M.

IMRAN

1. Aestivation 2 marks
Aestivation or summer sleep is a period of inactivity and low metabolic rate in
animals in response to high temperature and dry season.
Aestivation is common in many invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians.
Aestivation is a kind of adaptation in some animals that helps them to survive in
extended periods of drying. The animal usually enters a burrow as its environment
begins to dry. It generally does not eat or drink and emerges again after moisture
returns.
The Australian burrowing frog, Cyclorana alboguttatus, in its burrow and water-
retaining skin.

2. Exploitation 2 marks
The diversity of interactions between herbivores and plants, between predators and
prey, and between parasites, parasitoids, pathogens, and hosts can be grouped under
the heading of exploitation--interactions between species that enhance the fitness of
one individual at the expense of another.

3. Global warming 2 marks

The average temperature of earth surface is increasing day by day due to increase in
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Human activities are main
cause of it.
The earth is gradually heating up due to rise in temperature. This phenomenon is
called Global warming. It is causing serious problems to the health of plants and
animals and also the surrounding environment.

4.Counter shading 3 marks

Counter shading is a type of color pattern in animals in which there is a dark
pigmentation on the upper surface of body and light pigmentation on the lower
surface of body.
Counter shading helps an animal to blend in with its surrounding environment.
Counter shading is a kind of camouflage common in frog and toad eggs.
These eggs are darkly pigmented on top and lightly pigmented on the bottom. When
a bird or other predator views the eggs from above, the dark of the top side hides the
eggs from detection against the darkness below.
On the other hand, when fish view the eggs from below, the light undersurface blends
with the bright air-water interface.
Penguins are another example that exhibit phenomenon of counter shading.

5. Solid waste 3 marks

Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash. Municipal solid wastes are wastes
from homes, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, etc., that are collected and disposed by the
municipality.

Solid waste is usually disposed of in landfills. Landfills take up space and, if not properly
contained, can leach toxins into the soil and poison groundwater.

In countries with limited space, solid waste is burned at high temperatures that creates very
hazardous ash, and pollutes the air with toxic chemicals.
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and other harmful chemicals,
and also pathogenic micro-organisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and
disposal.

The use of incinerators is crucial to disposal of hospital waste.

Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as electronic wastes (Ewastes).

E-wastes are buried in landfills or incinerated.

Recycling involves manual participation thus exposing workers to toxic substances present in
e- wastes

Solid waste management

All waste that we generate can be categorised into three types,

1. Recyclable

2. Bio-degradable,

3. Non-biodegradable.

6.Overexploitation 3 marks
Overexploitation of resources (or using resources at an unsustainable rate) is a critical
problem in conservation.
The overexploitation or nonsustainable use of wildlife is closely linked and plays an
increasing role in the loss of biodiversity
Overharvesting, nonsustainable use, and the illegal trade in some species are
threatening not only their continued survival but also that of ecosystems and the
livelihoods of communities and local economics that depend upon them.

Unsustainable hunting, fishing, logging, or gathering of wild populations leads to their

commercial, ecological or global extinction.

Overexploitation can be divided into two major categories:

o Direct exploitation o Indirect exploitation

Direct exploitation ranges from commercial activities such as logging operations or

trade in endangered species to subsistence hunting.

Indirect exploitation:
Indirect exploitation encompasses the unintentional mortality of non target species
such as fish or turtles killed as by-catch in fishery operations.
Both endanger species around the world.
7. Primary succession wth exampl 5 marks
The process by which a new community is propagated or initiated in an area where
previously no life forms exist is termed as primary succession. Primary succession
takes thousands of years to develop by the gradual accumulation of nutrients.
Communities begin to establish in areas which are devoid of life.
The first community to become established in an area is called the pioneer
community.
The organisms that develop this pioneer community are called pioneers.
Examples are lichens and mosses whose seeds or spores are distributed by the wind
and carried by animals.
Death, decay, and additional nutrients add to the community. Over thousands of
years nutrients accumulate, and the characteristics of the ecosystem changes.

Seral stage

Each successional stage is called a seral stage.

Sere
The entire successional sequence is termed as a sere.

Biomass increases, nutrients are conserved more efficiently, and productivity declines
in the course of succession.

Climax community

The relatively stable and uniform community developed by the pioneers through
different successional stages is named as climax community. It is a final and mature
stage of any community.
Primary succession on a sand dune. Beach grass is the first species to become
established. It stabilizes the dune so that shrubs, and eventually trees, can grow.

8.Ozone layer depletion and its effects 5 marks

Ozone gas is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular
oxygen, and also degraded into molecular oxygen in the stratosphere. There
should be a balance between production and degradation of ozone in the
stratosphere.
This balance is disrupted due to ozone degradation by Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs).
CFCs are released by refrigerants. CFCs discharged in the lower part of
atmosphere move upward and reach into stratosphere.
In stratosphere, UV rays act on them releasing chlorine (Cl) atoms. Cl degrades
Ozone releasing molecular oxygen.
So CFCs have permanent and continuing affects on Ozone levels.
This increase in release of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has created a large area
of thinned ozone layer in Antarctic region, commonly called as the ozone hole.

Effects of Ozone depletion

▪ Skin cancer
▪ Snow-blindness (inflammation of cornea by UV-rays.
▪ Cataract
. Low crop
production

9.Resource depletion & biodiversity 5 marks

Humans are either directly or indirectly exploiting about 40% of the earth’s net
primary production.
It involves converting natural areas to agricultural uses, frequently substituting less
efficient crop plants for native species.
The main threats to biological diversity arise from habitat destruction by expanding
human populations. Habitat loss displaces thousands of native plants and animals.
Some of the most important threatened natural areas include,
o Tropical rain forests, o Coastal wetlands, o Coral reefs.
Of these, tropical rain forests have probably received the most attention.
Tropical rain forests cover only 7% of the earth’s land surface, but they contain more
than 50% of the world’s species.
Tropical rain forests are being destroyed rapidly, mostly for agricultural production.
About 76,000 km2 (an area larger than Costa Rica) is being cleared each year.
Clearing of tropical rain forests achieves little, because the thin, nutrient-poor soils of
tropical rain forests are exhausted within two years.

10.Effects of global warming 10 marks

Some major effects are
1. ▪ Rise in temperature
2. ▪ Rise in Sea Level
3. ▪ Climate change
4. ▪ Extinction
5. ▪ Droughts
6. ▪ Loss of biodiversity

7. Rise in Temperature:

The intense heat waves and rising temperatures are becoming more common as greenhouse
gases are trapped in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect thus leads to a rise in
temperature, and as it becomes stronger, more heat is trapped within the planet.

Rise in Sea Level:

Warm surface temperatures cause glaciers, polar ice to melt. This in turn increases the
amount of water in the world’s oceans thus contributing to a rise in sea levels.

It threatens populations of coastal areas because of their higher vulnerability to flooding.

Climate change:

Gradual increase in temperature has also severely influenced the climate pattern of the earth
surface. El nino effect is an example of changing climate due to Global warming.

Extinction:

The polar bear is considered to be an endangered species whose numbers are falling because
of their inability to adapt to the volatile temperature changes in the Polar Regions.

Droughts:

A warmer climate will cause shortage of water supply and ultimately crop failure. If these
water shortages are persistent it will cause a lot of disruptions in global food production by
affecting agriculture and thus leading to situations such as starvation .

Loss of biodiversity:

Global warming causes drastic and irreversible changes both in the upper atmosphere and
within the planet thus affecting it’s every component including land, water, air etc.

It makes the organisms unable to survive in their native environments.

11.Biodiversity.2
The term biodiversity was used by Edward Wilson to describe the combined diversity
at all the levels of biological organisation.

Biodiversity is a vital renewable resource.

In our biosphere immense diversity or heterogeneity exists not only at the species
level but at all levels of biological organisation ranging from macromolecules within
cells to biomes.

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of all life forms on the earth.

The variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and the
ecological and evolutionary processes that sustain it.

Scientists have identified about 1.8 million species, and every year, thousands of new
species are identified.

The identified species include almost a million species of insects, 270,000 plant
species, and 45,000 vertebrate animal species.
 12 Bio magnification.2

When wastes and poisons enter food webs, organisms at the highest trophic levels usually
suffer the most.

The accumulation of matter in food webs is called biological magnification.

A particularly troubling characteristic of these pollutants is their ability to persist over long
time frames and spread over large areas.

A phenomenon called bio magnification is well known for mercury and DDT.

A few toxic substances, often present in industrial waste waters, can undergo biological
magnification (Bio magnification) in the aquatic food chain.

Bio magnification refers to increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic

levels

13. Name of energy quality type.2

It determines the ability of an energy source to do useful work. Energy manifest itself in
several forms such as heat, mechanical, electrical, magnetic, kinetic (in motion), potential,
etc. Some types of energy are more useful than the others.

Two types of energy on the base of energy

Quality,

1. High quality energy

2. Low quality energy

High quality energy

High-quality energy is concentrated form of

energy and has a high capacity to do useful

work. Examples are,

 Very high-temperature heat

 Nuclear fission

 Concentrated sunlight

 High-velocity wind

 Energy released by burning natural gas, gasoline, or coal.

 Low quality energy

 A dispersed form of energy that has a little capacity to do useful work.

 Heat energy of moving water molecules is of low quality because it is dispersed in

water molecules

 that lowers its temperature.

The total amount of heat stored in the Atlantic ocean is greater than the amount of high quality
chemical energy stored in all the oil deposits of Saudi Arabia. But wide dispersion of this ocean’s
heat energy makes it unable to do useful work.

14.Name three source of enegy.3

• Organisms use one of three main sources of energy:
• light,

• inorganic molecules, or organic molecules

15.Why species act as biological indicator.3

16.Noice pollution leading source.3
Transportation (cars, trains, airplanes, shipping) and industry (construction or factory) are the
leading sources of noise pollution.

Animals rely on hearing to,

➢ Communicate

➢ Avoid predators

➢ Obtain food

17.Three steps of water cycle.5

The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed supply
of water.

Water is an amazing substance which makes the water cycle critical to life on earth.

The water cycle is a global cycle because there is a large reservoir of water in the atmosphere
as well as in the hydrosphere, especially the oceans.

The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and involves three major
processes,
1. Evaporation
2. Transpiration
3. Precipitation Evaporation:

Evaporation changes liquid water into water vapor in the atmosphere. Incoming solar energy
causes evaporation of water from the oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil.

About 84% of water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans, which cover almost
three- fourths of the earth’s surface; the rest comes from land.

Transpiration:

Over land, about 90% of the water that reaches the atmosphere evaporates from the surfaces
of plants through a process called transpiration.

Precipitation:

Precipitation returns the water back to earth’s surface. Most precipitation becomes surface
runoff that flows into streams and lakes and eventually in to the oceans. From oceans it can
evaporate to repeat the water cycle.

Some precipitation is converted to ice that is stored.

Some precipitation sinks to underground layers of rock, sand, and gravel called aquifers,
where it is stored as groundwater.

A small amount of the earth’s water is absorbed by roots of plants. Some of this water is used
to make food for consumers by photosynthesis, while most of water is evaporated through
process of transpiration.

Consumers get their water from their food or by drinking it.

18.Autogenic and allogenic succession.5

 Autogenic succession

 In autogenic succession the successional process

 is controlled by living or biotic component of an

 ecosystem

Allogenic succession

 The entire successional process is controlled by

 non living or abiotic components of ecosystem.

 Ecological succession is a process of gradual changes that causes the plants, animals,
fungi and microorganism to become established in an area.

19.What is competition
Competition: use or defense of a resource by one individual that reduces the availability of the
resource to other individuals

20.What is water cycle

The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed supply
of water.

Water is an amazing substance which makes the water cycle critical to life on earth.

The water cycle is a global cycle because there is a large reservoir of water in the atmosphere
as well as in the hydrosphere, especially the oceans.

21.Define allele
• Allele: one of the genes at a particular locus.

22.Define Industrial ecology

• The design of the industrial infrastructure such that it consists of a series of
interlocking "technological ecosystems" interfacing with global natural ecosystems.

• Industrial ecology takes the pattern and processes of natural ecosystems as a design
for sustainability. It represents a shift in paradigm from conquering nature to becoming
nature.

23.Factors of water cycle

The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed supply
of water.

Water is an amazing substance which makes the water cycle critical to life on earth.

The water cycle is a global cycle because there is a large reservoir of water in the atmosphere
as well as in the hydrosphere, especially the oceans.

The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and involves three major
processes,
1. Evaporation
2. Transpiration
3. Precipitation
 Evaporation:

Evaporation changes liquid water into water vapor in the atmosphere. Incoming solar energy
causes evaporation of water from the oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil.

About 84% of water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans, which cover almost
three- fourths of the earth’s surface; the rest comes from land.

Transpiration:

Over land, about 90% of the water that reaches the atmosphere evaporates from the surfaces
of plants through a process called transpiration.

Precipitation:

Precipitation returns the water back to earth’s surface. Most precipitation becomes surface
runoff that flows into streams and lakes and eventually in to the oceans. From oceans it can
evaporate to repeat the water cycle.

Some precipitation is converted to ice that is stored.

Some precipitation sinks to underground layers of rock, sand, and gravel called aquifers,
where it is stored as groundwater.

A small amount of the earth’s water is absorbed by roots of plants. Some of this water is used
to make food for consumers by photosynthesis, while most of water is evaporated through
process of transpiration.

Consumers get their water from their food or by drinking it.

24.Types of energy
Two types of energy on the base of energy

Quality,

3. High quality energy

4. Low quality energy

High quality energy

High-quality energy is concentrated form of

energy and has a high capacity to do useful

work. Examples are,

 Very high-temperature heat

 Nuclear fission

 Concentrated sunlight

 High-velocity wind

 Energy released by burning natural gas, gasoline, or coal.

 Low quality energy

 A dispersed form of energy that has a little capacity to do useful work.

 Heat energy of moving water molecules is of low quality because it is dispersed in

water molecules

 that lowers its temperature.

 The total amount of heat stored in the Atlantic ocean is greater than the amount of
high quality chemical energy stored in all the oil deposits of Saudi Arabia. But wide
dispersion of this ocean’s heat energy makes it unable to do useful work.
 25.Aposamatic coloration
Some animals protect themselves by being dangerous or distasteful to predators by using
prominent coloration. These color patterns are known as warning or aposematic coloration.

The sharply contrasting white stripes of a skunk and bright colors of poisonous snakes give
similar messages

They flash a warning: “Eating me is risky.” Examples are brilliantly colored poisonous frogs is
another example

When a bird such as a blue jay eats a foul-tasting monarch butterfly it usually vomits and
learns to avoid them.

Biologist Edward O. Wilson Described two rules, based on coloration. These rules evaluate
possible danger from an unknown animal species we encounter in nature.

• First, if it is small and strikingly beautiful, it is probably poisonous.

• Second, if it is strikingly beautiful and easy to catch, it is probably deadly.

26.Chemical warfare
Chemical warfare is another common strategy to escape from predators.

Chemical warfare refers to use of chemical substance as a weapon for defence purpose.

Some predators use chemical warfare to attack their prey. For example, spiders and
poisonous snakes use venom to paralyze their prey and to deter their predators.

Some prey species discourage predators with chemicals that are poisonous (oleander
plants)and irritating (stinging nettles and bombardier beetles).

Bombardier beetle

Some possess foul smelling (skunks, skunk cabbages, and stinkbugs), or bad
tasting (buttercups and monarch butterflies). Foul tasting

monarch butterfly

When attacked, some species of squid and octopus emit clouds of black ink, allowing them to
escape by confusing their predators.

27 Commensalism or mutualism (5)

Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one member of the relationship benefits,
and the second is neither helped nor harmed.

In tropical forests certain kinds of silverfish insects move along with columns of army ants to
share the food obtained by the ants in their raids. The army ants receive no apparent harm or
benefit from the silverfish.

Epiphytic plants such as certain types of orchids and bromeliads attach themselves to the
trunks or branches of large trees in tropical and subtropical forests. These air plants benefit
by getting a solid base on which they grow.
They also live in an elevated spot that gives them better access to sunlight, water from the
humid air and rain, and nutrients falling from the tree’s upper leaves and limbs.

Their presence apparently does not harm the tree.

Mutualism
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship that benefits both members. In mutualism, two species
behave in ways that benefit both by providing each with food, shelter, or some other
resource.

For example, honeybees, caterpillars, butterflies, and other insects feed on a male flower’s
nectar, picking up pollen in the process, and then pollinating female flowers when they feed
on them.

In gut inhabitant mutualism, vast armies of bacteria in the digestive systems of animals help
to break down (digest) their hosts’ food. In turn, the bacteria receive a sheltered habitat and
food from their host.

Oxpeckers or tickbirds feed on parasitic ticks that infest large, thick skinned animals such as
the endangered black rhinoceros.

A clownfish gains protection and food by living among deadly stinging sea anemones and
helps protect the anemones from some of their predators.

Some other forms of

mutualism are, o Lichen

o Mycorrhizae o Root

nodules

28. Mimicery
Mimicry (L. mimus, to imitate) occurs when a species resembles one, or sometimes more
than one, other species and gains protection by the resemblance.

These six species of Heliconius are all distasteful to bird predators. A bird that consumes any
member of the six species is likely to avoid all six species in the future.

Some butterfly species, such as the non-poisonous viceroy, gain protection by looking
and acting like the monarch, a protective device known as mimicry. Viceroy butterfly
mimics

monarch butterfly. Some moths have wings that look like the eyes of much larger animals.
Hind wings o Io moth resembles eyes of a much larger animal. When touched, snake
caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake

29. Interaspecific competition and intraspecefic competition 5

Interspecific competition
All organisms require space and food for their survival. Requirement of both space and food
causes competition between the species as well as among the same species.

The competition between different species for purpose of space and food is called
Interspecific competition.
While competition within the same species is known as Intraspecific competition.

When members of different species compete for resources, one species may be forced to
move or become extinct, or the two species may share the resource and coexist.

Most studies have shown that competing species can coexist.

Coexistence can occur when species utilize resources in slightly different ways.

Robert MacArthur studied five species of warblers that all used the same caterpillar prey.

Warblers partitioned their spruce tree habitats by dividing a tree into preferred regions for
foraging. Although foraging regions overlapped, competition was limited, and the five species

30.green house effects (10)

Small amounts of certain gases, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), in the atmosphere play a role in determining the earth’s
average temperatures and its climates.

These greenhouse gases allow mostly visible light and some infrared radiation and ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun to pass through the atmosphere.

The earth’s surface absorbs much of this solar energy and transforms it to longer-wavelength
infrared radiation (heat), which then rises into the lower atmosphere.

Some of this heat escapes into space, but some is absorbed by molecules of greenhouse
gases and emitted into the lower atmosphere as even longer-wavelength infrared radiation.

Some of this released energy radiates into space, and some warms the lower atmosphere and
the earth’s surface. This natural warming effect of the troposphere is called the greenhouse
effect.

Causes of Greenhouse effect

Human activities such as,

▪ Burning

fossil fuels

▪Deforestatin

▪ Growing crops release carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.

31.Effects of water pollution 5

▪ Food chain imbalance

▪ Diseases

▪ Death of living organisms

▪ Loss of vegetation

▪ Habitat loss

▪ Ecosystem destruction

32.importance of biodiversity (5 marks)

Biodiversity performs important biological services.

• ➢ Regulation of Climate
• ➢ Soil formation and protection
• ➢ Water resources protection
 • ➢ Education and scientific value
• ➢ Recreation and ecotourism
• ➢ Pollution breakdown and absorption
• ➢ Economic value
• Regulation of Climate
Undisturbed forests maintain the rainfall in their immediate environment by contributing to
the hydrological cycle.

Soil formation and protection

Biodiversity plays an important role in the formation of soil and the maintenance of soil
structure and the retention of moisture and nutrient levels.

Water resources protection

Natural vegetative cover in watersheds protects ecosystems from extreme events such as
flood and drought, and regulates and stabilizes water runoff thereby maintaining water cycles
and water quality.

Education and scientific value

The natural environment has been the basis for many books, television programs and movies
produced for entertainment and educational purposes, as well as in scientific ecological
observations.

Recreation and ecotourism

The natural environment is used for recreation through activities, such as hiking, bird
watching, nature walks and SCUBA diving. Ecotourism, as an industry, is growing rapidly in
many developing countries.

Pollution breakdown and absorption

Ecosystems and ecological processes play an important role in the breakdown and absorption
of many pollutants created by humans and their activities. Some such pollutants are garbage
sewage and oil spills.

Economic value

• Goods

• Food

• Wood and Forest Products

33.Camouflage, biom, pollution (3 marks)

Camouflage is a kind of coloration or patterns that help an animal to appear to blend
with its surroundings.

Many prey species use the camouflage (the ability to change color) of certain shapes or colors
or (chameleons and cuttlefish).

Cryptic coloration (L. crypticus, hidden) is a type of camouflage that occurs when an animal
takes on color patterns in its environment to prevent the animal from being seen by other
animals.

The color pattern of this tiger (Panthera tigris) provides effective camouflage that helps when
stalking prey.

Praying mantises sit in flowers of a similar color and ambush visiting insects.
Some insect species have shapes that make them look like twigs ,bark, thorns, or even bird
droppings on leaves.

A leaf insect can be almost invisible against its background, as can an arctic hare in its white
winter fur.

bioms
A large regional community is known as biome. Each biome is differentiated from one
another on the base of,

Plants

Animals

Climate

Pollution is anything in the environment that is harmful to the health, survival, or

activities of humans or other organisms.

Pollution is any detrimental change in an ecosystem.

Most kinds of pollution are the results of human activities. Large human populations and
demands for increasing goods and services contribute to pollution problems.

Pollutants can enter the environment naturally through,

34.community and factors of genetic diversity

Genetic Diversity is the variety of genetic material within a species or a population. Each
species is made up of individuals that have their own particular genetic composition. This
means a species may have different populations, each having different genetic compositions.

35.differences between autogenic and allogeneic succession

Autogenic succession

 In autogenic succession the successional process

 is controlled by living or biotic component of an

 ecosystem

Allogenic succession

 The entire successional process is controlled by

 non living or abiotic components of ecosystem.

 Ecological succession is a process of gradual changes that causes the plants, animals,
fungi and microorganism to become established in an area.

36.define parasitism,
Parasitism is a kind of association in which one organism called parasite lives on the expense
of other organism, called a host. The host usually survives at least long enough for the
parasite to complete one or more life cycles.

Unlike the typical predator, a parasite usually is much smaller than its host and rarely kills its
host. Most parasites remain closely associated with their hosts. They draw nourishment from
host, and may gradually weaken them over time.

37.difference of landscape ecology , and urban ecology

• “Landscape ecology is concerned with spatial patterns in the landscape and how they
develop, with an emphasis on the role of disturbance, including human impacts” (Smith and
Smith).

• It is a relatively new branch of ecology, that employs Global Information Systems.

• The goal is to predict the responses of different organisms to changes in landscape, to

ultimately facilitate ecosystem management.

Urban ecology

• For ecologists, urban ecology is the study of ecology in urban areas, specifically
the relationships, interactions, types and numbers of species found in urban
habitats. • Also, the design of sustainable cities, urban design programs that
incorporate political, infrastructure and economic considerations.

38.industrial ecology
• The design of the industrial infrastructure such that it consists of a series of
interlocking "technological ecosystems" interfacing with global natural ecosystems.

• Industrial ecology takes the pattern and processes of natural ecosystems as a design
for sustainability. It represents a shift in paradigm from conquering nature to becoming
nature.

39.how domestic waste is collected and disposed

Domestic wastes are collected in small bins, which are then transferred to community
bins by private or municipal workers. From these community bins, these are collected
and carried to the disposable site.

At the site, garbage is sorted out and separated into biodegradable and
nonbiodegradable materials.

Non-biodegradable materials such as plastic, glass, metal scraps etc. are sent for
recycling. Biodegradable wastes are deposited in land fills and are converted into
compost.

The waste if not collected in garbage bins, finds its way into the sewers. Some of it is
eaten by cattle. Non-biodegradable wastes like polythene bag, metal scraps, etc. if
swallowed by cattle can cost their lives.

All domestic wastes should be properly collected and disposed. The poor management causes
health problems leading to epidemics due to contamination of ground water. It is especially
hazardous for those who are in direct contact with the waste

40..difference between hibernation and winter sleep

True hibernation occurs in small animals in which temperature substantially falls to remain
alive in cold environment. Animals remain inactive for weeks or even for months.

Hibernation in large animals like bears is termed as winter sleep.

Body temperature does not falls substantially and sleeping animals can wake and active
quickly.

It lasts for short period of time.

Large animals have more energy reserves that enables them to survive in winter.

41.phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus circulates through water, the earth’s crust, and living organisms in the
phosphorus cycle.

In contrast to the cycles of water, carbon, and nitrogen, the phosphorus cycle does not
include the atmosphere. The major reservoir for phosphorous is phosphate salts containing
phosphate ions (PO4−3) in terrestrial rock formations and ocean bottom sediments. The
phosphorus cycle is slow compared to the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.

Phosphorous is a component of biologically important molecules such as,

1. Nucleic acids
2. Energy transfer molecules (ADP and ATP)
3. Vertebrate bones and teeth.

As water runs over exposed phosphorus containing rocks, it slowly erodes away inorganic
compounds that contain phosphate ions (PO4−3) .

The dissolved phosphate can be absorbed by the roots of plants and by other producers.

Phosphate can be lost from the cycle when it washes from the land into streams and rivers
and is carried to the ocean. In oceans it can be deposited as marine sediment and remain
trapped for millions of years.

Someday, geological processes may uplift and expose these seafloor deposits, from which
phosphate can be eroded to start the cycle again.

Because most soils contain little phosphate, it is often the limiting factor for plant growth on
land unless phosphorus (as phosphate salts mined from the earth) is applied to the soil as an
inorganic fertilizer

42.define cryptic colouration

Cryptic coloration (L. crypticus, hidden) is a type of camouflage that occurs when an animal
takes on color patterns in its environment to prevent the animal from being seen by other
animals.

The color pattern of this tiger (Panthera tigris) provides effective camouflage that helps when
stalking prey.

Praying mantises sit in flowers of a similar color and ambush visiting insects.

Some insect species have shapes that make them look like twigs ,bark, thorns, or even bird
droppings on leaves.

A leaf insect can be almost invisible against its background, as can an arctic hare in its white winter fur.

43.What is El-nino effect?

Another type of short-term climate change is the so-called El Nino effect, which occurs every
2 to 7 years around Christmas time, when the typical weather pattern in the Pacific Ocean
breaks down.

The trade winds weaken, and low pressure establishes itself in the central Pacific. It causes
the winds to blow into the Pacific Basin from the west.

This change causes warm surface water to move toward South and Central America, reversing
the directions of some currents and placing warm water along the coasts.

The warm water produces heavy rain over the coastal deserts, subjecting them to disastrous
flooding and erosion. The western United States also experiences major flooding events as a
result of El Nino.

1. This temporary influx of rain on arid and semiarid regions creates the conditions for
disastrous down slope movements in the form of mud slides, destroying entire villages.
2. One result of this temporary climate change is the occurrence of major brush fires,
which destroy not only vegetation but also wild and domestic animals.

3. Shifts in warm water in the southern Pacific and Indian Oceans cause cooler water to
move along the coast of Australia, resulting in decreased rainfall.

4. The warm water El Nino brings to the coasts of North and South America substantially
reduces the upwelling of cold, deep water, adversely affecting the cold water fisheries.

44.Name two types of symbiosis. (2)

o Commensalism

o Mutualism

45.What is greenhouse effect? (3)

Small amounts of certain gases, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), in the atmosphere play a role in determining the earth’s
average temperatures and its climates.

These greenhouse gases allow mostly visible light and some infrared radiation and ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun to pass through the atmosphere.

The earth’s surface absorbs much of this solar energy and transforms it to longer-wavelength
infrared radiation (heat), which then rises into the lower atmosphere.

Some of this heat escapes into space, but some is absorbed by molecules of greenhouse
gases and emitted into the lower atmosphere as even longer-wavelength infrared radiation.

Some of this released energy radiates into space, and some warms the lower atmosphere and
the earth’s surface. This natural warming effect of the troposphere is called the greenhouse
effect.

46..Difference between biodegradable and non degradable

pollutants. (5)
Biodegradable pollutants are harmful materials that can be broken down by natural
processes. Examples are human sewage and newspapers.

Non-degradable pollutants are harmful materials that natural processes cannot break down.

Examples are toxic chemical elements such as lead, mercury, and arsenic

47..What are the causes of loss in genetic diversity ? 10 marks

Loss of genetic diversity
Two ways of losing it

• Loss of genetic diversity in small populations,

• Changes in the natural distribution of genetic diversity among populations (artificial

isolation and mixing)

• Population size critical factor,

• Census population size (Nc) vs. Effective population size (Ne), Usually Ne is much smaller
that Nc (10 to 30%)

178-Factors responsible for genetic diversity loss

Four factors responsible for genetic diversity loss in small populations :

2. Genetic drift,
 3. Founder effect,
4. Demographic bottleneck,
5. Inbreeding

• Genetic drift

• " Random change in gene frequency within a population" (Meffe et al.),

• Not necessarily adaptive, Stronger in small populations

• Founder effect,

• "The establishment of a new population by a few original founders which carry only a small
fraction of the total genetic variation of the parental population." (Ernst Mayr), Alleles may
be lost, Differentiation from the parental population, Example: Irish Potato Famine

Four factors responsible for genetic diversity loss in small populations

• Demographic bottleneck,

• Population suffers reduction in size and then recovers, Random losses of genetic diversity,

• Usually associated with catastrophic events or diseases,

• Genetic variation doesn't rebound from a decrease as quickly as population size.

• Inbreeding

• Inbreeding is breeding between close relatives,

• Leads to a reduction in genetic diversity (inbreeding depression: reduced health and fitness),

• The primary problem with inbreeding is that two closely related individuals are likely to have
very similar genomes, and if one individual has a gene for a given negative trait, then the
other is likely to have it as well., Inbreeding increases homozygosity (therefore decreases
heterozygosity)

The other way to loss genetic diversity:

• Changes in the natural distribution of genetic diversity among populations

• Related with the geographical distribution of the species and therefore with landscape
management issues

• Artificial isolation

• Avoids genetic flux among populations due to barriers such as highways, dams, etc

• Artificial mixing Enhances genetic flux among populations where that flux was not possible
due to natural barriers (examples: bridges, tunnels)

Allelic richness

• Allelic richness Is the number of alleles in a sample (population),

• Rare alleles are important during extreme environmental events,

• Loss of allelic richness is perhaps more serious than loss of quantitative variation because
alleles are lots forever while quantitative variation can be recovered,

• Rare alleles are more important that their frequency in the population

• Example: Peppered moth and pollution in Manchester, Small sized populations are more
prone to lose allelic richness

• 48.Genetic drift 2
• " Random change in gene frequency within a population" (Meffe et al.),

• Not necessarily adaptive, Stronger in small populations

49.Growth forms of Lichens 3
1. Crustose

2. Foliose

3. Fruticose

Crustose:
A type of lichen that form a flat crust on

the substratum and firmly attached to

substratum.

Foliose:

This type of lichens have flat leaf like structures and are attached to substratum by thread like
structures

Fruticose:

This type of lichens have erect filamentous like outgrowths and possess vertical pattern of
growth.

50.Effects of Air pollution 5

▪ Acid rain ▪ Greenhouse effect

▪ Global warming

▪ Ozone layer destruction

Acid rain or deposition

Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Sulfur
dioxide and water combine to produce sulfuric acid, which falls as acid deposition. Acid
deposition lowers the pH of lakes.

Greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide released from burning fuels accumulates in the atmosphere and prevent the
escape of heat coming from earth. This effect is termed as Greenhouse effect.

Global warming

Carbon dioxide reflects solar radiation back to the earth. This reflection of solar radiation is
predicted to cause an increase in world temperature, polar ice caps to melt, and ocean levels
to rise.

Ozone layer destruction

The release of chlorinated fluorocarbons from aerosol cans, air conditioners, and refrigerators
contributes to the depletion of ozone layer (the earth’s ultraviolet filter). It will increase the
chance of skin cancer.

When wastes and poisons enter food webs, organisms at the highest trophic levels usually
suffer the most.

The accumulation of matter in food webs is called biological magnification.

51.Keystone species 2
• A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on
community structure relative to its biomass or abundance.
• Keystone species differ from foundation species in two main ways: they are more
likely to belong to higher trophic levels (to be top predators), and they act in more diverse
ways than foundation species, which tend to modify their environment.

• Different sources use different definitions for keystone and foundation species. In
some sources, foundation species are viewed as a subcategory of keystone species.

52.Invasive species
Species whose populations have expanded dramatically and out-compete or displace native
species, potentially threatening the structure and function of intact ecosystems.

When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose ,
some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.

The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually to the extinction of
an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake.

The recent illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture
purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

A well-known example is the brown tree snake, which was introduced inadvertently on many
Pacific islands and subsequently caused the extinction of a number of native birds, bats and
lizards.

There appear to be three major stages in the process of invasion by exotic species:

• Dispersal

• Establishment

• Integration

• 53.Reforestation: 2
• Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed but was removed
at some point of time in the past.
• It is basically a rehabilitation process of forests.
• Reforestation may occur naturally in a deforested area.
• However, we can speed it up by planting trees with due consideration to biodiversity
that earlier existed in that area.

54.Strategy to Protect Ecosystems

Protecting and sustaining ecosystems and the biodiversity contained within them
than on saving individual species is a burning issue in all over the world.

Instead of preventing premature extinction of species, it is very important and

interesting to protect threatened habitats and ecosystem services.

This ecosystems approach generally would employ the following four point plan:

❖ Map global ecosystems and create an inventory of the species contained in each of
them and the ecosystem services they provide.

❖ Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis
on protecting plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.

❖ Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible.

❖ Make development biodiversity-friendly by providing significant financial

incentives (such as tax breaks and write-offs) and technical help to private
landowners who agree to help protect endangered ecosystems.
55.Major types of Mycorrhizae 3
1. Endomycorrhizas or Arbuscular mycorrhizas

2. Ectomycorrhizas

3. Ericoid mycorrhizas

56..Species richness
Species richness is the measure of number of species per unit area found in a particular site
or place. Species richness is a common measure of variety of life on earth.

Species abundance

Species abundance is the number of individuals per species, and relative abundance refers to
the evenness of distribution of individuals among species in a community.

Species evenness

Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species that
contribute to the richness of an area.

As species richness and evenness increase, species diversity also increases.

57.Types of nitrogen fixing bacteria

Azobactor

- Free living aerobic bacteria

Clostridium
- Free living anaerobic bacteria

Chlorobium

- Photosynthetic bacteria

Thiobacillus

- Chemosynthetic bacteria

Nostoc
- Blue green algae

A special vascular system develops in the host, supplying the products of photosynthesis to
the nodule tissue and carrying away fixed nitrogen compounds to other parts of the plant.
The nodule tissue provides shelter and carbon to bacteria.

This whole picture summarizes the process of nitrogen fixation.

58.Species hotspots
Species hotspots are geographic regions that support high level of species diversity.

Tropical rainforests are one of important species hotspots region in the world because they are home
to more than 50% species.+