the drinking water
supply, serious stomach and digestive issues may result, including the spread of disease such as typhoid.
Trashes/ marine dumping are other sources of water pollution- improperly disposed of items, such as
plastic bags, fishing line, and other materials may accumulate in the water and lead to the premature death
of animals that are tangled within the garbage. The garbage produces by each household in the form of
paper, aluminum, rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited in the sea in some countries.
Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other minerals from underground.
These elements when extracted in the raw form contain harmful chemicals and can increase the amount of
toxic elements when mixed up with water, which may result in health problems. Improper disposal of car
batteries and other batteries – may add metals, and burning of fossil fuel like in transportation that cause
for acid rain are other causes of water pollution. In addition, accidental oil linkage, oil does not dissolve
with water that open problem for local marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters.
ii. Effects of Water Pollution
Water pollution is cause for disappearance of biodiversity (plant and animals) and aquatic ecosystems. It
kills life that inhabits water-based ecosystems like fish, birds, plants, etc. It also cause for human water
borne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, malaria etc. when drinking or using contaminated water.
Generally, it has a great impact in the environment.
iii. Controlling mechanisms of water pollution
Reuse and recycling; avoid or reduce plastic consumption and reuse or recycle them. Water treatments
before the discharge; properly dispose of chemical cleaners, oils, and non-biodegradable items to keep
them from ending up down the drain. Improve technologies to reduce water demand and to filtered,
30
 rerouted and cleaned toxic chemicals from industrial zone before making their way to the atmosphere.
Responsible use of waters: when cooking food, do not throw excess fat or oil down in the drain, and
proper disposal of toxic chemicals. Prevent soil erosion through effective soil and water conservation
measures. Plant trees or plants near bodies of water so that when it rains, the topsoil with personal
chemicals will not be washed away, and avoiding applying pesticide and herbicides in agricultural field
are some of the water pollution controlling mechanisms.
3.2.3. Soil Pollution
It is the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminates) in the soil that degrades the quality of
soil, in high enough concentrations to pose a risk to human health and or the ecosystem. It is any physical
and chemical alteration of natural soil environment that may adversely affect plant growth and other
organisms living on it.
i. Causes of soil pollution
Most soil pollutants are agricultural activities (intensive farming) like chemical fertilizer, pesticide and
herbicides i.e. improper use of agrochemicals are major pollutants. Improper waste disposal of plastics,
cans, industrial pollution chemical and mining wastes; over cropping, over grazing and deforestation that
cause for soil erosion; acid rain; accidental oil spills, construction materials and road derbies are the cause
of soil pollution that cause soil alkalinity and acidity.
ii. Effects of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution affects human and animal health. The exposure to toxic and harmful chemicals thus
increasing health treats to people living nearby and on the degraded land. It directly affect human health
via inhalation of soil contaminates problem such as cancer, kidney and liver damage, and skin disease.
Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb pollution and ingested by human and animal. It also source
of change in soil structure and inferior crop quality because of regular use of chemical fertilizers, inorganic
fertilizer, pesticides that are and decrease soil fertility. It is cause for toxic dust, climate change and
imbalance of the ecosystem of the soil.
iii. Controlling mechanisms
Among the controlling mechanisms of soil pollution, reforestation, minimize over cropping and over
grazing, implementing correct farming techniques, avoiding or reduce utilization of inorganic fertilizers
and agro-chemicals. In addition, proper disposal method of household and industrial waste recycling and
treatment of waste before disposal are needed. Further, use soil additives to adjust the soil PH level, and
awareness creation and community education to stop drop waste here and there is needed.
3.2.4. Noise pollution
Noise pollution is generally considering as harmful or disturbing noise that disrupts day-to-day life. It is
caused by household activities/utilities from TV, mobile phones, mixer grinders, washing machines and
31
dryers; industries- large and heavy machines that produce large amounts of noise; social events-
weddings, concerts, place of worship, loud markets, and clubs; transportation sector- vehicles and
construction activities.
An excessive noise or unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause a range of
problem within the body. It damage to eardrums leading to temporary or permanent hearing problems,
psychological health issues, sleeping problem, cardiovascular problems like high blood pressure, increased
heart rate, and communication problem are the most effects of noise pollution.
Therefore, turn off all electronics when not using like mobile, TV, computers; use soundproofing in home
and office, keep away loud machine form sleeping areas, and use earplugs or noise-cancelling headphones
are needed to reduce the effect of noise.

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 Chapter 5: Environmental Phenomenon

5.1. Concept of environmental phenomenon

Phenomenon is something that is extremely impressive, unusual, extraordinary/unexpected fact,
occurrence/circumstance that exists and can be seen/ observable, felt, and tasted. Environmental
phenomenon is an observable event, which is the sum of natural and environmental events. Example
sunrise, sunset, precipitation, warming/cooling effect, thunder, tornadoes, erosion, natural disasters like
volcanic eruption and earthquake. The occurrences of environmental shocks and stresses like global
warming, drought, flooding, climate changes etc.

Environmental Phenomenon
• Is an observable event to the environment which is man-made and/or anthropogenic (Natural).
• Man-made disasters occur as a result of human action, while natural disaster occurs due to
forces of nature.
• Natural disasters are disasters that take place regardless of human action, but human action
can increase the likelihood and impact of natural disasters, and nature can influence the
likelihood and impact of man-made disasters.
Examples
 Man-made
 Deforestation
 Global warming
 Climate change etc…
 Natural
 Earthquakes,
 Floods,
 Wildfire,
 Agricultural pests, and Hurricanes etc…

5.2. Global warming and Climate change

Global Warming
• Global warming refers to an average increase in the Earth's temperature, which in turn
causes changes in the global climate.
• Global warming is a long-term rise in average temperature of global earth surface, air and
oceans due to environmental pollution and deforestation.
• It may result in melting of polar glaciers with consequent increase in sea level submergence
of coastlands.
33
 • Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere,
which acts as a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet. The average temperature of the
glob has risen between 0.4 and 0.8 oC (1.4 oF) over the past 100 years.

Climate change
• Climate is the average weather pattern over a longer period of time.
• Climate change (Weather patterns, glaciers, sea level rise…)
• Climate change is a significant change in weather patterns.
• When you put it in the perspective of a longer period of time you find it has happened
many times before.
• Climate change: is a significant, long-term change in the global climate; change in
the patterns of temperature, precipitation (snow), humidity, wind etc. it is the single
biggest environmental and humanitarian crisis of our time. The Earth's atmosphere is
overloaded with heat trapping carbon dioxide, which threatens large-scale disruptions
in climate with disastrous consequences.
5.3. Cause of Global Warming and Climate Change

The Greenhouse Effect

Is the warming of the atmosphere by the trapping of long wave radiation being radiated to
space.
• Is unquestionably real and helps to regulate the temperature of our planet.
• It is essential for life on Earth and is one of Earth’s natural processes.
• Many chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere act as “greenhouse
gases.”
• These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely. When sunlight strikes the
Earth’s surface, some of it is reflected back towards space as infrared radiation (heat).
• Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere.
• There are many gases which exist that either directly or indirectly act as greenhouse
gases. Furthermore, some gases have more dramatic effects than others.

The main greenhouse gases are:

• Carbon dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous oxide
• Halocarbons

34
 • Global warming results primarily from human activities that cause an increase in the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
• Which in turn compromise the atmosphere's functional capacities, including
regulating temperature and weather patterns.
• The atmosphere is made of 78% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen.
• But these gases don’t trap heat and cause global warming or climate change.
• What % of the atmosphere is left?
• The gases which trap heat make up less than 1% of the atmosphere! They are called
the ‘greenhouse gases’.
Global warming takes place over long periods of times, and it results from an abnormally
high buildup of chemicals in the atmosphere. These gases include natural elements like
carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs.
th
Currently, CO is the main suspect of causing the global warming since the 20 century
2

because combustion of fossil fuel naturally injects CO into the atmosphere and it has
2
increased dramatically since last century.
5.4. Causes of global warming and climate change
Water vapor- water vapor increase as the earth’s atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility of clouds
and perceptions, making these some of the most important feedback mechanisms to greenhouse gases.
Increase of volume of CO2 and other greenhouse gases by the burning of fossil fuel, Coal, oil, natural
gas, biomass burning for transport, industry and home purpose, deforestation, land use changes, land
clearing, agriculture, and other human activities. This is the most important long-lived forcing of climate
change. Deforestation that minimize carbon absorbtion by forest. Volcanic eruption, Ozone depletion
and rotation of the sun that changes the intensity of sunlight and moving closer to the earth.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)- are entirely the result of human activity; emission of refrigerant gases in
refrigerators and air conditioners, cleaning solvents, as propellants in aerosol containers and expanders in
foam products. Methane: a hydrocarbon gas produced through both natural sources and human activities,
including fossil fuel sources, the composition of wastes in landfills, agriculture especially in rice
cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock.
Nitrous oxide: a powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use of
commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.
Fertilizers containing nitrogen produce nitrous oxide emissions.

35
5.5. Consequences (effect) of global warming (climate change)
• Rising sea levels due to melting ice caps,
• Global temperature will rise
• Changes in rainfall patterns --- droughts and fires in some areas, flooding in other
areas.
• Increased likelihood of extreme events--- such as flooding.
• Melting of the ice caps --- loss of habitat near the poles. Polar bears are now thought
to be greatly endangered by the shortening of their feeding season due to dwindling
ice packs.
• Melting glaciers - significant melting of old glaciers is already observed.
• Widespread vanishing of animal populations --- following widespread habitat loss.
• Spread of disease --- migration of diseases such as malaria to new, now warmer,
regions.
• Loss of Plankton due to warming seas
• Warming ocean temperatures are associated with stronger and more frequent
storms.
• Additional rainfall, particularly during severe weather events, leads to flooding and
other damage;
• Lack of rainfall (Drought)
• An increase in the incidence and severity of wildfires threatens habitats, homes,
and lives; and heat waves contribute to human deaths and other consequences.
• Expansion of deserts are consequences of global warming and climate change. More
rain in some areas and drought in others.
• Health effects: extremely hot temperatures are harmful for peoples with heart
problems and increase death by flood, storms, heat waves and droughts.
• Changing natural forests and natural areas: climate changes can dramatically alter
the geographic distributions of vegetation types and cloud forests are drying.
• Challenges to agriculture and the food supply: pests and diseases, low productivity
etc. are occurred. Extreme weather events have been happening such as heat waves,
droughts, wildfires, heavy rainfall with floods, and heavy snowfall, ocean
acidification and species extinction due to shifting temperature regimes
5.6. Methods to control Global warming (climate change)
• Scientists agree that the burning of fossil fuels is causing global warming (climate
change).

36
 • Since these fuels are burned for energy, and everyone uses energy, everyone can help
stop global warming (climate Change) just by using less energy or energy from
renewable sources.
• Increasing the efficiency of energy utilization and levy tax on carbon that people
release into the atmosphere that makes fuel more efficient and discourages wasteful
utilization, increasing biomass by planting trees that help remove carbon dioxide.
• Reduce use of gasoline by vehicles to reduce the emission of CO2.
• Recycle to reduce garbage by reusing plastic bags, bottles, papers or glass to eradicate
global warming.
• Stop open burning such as burning dry leafs or burning garbage.
• Reducing deforestation to improve temperature on earth.
Simple Things to do to reduce global warming (climate Change)
• Turn off your computer or the TV, when you’re not using it.
• Take shorter showers, heating water uses energy.
• Turn off the lights when you leave a room.
• Use compact fluorescent bulbs.
• Dress lightly when it’s hot instead of turning up the air conditioning.
• Dress warmly when it’s cold instead of turning up the heat.
• Walk short distances instead of asking for a ride in the car.
• Plant a tree.
• Recycle

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 Chapter Six: Environmental Impact Assessment

Objective: At the end of this chapter, students will be able to

 Define EIA and point out its purpose
 Contextualize the benefits of EIA
 Elaborate the process of EIA with example
 Explain the environmental audit
6.1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Environmental impact assessment is a tool used to identify the environmental, social and economic
impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in
project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the
local environment and present the predictions and options to decision-makers. It is the mandatory
assessment of the compliance of planned activities, such as planning documents, programs and projects,
with environmental protection requirements and with the principles of sustainable development, with the
aim of determining the optimum solution.
By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time
of project implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and
regulations. The process ensures that environmental impacts are identified, assessed and taken in to
account at the design stage of a project. This allows decisions to be taken on weather on not the project
should go ahead and on the changes to be made to migrate negative impact on the environment. Therefore,
EIA may be defined as a formal process used to predict the environmental consequences of any
development project and to plan appropriate measures to eliminate or reduce adverse effects and to
augment positive effects. EIA thus ensures that the potential problems are foreseen and addressed at an
early stage in the projects planning and design. An EIA should be carried out at the design phase of
development project such as dams, irrigation systems, roads and sewage treatment plants.
EIAs carried out on public (government owned) and private projects. It should be stressed that the role of
EIA is not to stop development, but to make development more suitable. By assessing alternative and
ways to mitigate or reduce negative environmental impacts and enhance positive impacts, EIAs help to
better integrate the environment in to development activities.
An EIA should provide:
 A description of current situation
 A description of existing legislation in respect of EIAs and the environment.
 An in depth analysis of environmental impacts ( positive and negative) of the planned activity,
including social and economic consequences

38
 An impact analysis of different alternatives
 Development measures to optimize the project’s contribution to sustainable development
 Plan for monitoring and evaluation
6.2. The purpose /objectives of EIA
The purpose of the environmental assessment process is:
 To support the goals of environmental protection and sustainable development.
 To integrate environmental protection and economic decisions at the earliest stages of planning an
activity
 To predict environmental, social, economic, and cultural consequences of a proposed activity and to
assess plans to mitigate any adverse impacts resulting from the proposed activity, and
 To provide for the involvement of the public, department of the Government and Government
agencies in the review of the proposed activities
6.3. The Benefits of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Most governments and donor agencies acknowledge the contribution of EIA to improved project design. It
Helps you to identify, and understand the positive and adverse effects of the proposal and reasons why
they occur, to test the appropriateness of proposals design, and enables to explore various options for
minimising the impact of the activity on natural, historic, recreational, and cultural values. EIA has an
importance for both the government/donor and the communities.
For the project sponsors it helps to reduced cost and time of project implementation, cost-saving
modifications in project design, increased project acceptance, avoided impacts and violations of laws and
regulations, improved project performance, and avoided treatment/ clean-up costs.
The benefits to local communities from taking part in environmental assessments include a healthier local
environment (forests, water sources, agricultural potential, recreational potential, aesthetic values, and
clean living in urban areas), improved human health, maintenance of biodiversity, decreased resource use,
fewer conflicts over natural resource use, and increased community skills, knowledge and pride.
6.4. Process of EIA
EIA is an integral part of the project planning process. It has different phases to conduct it from screening
to follow-up.
6.4.1. Screening
EIA process kicks off with project screening. Screening is done to determine whether or not a proposal
should be subject to EIA and, if so, at what level of detail. Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is
required are country specific depending on the laws or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the
criteria for screening and full EIA. The output of the screening process is often a document called an
Initial Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE). The main conclusion will be a classification of
39
the project according to its likely environmental sensitivity. This will determine whether an EIA is needed
and if so, to what detail.
6.5.2. Scoping
The aim of EIA is not to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental impacts for all projects.
Scoping is used to identify the key issues of concern at an early stage in the planning process. The results
of scoping will determine the scope, depth and terms of reference to be addressed within the
Environmental statement. Scoping is done to:
 Identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA
 Ensure a relevant EIA
 Enable those responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the alternatives and on
impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis
 Determine the assessment methods to be used
 Identify all affected interests
 Provide an opportunity for public involvement in determining the factors to be assessed, and facilitate
early agreement on contentious issues
 Save time and money
 Establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study
The following environmental tools can be used in the scoping exercise
Checklists: Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of
project. Checklist’s methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no potential impact
is overlooked. They comprise list questions on features the project and environments impacts. They are
generic in nature and are used as aids in assessment.
Matrices: Matrix methods identify interactions between various project actions and environmental
parameters and components. They incorporate a list of project activities with a checklist of environmental
components that might be affected by these activities. A matrix of potential interactions is produced by
combining these two lists (placing one on the vertical axis and the other on the horizontal axis).
Networks: these are cause effect flow diagrams used to help in tracing the web relationships that exist
between different activities associated with action and environmental system with which they interact.
They are also important in identifying direct and cumulative impacts. They are more complex and need
expertise for their effective use.
Consultations: with decision-makers, affected communities, environmental interest groups to ensure that
all potential impacts are detected. However, there can be danger in this when excessive consultation is
done and some unjustifiable impacts included in the ToR.

40
6.5.3. Baseline Data Collection
The term "baseline" refers to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and
economic settings proposed project area. Information is obtained from secondary sources, or the
acquisition of new information through field samplings, interviews, surveys and consultations with the
public. The task of collecting baseline data starts right from the period of project inception; however, a
majority of this task may be undertaken during scoping and actual EIA. Baseline data is collected for two
main purposes
To provide a description of the current status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant
concentrations) of the host area against which predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in
terms of significance, and
To provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been initiated
6.5.4. Impact analysis and prediction
Predicting the magnitude of a development likely impacts and evaluating their significance is core of
environmental assessment process. Prediction should be based on the available environmental baseline of
the project area. Such predictions are described in quantitative or qualitative terms.
I. Considerations in impact prediction
A. Magnitude of Impact: This is defined by the severity of each potential impact and indicates whether
the impact is irreversible or, reversible and estimated potential rate of recovery. The magnitude of an
impact cannot be considered high if a major adverse impact can be mitigated.
B. Extent of Impact: The spatial extent or the zone of influence of the impact should always be
determined. An impact can be site-specific or limited to the project area; a locally occurring impact
within the locality of the proposed project; a regional impact that may extend beyond the local area
and a national impact affecting resources on a national scale and sometimes trans-boundary impacts,
which might be international.
C. Duration of Impact: Environmental impacts have a temporal dimension and needs to be considered
in an EIA. Impacts arising at different phases of the project cycle may need to be considered. An
impact that generally lasts for only three to nine years after project completion may be classified as
short-term. An impact, which continues for 10 to 20 years, may be defined as medium-term, and
impacts that last beyond 20 years are considered as long-term.
D. Significance of the Impact: This refers to the value or amount of the impact. Once an impact has
been predicted, its significance must be evaluated using an appropriate choice of criteria. The most
important forms of criterion are:
 Specific legal requirements e.g. national laws, standards, international agreements and conventions,
relevant policies etc.
41
  Public views and complaints
 Threat to sensitive ecosystems and resources e.g. can lead to extinction of species and depletion of
resources, which can result, into conflicts.
 Geographical extent of the impact e.g. has trans- boundary implications.
 Cost of mitigation
 Duration (time period over which they will occur)
 Likelihood or probability of occurrence (very likely, unlikely, etc.)
 Reversibility of impact (natural recovery or aided by human intervention)
 Number (and characteristics) of people likely to be affected and their locations
 Cumulative impacts e.g. adding more impacts to existing ones.
 Uncertainty in prediction due to lack of accurate data or complex systems.
II. Impact prediction methodologies
Several techniques can be used in predicting the impacts. The choices should be appropriate to the
circumstances. These can be based on:
Professional judgment with adequate reasoning and supporting data. This technique requires high
professional experience.
Experiments or tests.
Past experience
Numerical calculations & mathematical models.
Physical or visual analysis.
Geographical information systems,
Risk assessment, and
Economic valuation of environmental impacts
6.5.5. Analysis of alternatives
Analysis of alternative is done to establish the preferred or most environmentally sound, financially
feasible and benign option for achieving project objectives
6.5.6. Mitigation and impact management
Mitigation is done to avoid, minimize or offset predicted adverse impacts and, where appropriate, to
incorporate these into an environmental management plan or system. For each potential adverse impact the
plan for its mitigation at each stage of the project should be documented and costed, as this is very
important in the selection of the preferred alternative. The objectives of mitigation therefore are to: find
better alternatives and ways of doing things; enhance the environmental and social benefits of a project
avoid, minimise or remedy adverse impacts; and ensure that residual adverse impacts are kept within
acceptable levels.
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 6.5.7. Environmental Management Plan (EMP) & Environmental Monitoring
I. Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is a detailed plan and schedule of measures necessary to
minimize, mitigate, etc. any potential environmental impacts. Once the EIA the significant impacts have
been identified, it is necessary to prepare an Environmental Management Plan. An EMP should consist of
a set of mitigation, monitoring and institutional measures to be taken during the implementation and
operation of the proposed project to eliminate adverse environmental impacts, offset them or reduce them
to acceptable levels.
II. Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is the systematic measurement of key environmental indicators over time
within a particular geographic area. Monitoring should focus on the most significant impacts identified in
the EIA.
6.5.8. Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
The final EIA report is referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Most national
environmental laws have specified what the content of EIS should have. Multilateral and bilateral financial
institutions have also defined what should be contained in an EIS. Ideally, the content of an EIS should
have the following:
i. Executive Summary
ii. Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework
iii. Description of the environment
iv. Description of the Proposed Project in detail
v. Significant Environmental Impacts
vi. Socio-economic analysis of Project Impacts
vii. Identification and Analysis of Alternatives
viii. Mitigation Action/Mitigation Management Plan
ix. Environmental Management Plan
x. Monitoring Program
xi. Knowledge gaps
xii. Public Involvement
xiii. List of References
xiv. Appendices including
Reference documents, photographs, unpublished data
Terms of Reference
Consulting team composition
43
 Notes of Public Consultation sessions
6.5.9. Decision making
At each stage of EIA, interim decisions are made. These decisions influence final decisions made
about the EIA. The EIS is submitted to designate authority for scrutiny before the final decision. The
authority, together with technical review panel determines the quality of EIS and gives the public further
opportunity to comment. Based on the outcome of the review, the designated authority or lending
institution will accept, reject or make further modifications to avoid future confrontation. If the EIS is
accepted, an EIA license is issued and if otherwise, additional studies or recommendations are made
before issuance of a license. The decision making process should be autonomous so that the outcome of
the review is seen as fair enough. The duration of this process is usually set in the EIA legal framework.
6.5.10. Effective EIA follow-up
In practice, an EMP, which is submitted with the EIS report, should be used during implementation and
operation of the project.
6.5. Environmental audit
Environmental auditing is a management tool designed to provide information on environmental
performance to the right people at the right time. Environmental audits are being used as a tool and an aid
to test the effectiveness of environmental efforts at local level. Environmental auditing is mandatory only
in cases stipulated by law. An environmental audit is a systematic, independent internal review to check
whether the results of environmental work tally with the targets. An environmental audit also focuses on
whether the methods used to achieve goals are effective. To be more precise the work of an environmental
audit is a study of documents and reports to see whether there are any deviations between targets and
results. This is done by interviewing key people in the organization. An environmental audit will confirm
whether or not the environmental targets have been attained. Environmental audit is a systematic means of
providing Environmental management information to all level of management for a variety of purpose
Environmental audit process
1. Pre-audit activities
Select and schedule facility to audit based on selection criteria and priority assigned
Select audit team: confirm their availability, make travel and lodging arrangements, assign audit
responsibilities
Contact facility and plan audit: discuss audit program, obtain background information, administer
questionnaire (if necessary), define scope, note priority topics, determine topic needs, identify facility
staff to be interviewed, confirm availability
2. Activity at site: the following are the steps we followed

44
 Identify and understand management control systems: review background information, opening
meeting, review audit plan, and confirm understanding of internal controls
Assess management control systems: identify strengths and weaknesses of internal controls, adapt
audit plan and resource allocation, and define testing and verification strategies
Gather audit evidence: apply testing and verification strategies, collect data, ensure that all finding
are factual, conduct further testing if required, and liaise with regulatory authorities
Evaluate audit findings: develop complete list of finding, assemble working papers and documents,
integrate and summarize findings, and prepare report for closing meeting
Verbal report: present initial findings at closing meeting, and discuss findings with plant personnel
3. Post audit activities
Issue draft report: correct closing report, distribute draft report, and allow time for corrections.
Issue final report: corrected final report, distributed final report, highlight requirement for action
plan, and determine action plan preparation deadline
Action plan preparation and implementation based on audit findings in final report
Follow-up in action plan
Benefits of environmental auditing
 It provides framework for measuring (and therefore managing) environmental performance.
 It reinforces accountability for environmental dimension
 It raises awareness of the importance professional environmental management through the
organization.
 It provides valuable information for future planning.

Chapter 7: Sustainable Development

7.1. The Concept of Development

45
What is ‘development’? Although apparently a simple and straightforward question, defining
the concept in a precise manner has been a major theoretical and practical challenge. In 1950s
& 60s development was conceived in terms of growth targets such as: GNP (An economic
statistic that includes GDP, plus any income earned by residents from overseas investments,
minus income earned within the domestic economy by overseas residents) and GDP (Gross
domestic product (GDP) is the monetary value of all the finished goods and services
produced within a country's borders in a specific time period). But the concept of
development involves something more than economic growth. Growth in GDP is not an end
in itself. It is a means to improve living standards and better society with less poverty, better
health and improved educational level. Increased GDP per capita should be accompanied by
reduction in poverty. During the 1970s development came to be redefined in - terms of
multidimensional concept such as:
• Reduction/elimination of poverty,
• Reduction of inequality, and
• Reduction/elimination of unemployment,
Thus, the wider meaning of development is conceived as a process involving major upward
changes in social and economic structure

7.2. Definition of Development

In defining development, one may not get universal definition for it. Its dimension depends
on the context of the subject, as for instance, in economics, development means improvement
of living standards of people as a result of economic growth. This implies to the Gross
National Product (GNP), and indicates a measurement of progress. But in terms of reality it
does not contribute much to the poor.

The argument about this definition based on the principle that development is not something
that can be measured by GNP statistics because it is a progress of change, dealing with broad
concepts such as, human factors that include people's satisfaction, knowledge and skill for
achieving their goals. Some of the definitions of development include:

 Development is a complex process which involves socio-economic, political and cultural

betterment.
 Development refers to continuity of growth, increasing people's living that changes with
time.

46
  Development involves the introduction of new ideas into a social system in order to
produce higher per capita incomes and levels of living through modern production
methods and improved social organization
 Development implies a total transformation of a traditional society into types of
technology and associated social organization that characterize the advanced stable
nations of the Western world.
7.3. Core Values of Development
According to Todaro, Development must, therefore, be conceived of as a multi-dimensional
process, at least three basic components as core values should serve as a conceptual basis and
practical guidelines for understanding the "inner" meaning of development. These core values
- sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom - represent common goals sought by all individuals
and societies'? They relate to fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost
all societies and cultures at all times.
Sustenance: The Ability to Meet Basic Needs

This refers to the capacity to meet basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. Lack
of even one of these means that a person's life is not progressive. A country develops if its
citizens have enough or more than enough for their basic necessities, there is growth of
income, extreme poverty is addressed, and there is equality among members of society.
Self-esteem: to be a person

The quality of life is good when there is respect, trust, and self-value. Each person has needs
which can be achieved through the presence of respect, dignity, and a good reputation in
society. A person's worth as an individual cannot simply be measured by the ownership of
material things which is often given emphasis by progressive capitalist countries such as the
United States. In the Philippines, material wealth is not the only important thing but the love
for one's family, the family's reputation, and a person's dignity and self-esteem. A country is
developed if this unique need of the people is addressed.

Freedom from Servitude: to be able to choose

This freedom is drawn from liberation from oppressive systems in society, poverty and abuse,
slavery, ignorance, and the absence of the freedom to choose one's culture or religion. This
freedom can be seen in the range of choices in a society. What is good about development is
not only the joy of being free from poverty but also the availability of a wide range of
choices. In general, freedom prevails if people live a comfortable life, if they have the

47
freedom to choose their religion, to vote and to express their opinion about administration
and governance, and if they enjoy equal opportunities for education and employment.

7.4. Concepts of sustainability

Sustainability is defined differently by different people. Some stress on the physical aspects
while others on the economic and some others on the human aspect. Still others stress on the
technological dimension. Yet the popular definition as given by the UN defines sustainable
development as “development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.

7.4.1. Dimensions of Sustainable Development

i. Economic dimension: - This dimension focuses on optimum resource utilization and

management. It is concerned about maximizing net benefits of economic development
subject to maintaining the services and quality of natural resources. Economic
dimension focuses on the use of resources today should not reduce the real incomes in
the future, i.e. the current decision should not affect the prospect for maintaining
future living standards.
ii. Environmental Dimension: - this necessitates protecting the natural resources
needed for food production and other sectors while expanding production to meet the
needs of growing population. According to a report by the UN, pressure on natural
resources & natural systems estimates about 1.2 billion hectares of land is degraded
since 1945. The world focuses a wide variety of environmental threats like pollution,
global climatic charge & loss of biodiversity. If this continues, food production will
be difficult in the future. Therefore, the environmental dimension calls for avoiding
over-use of chemical fertilizer, avoiding expansion of agriculture to marginal lands,
careful use of water and preventing climatic change by protecting the ozone layer.
This dimension considers in using renewable natural resources in a manner that
doesn’t eliminate or diminish their usefulness for future generation. In general, this
dimension suggests that development should be improving the quality of human life
while living with in the supporting ecosystem.
iii. Technological dimension: - this dimension is about shifting to new technologies that
are efficient, cleaner and effective in using natural resources in order to reduce
pollution and accommodate growth in population and economic activity. The goals

48
 of sustainable development according to this dimension should be processes of
technological systems that create few wastes and able to recycle the wastes.
iv. Human dimension: - this one focuses on progress towards stable population. It also
focuses on distribution of population and rural development in order to minimize the
environmental consequence of urbanization. It entails making full use of human
resources by improving the educational and health services through social welfare
and protecting cultural diversity and also by considering human as partners of
development and promoting participation in development.

Chapter 8: Strategies for Sustainable Development

49
8.1. Core Indicators of Sustainable development

8.1.1. Equity

Social equity is one of the principal values underlying sustainable development, with people
and their quality of life being recognized as a central issue. Equity involves the degree of
fairness and inclusiveness with which resources are distributed, opportunities afforded, and
decisions made. It includes the provision of comparable opportunities of employment and
social services, including education, health and justice. The notion can be relevant both
within and between communities and nations. Significant issues related to the achievement of
social equity include poverty alleviation; employment and income distribution; gender, ethnic
and age inclusiveness, access to financial and natural resources; and intergenerational
opportunity.
The indicators in the core set cover the issues of poverty, income inequality, unemployment,
and gender equality. They represent priority issues for countries and the international
community. The indicators are widely used, well-tested measures, associated with established
goals and targets.
8.1.2. Health
Health and sustainable development are closely connected. Safe water supply and sanitation,
proper nutrition and a safe food supply, unpolluted living conditions, the control of disease,
and access to health services all contribute to healthy populations. Conversely, poverty, lack
of information and education, natural and human-induced disasters, and rapid urbanization
can all exacerbate health problems. Pollution control and health protection services have
often not kept pace with economic development. As a consequence, poor health is associated
with decreased productivity, particularly in the labor-intensive agricultural sector.
Development cannot be achieved or sustained when a high proportion of the population is
affected by poor health and inadequate access to health care facilities. While economic
growth and development can contribute to improved health and better health care facilities in
the poorest countries, there are also high and middle-income countries where further
improvements are warranted. A clean environment is important to citizens’ health and well-
being. Unsustainable economic growth can also cause environmental degradation which,
together with inappropriate consumption, can adversely influence human health.
Protecting and promoting human health focuses on the following interrelated issue areas:
 Meeting primary health care needs, especially in rural areas;
 Controlling communicable diseases;
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  Protecting vulnerable groups;
 Meeting urban health needs; and
 Reducing health risks from environmental pollution and hazards.
8.1.3. Education
Education, as a lifelong process, is widely accepted as a fundamental prerequisite for the
achievement of sustainable development. It cuts across all areas of being a particularly
critical element in meeting basic human needs, and in achieving equity, capacity building,
access to information, and strengthening science. Education is also recognized as a means of
changing consumption and production patterns to a more sustainable path. Education, both
formal and informal, is regarded as a process by which human beings and societies can reach
their full potential. There is a close association between the general level of education
attained and the persistence of poverty irrespective of the level of a country’s development. It
is vital to changing people’s attitudes to achieve ethical awareness, values, attitudes, skills,
and behavior consistent with the goal of building a more sustainable society. In this way,
people are better equipped to participate in decision-making that adequately and successfully
addresses environment and development issues.
The primary objectives in addressing these issues include: striving for universal access to
basic education, reducing adult illiteracy, integrating sustainable development concepts in all
education programmes to achieve interdisciplinary learning, promoting broad public
awareness, and strengthening vocational and scientific training.
8.1.4. Housing
Adequate shelter is one of the essential components of sustainable development. The
availability of adequate shelter substantially contributes to safer, more equitable, productive,
and healthier settlements. Living conditions, especially in urban areas, are influenced by
excessive population concentration, inadequate planning and financial resources, and
unemployment. Rural-urban migration exacerbates this situation contributing to the
development of slums and informal settlements. Poor living conditions are associated with
poverty, homelessness, poor health, social exclusion, family instability and insecurity,
violence, environmental degradation, and increased vulnerability to disasters.
8.1.5. Population
Population provides an important contextual reference on sustainable development for
decision makers looking at the interrelationships between people, resources, the environment
and development. Population change is a significant signal as countries try to reduce poverty,
achieve economic progress, improve environmental protection, and move to more sustainable

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consumption and production. More stable levels of fertility can have a considerable positive
impact on quality of life. In many countries, slower population growth has bought more time
to adjust to future population increases. Urbanization has become a dominant trend in the
growth and distribution of the population. Rapid population growth and migration can lead to
unsustainable living conditions and increased pressure on the environment, especially in
ecologically-sensitive areas.
8.1.6. Atmosphere
Priority atmospheric issues include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion,
acidification, urban air quality, and tropospheric ozone levels. The impacts of these issues
relate to human health, biodiversity and the health of ecosystems, and economic damage.
Many of the effects are long term, global in nature, and irreversible with consequences for
future generations.
An integrated approach to protection of the atmosphere, coordinated with social and
economic development, which focuses on:
 Improving the scientific basis for addressing uncertainties;
 Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;
 Addressing transboundary air pollution; and
 Promoting more sustainable and efficient energy use, transportation, consumption,
industrial development, and land and marine resource use.
The principal human activities contributing to atmospheric change relate to fossil fuel
consumption for energy production and transportation. In addition, land use change,
including deforestation, industrial processes, intensive agriculture, and waste disposal
contribute to atmospheric pollution. Conversely, forest ecosystems are also significant carbon
sinks for greenhouse gases. While some gains have been achieved through greater efficiency,
fuel substitution, and the use of renewable energy, emission levels have continued to climb
due to overall increases in energy use and transportation.
Climate change is widely recognized as a serious threat to the world’s environment and is
largely a consequence of unsustainable consumption and production patterns. Expected
impacts include sea level rise with the possible flooding of low lying areas, higher
temperatures, melting of glaciers and ice caps, and more extreme weather patterns with
implications for floods and droughts. The socio-economic effects are expected to be
widespread, but have particular significance to agriculture, forests, and marine ecosystems.

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8.1.7. Land
Land consists not only of the physical space and the surface topography, but includes the
associated natural resources of soil, mineral deposits, water, and plant and animal
communities.
Use of the land in an unsustainable way affects these resources, as well as the atmosphere and
marine ecosystems. Land is becoming an increasingly scarce resource, particularly quality
land for primary production of biomass and for conservation, due to expanding human
requirements.
The magnitude of land use and land cover changes threatens the stability and resilience of
ecosystems through, for example, global warming and disruption of the global nitrogen cycle.
8.1.8. Oceans, Seas and Coasts
Occupying about 70% of the earth’s surface, oceans and seas represent highly productive
ecosystems that continuously recycle chemicals, nutrients, and water. This recycling
regulates
weather and climate, including global temperature. In addition, marine, estuary and coastal
ecosystems (such as coral reefs, wetlands, and mangrove forests) are significant to
biodiversity
and support valuable natural resources.
The marine and coastal issues significant to sustainable development include:
 Degradation from land-based activities;
 Unsustainable exploitation of fish and other living resources;
 Marine pollution from shipping and offshore oil and gas projects;
 The protection of biodiversity and fragile ecosystems; and
 The relationship to climate change, including the implications of sea level rise.
8.1.9. Freshwater
Freshwater is essential to support human life, ecosystems, and economic development. It
supports domestic water supplies, food production, fisheries, industry, hydropower
generation,
navigation, and recreation. The ecosystem services of freshwater systems include food
production, reduction of flood risk, and the filtering of pollutants. The global issues of health,
poverty, climate change, deforestation, desertification, and land use change are all directly
associated with the water resource and its management.
The long-term sustainability of water is in doubt in many regions of the world. Currently,
humans use about half the water that is readily available. Water use has been growing at more

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than twice the population rate, and a number of regions are already chronically short of water.
Both water quantity and water quality are becoming dominant issues in many countries. The
major withdrawals of water are for agriculture, industry, and domestic consumption. Major
water quality problems stem from sewage pollution, the intensive agricultural use of
fertilizers and pesticides, industrial wastes, saltwater intrusion, and soil erosion.
In specific watersheds, water quality has improved, the application of demand management is
raising efficiency levels, and conservation efforts are improving fish habitat. However,
overall progress has been neither sufficient nor comprehensive enough to reduce the overall
trends of increasing water shortages, deteriorating water quality, and growing ecosystem
stress. To address this gap, the Commission on Sustainable Development has identified the
following priority areas:
 Access to urban and rural water supply and sanitation;
 Water for sustainable food production and rural development;
 The use of clean and efficient wastewater technologies for industry;
 A greater appreciation of the water resource requirements of ecosystems;
 The efficient use of water based on its economic value; and
 Strengthening water management institutions.
8.1.10. Biodiversity
Biological diversity consists not only of variety among species, but also genetic variation
within species, and variation between communities of species, habitats and ecosystems. This
biodiversity of genes, species, and ecosystems contributes essential products and services to
human welfare. Maintaining biodiversity helps ensure that the Earth will continue to perform
natural ecological processes upon which all life depends. Major changes, loss, or degradation
of
biodiversity can result in serious economic, social, and cultural impacts; and have profound
ecological and ethical implications. Food security, climatic stability, freshwater security and
human health needs are all directly associated with the maintenance and use of biodiversity.
Loss of biodiversity results when policies and development activities fail to properly value
natural resources and the environment. Inequity in ownership and access to natural resources
also contribute to unsustainable use. Biodiversity can be adversely affected by the following
causes:
 Over-harvesting or illegal take of species;
 Habitat loss or fragmentation;
 The introduction of exotic species;

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  Pollution and land degradation; and
 Climate change and natural disasters.
8.1.11. Economic Structure
Trade and investment are important factors in economic growth and sustainable
development. Improved access to markets, transfer of financial resources and technology, and
debt relief are critical to assisting developing countries meet the objectives of sustainable
development. Poverty, natural resource exploitation, and consumption and production are all
intimately connected to economic growth or the lack of it. It represents a considerable
challenge to ensure that economic growth leads to social equity and does not contribute to
environmental degradation.
To support economic performance within the context of sustainable development, trade
liberalization; making trade and environment mutually supportive; providing new and
additional financial resources to developing countries; and encouraging macroeconomic
policies favorable to environment and development. Trade liberalization usually has positive
effects on sustainable development. It can stimulate economic diversification, improve the
efficiency of resource allocation, reduce environmentally unsound trade restrictions, and
encourage the transfer of cleaner, more efficient technology. Freer trade can also result in
increased resource use when the environmental costs of production are not fully internalized
and reflected in market prices.
8.1.12. Consumption and Production Patterns
Unsustainable patterns of consumption and production, particularly in developed countries,
are the major cause of the continued depletion of natural resources and deterioration of the
global environment. It is widely acknowledged that the Earth cannot support the consumption
levels of industrialized countries on a global scale. In addition, such high levels of
consumption affect the current and future consumption and production options of developing
countries. A change to more sustainable lifestyles calls for the concerted, combined efforts of
governments, producers, and consumers. It requires less emphasis on material consumption,
more emphasis on resource and energy-efficient technologies, a stronger commitment to
meeting the needs of the poor, and a focus on economic systems that account for social and
environmental costs.
8.2. Principles and concept of Sustainable development
This section will introduce you key principle of sustainable development and example of
their

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application.
1. Common but differentiated responsibility
Common but differentiated responsibility based on the global responsibility to protect and
restore the environment. These principles states “in view of different contribution to global
environmental degradation, states have common but differentiated responsibilities. The
developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit
of sustainable development in view of pressures their societies place on the global
environment and of the technologies financial resources they command”. In other words,
developed countries shoulder more of blame for global environment problems (e.g.
greenhouse emission), than developing countries; hence they should contribute a greater
amount to solving these problems. Climatic change is a case in point. Today developing
countries have contribute little to this problems, as they don’t have the industries and
infrastructure to produce large quantities of greenhouse gas emissions. Recognizing this
differentiated responsibility, the United Nation Framework Convention on climatic change
and the Tokyo Protocol have serious measures whereby developed, industrial nations
undertake measure to reduce emissions and provide support to developing countries.
2. Precautionary principle
“In order to protect the environment the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by
states according to their capabilities, where there are threats of serious irreversible damage,
lack of full scientific certainty shall not be as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures
to prevent environmental degradation”. Precautionary principle implies that even if there is
no solid proof that actions are causing negatives effects on the environment, action should be
taken to reduce potential negative effects. Climate change is a good example
3. The polluter pays principle
The principle implies that the person or company who causes pollution should pay for the
cost of removing it, and/or compensation to those affected by it. The principle also implies
that it up to developer to demonstrate that the technology, practices and products they intend
to use are safe. Any cost in proving their safety should be covered by the developer. For
example if the company pollutes the water in a river by releasing untreated wastes into it, it
must pay a fine and cover the cost of rehabilitating the river and recovering fish stocks. Other
common example of polluter pays principles in developed countries is payment for waste
collection.
The environmental policy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1997) produced
by Environmental Protection Agency, includes polluter pays as one of its guiding principles.
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Full environmental and social costs (benefits foregone or lost) that may result through
damage to resources or the environment as a result of degradation or pollution shall be
incorporated in to public and private sector planning and accounting, decision shall be based
on minimizing and covering those costs.

4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental impact assessment is the mandatory assessment of the
compliance of planned activities, such as planning documents, programs
and projects, with environmental protection requirements and with the
principles of sustainable development, with the aim of determining the
optimum solution.
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA):- It is carried out prior to
decisions on policies, plans and programs. For example SEA can be carried
on sector programs, regional program and national poverty eradication
strategies. The aim of SEAs is:
 Make it possible to take environmental issues into account at earlier
stage of planning and decision making;
 Identify possible environmental impact and find alternative
solutions;
 Raise the awareness of direct, indirect and cumulative effects of
development decision on the environment;
 Facilitate more environmentally sustainable decision making in the
future.
5. Ecosystem services
Ecosystem1 services are the benefits people obtained from ecosystems.
These include:
 Provisioning services such as food and water;
 Regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land
degradation, disease:
 Supporting services such as soil formation, nutrient cycling; and
 Cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other
nonmaterial benefits.

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8.3. Indicators of Non-sustainable Development
The most indicators of Non-sustainable Development are;
Depletions of natural resources
 Loss of biological diversity (plant and animal)
 Land degradation – specially soil erosion
 Water resources – both scarcity and quality
 Fisheries – declining stocks
 Forests and timber- deforestation loss of forest biodiversity
 Energy resources - declining fossil fuels (coal, oil gas) opportunities
for renewable
energy (solar, wind )
 Declining mineral resources –from tin to gold.
Pollution and wastes
 Atmospheric Pollution and climatic change
 Local air pollution (indoor and outdoor)
 Marine pollution (oil spills and damping at sea)
 Pollution of fresh water system (lake, wetland and rivers)
 Land and soil pollution
Human development
 Population growth
 Food security
 Shelter
 Rapid urbanization
 Poor health and disease arising from declining environmental
condition
8.4. Elements of a New Strategy for Sustainable Development
The concern for the sustainability of induced development programs has
considerably increased over the last decade. However, the intellectual
debate about sustainability is still largely limited to only two of its basic
dimensions: economic and environmental, granted, these two dimensions
are important, definitely these two are not the only major determinants of
sustainability. Cultural and social components are equally important,
indeed , this crucial because even development programs which are

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environmentally or economically sound may be definitely stumble and
eventually crushed if they are not also socially durable and enduring.

8.4.1. Sustainable agricultural development

Induced development mean development programs which are initiated purposively by
government, development agencies, and the like, and which use financial resources as
foremost
trigger of development. For example many government projects financially assisted by World
Bank, or multilateral and lateral donors, are a case in point, they are programs in which
the injection of exogenous financial resources is intended to accelerate the pace of
development.
It has been observed, however, that many such government programs hardly survive the day
when the inflow exogenous financial resources ends. When aiming development program that
is
expected to continue after the closure of original program long-term sustainability should first
come to attention.
As a result of the above mentioned and other problems, it is increasingly being
recognized that enrich mental and economic safeguards have to built in to
programs for inducing development to extend the long-term sustainability
of this development. They must contain the possibility of incorporating not
only incentive to growth but also safeguards against the possible adverse
effect of growth to address the key dimension of lasting developments. It
is essential to ensure that such intervention lead towards durable, self-
sustaining, long term development.
Agricultural development through purposive programs is probably one the
clearest instances in which sustainable development can and must be
achieved by addressing simultaneously, the economic, social cultural,
environmental and technical dimensions of development. And the most
important elements of a new strategy for sustainable development are; Food security
management of natural resources and natural disaster, development and utilization of human
resources, alleviation of poverty and inequality, use and management of energy resources,
removing market imperfections and getting the prices right, mainstreaming gender in
development strategy

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