S.

Type of Roof Live Load Measured on Minimum Live Load

No M i m u m Plan Measured on Plan
2) Sloping roof with slope 0.750 kIVm2 less 1kNlrn2 for
greater than 10 degrees every degree increase in
slope upto and including 20°, Subject to a minimum of
and 0.020 kN/m2 for every 0.400 kNm2
degree increase in slope over
I 20 degrees.

3) Curved roofs with slopes at (0.75 - 523) kNlm2 where

springing greater than 10 h
r= -
degrees L
h = the height of the highest
point of the structure
measured from its springing Subject to a minimum of
I = chord width of the roof if 0.400 kIVm2
singly covered & shortest of
the two sides, if doubly
covered

the roofs are given in Table 11.3 shall be considered separately and the more
critical of the two shall be adopted in the design.
14.4.3 Wind Load
The wind load is one of the most important loads that an engineer has to deal with
and is also most difficult to evaluate properly. The wind pressure on the structure
depends on the location of the structure, height of the structure above the G.L and
also on the shape of the structure and on wind velocity. The wind velocities (wind
speed) are measured by meteorological observatories with the help of instrument
known as anemometers.
~asilcWind Speed
The basic wind speed Vb is the wind speed measured in a 50 year return period.
The basic wind speed is based on peak gust velocity averaged over a short interval
of time of about 3 (three) seconds and it corresponds to mean heights above
ground level in an open terrain. As per IS : 875 (part 3-wind loads)-1987, six wind
zones have been formed which correspond to basic wind speed of 55, 50, 47, 44,
39 and 33 mlsec, respectively(
Design Wind Speed
The design wind speed is the wind speed for which the structure is to be designed.
The basic wind speed, Vb for any site is modified to include the effect of risk
level, terrain roughness, height and size of the structure, and local topography. It
may be mathematically expressed as under.

where, V, = design wind speed at any height Z in mlsec

K, = risk coefficient (probability fattor)
K2 = terrain, height and structure size factor
K3 = topography factor
1) Risk Coefficient, Kl
The risk factor K1 is based on statistical concept which takes into
consideration of the degree of reliability needed and period of time in years
during which these will be exposed to wind. The expressions given below
may be used in cases to estimate Kl factors for different periods of exposure
and chosen probability of exceedance. The probability level of 0.63 is
Steel Structures normally considered sufficient fbr the design of structures against wind
effects. The values of risk coefficient based on probability concepts are given
in Table 11.4(a).
Table 11.4(a)

Mean
S. K1 Factors for Basic Wind Speeds ( d s )
Class of Structure Life
No. (Years)
' 33 39 44 47 50 55

I) Temporary structures 5 0.82 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67

2) Structures presenting a low 25 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89

degree of hazard to life and
I
properly
3) All general buildings & 50 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
structures

4) Important buildings and 100 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08
structures

The values of K1 corresponding to this risk level are given below

where, N = mean probable design life of a structure in years

P , = risk level in N consecutive years. Normal value is 0.63
X50,0.63 = Extreme wind pressure for (N = 50 years and P, = 0.63)
The values of A and B coefficients for different basic wind speed zones.
Table 11.4(b)

Values Wind Zones of Speed ( d s e c )

of 33 39 44 47 50 55
-.

A 83.2 84.0 88.0 88.0 88.8 90.8

B 9.2 14.0 18.0 20.5 22.8 27.3

2) Terrain, Height and Structure Size Factor, K2

Terrain category means the charateristics of the surface irregulqrities of the
area which arise from natural features. They are numbered in t,.s increasing
order of roughness. Terrain are classified as follows:
a) Category 2
Open sea coasts and flat plains having no trees are included In this
category, in which the height of any object is less than 1.5 m above the
ground.
b) Category 2
Air fields, open park lands and undeveloped sparsely built-up outskirts of
towns, shrubs are included in this category. It also includes open land
adjacent to sea coast with scattered obstructions having heights between
1.5 m to 10 m above the ground surface.
 e) Category 3 R w f Trusses

Wooded areas, shrubs, towns, industrial areas full or partially developed

are included in this category. The terrains having numerous closely
spaced obstructions upto 10 m in height are included in this category.
d) Category 4
The terrain with numerous large high closed spaced structures and large
city centres are included in this category.
i) Class A : The structures or their components such as cladding,
glazing, roofing etc. having maximum (Hortver) dimensions is less
than 20 m above ground surface.

ii) Class B : The structures or their components having maximum

(Hotver) dimensions between 20 m and 50 m above ground surface.
iii) Class C : The structures or their components having maximum
(Hortver) dimensions more than 50 m above ground surface.
3) Topography Factor K3
The wind is assumed to be normal to the face of the structure. The
topography factor K3 is given by

For 3"<@<17";
c = 1.2 (Z/L) ;

For @ > 17"

where, @ = upward slope of the ground in the wind direction

S = a factor assumed
L = actual length of the upward wind slope in the direction of wind.
Z = effective height of the crest.
L, = effective horizontal length.
The effect of topography becomes significant at a site when the upward wind
slope, @ is more than 30°, and below that, the value of K3 may be taken equal to
unity. The value of K3 lies in the range of 1.0 to 1.36 for slopes greater than 3'.
For the design of all the structures within the effected zone (1.5 L, on the
windward side and 2.5 L, on the leeward side) has to be considered.

Design Wind Pressures

The design wind pressure, P, depends on the basic wind speed, Vbr the height of
the structure above ground level, the terrain categories, the local topography, the
aspect ratio (viz., length and breadth of the buildingtstructure), the shape of the
structure and the solidity ratio or openings in the structures. The design wind
pressure at any height above mean ground level shall be obtained from the
following expressions.
Steel SWuetums

where, V, is the design wind speed in mlsec at height z. This coefficient 0.6 (or
0.0006) (in S.1 units) in the above expressions depends on the number of factors
and mainly on the atmospheric pressure and air temperature.
Wind Forces on StructuresIBuildings
The pressure coefficients are always given for a particular surface of a building.
The wind load acting normal to the surface is determined by multiplying the area
of that surface or its appropriate portion by the pressure coefficient C,, and the
design wind pressure at the height of the surface from the ground,. The average
values of pressure coefficients are given for critical wind directions in one or more
quadrants. If considerable variation of pressures occurs over a surface, it has been
subdivided and the mean pressure coefficients are considered.
In, addition, the areas of high local section (negative pressure concentration)
frequently occurring near the edges of walls and roofs are separately noted. It is to
note that the pressure coefficients have been found from measurements on models
in wind tunnels, and the great majority of data available has been used in
conditions of relatively smooth flow.
Wind Force (Load) on Individual Members
In order to find the wind load on individual structural elements/members (e.g.,
roofs and walls, individual cladding units and their fittings, it is essential to
consider the pressure difference between the opposite faces of such elements. The
wind load, W Lacting in a direction normal to the individual element or cladding
unit may be determined from the following expression.

W L= (Cpe- C,,,) .A. Pd ...( 11.6)

where,
Cpe= external pressure coefficient

Cpi= internal pressure coefficient

A = surface area of structural element or cladding unit

P, = design wind pressure.

The total pressure on the walls or roofs of an industrial building will depend on
the external wind pressure and also on the internal wind pressure. The internal
wind pressure depends on the permeability of the structure. For structures having a
small degree of permeability the internal air pressure may be neglected. In case of
structures with normal permeability the internal pressure can be 1 0 . 2 P where '+'
indicates pressure and '-' section. 'p' is the basic wind pressure. If a structure has
openings larger than 20% of the wall area, the internal air pressure will be 1 0 . 5 ~ .
For buildings with small permeability pressure on wall = 0.5P
For buildings with normal permeability pressure on walls = 0.7P
For buildings with large openings.
Pressure on walls = P
When the wind blows parallel to a surface a wind force acts on surface in the
direction of the wind. This force is called the "wind drag." In the case of
industrial buildings. when the wind blows normal to the ridge, the wind drag is
equal to 0.05P measured on plan area of roof and when the direction of wind is
 -
parallel to the ridge, wind drag is equal to 0.025P measured on plan area of roof. Roof Trusses

11.4.4 Combination of Loads on Roof Trusses

A judicious combination of the working loads on roof trusses keeping in view the
possibility of (a) their action together and (b) their disposition in relation to other
loads ind the severity of stresses or deformations caused by the combination of
various loads is necessary to ensure the required safety and economy in the design
of roof trusses.
The forces in various members of the roof truss are determined for various

W ~ n ddrag on plan a r e 0
Direction of to be cons~deredf o r t h e s e
wind spans

Figure 11.3

combinations of loads in accordance with the stipulation in the relevant design

codes. In the absence of such recommendation, however, the following load
combinations given for general guidance on roof truss is used to determine the
maximum stress in the members of a truss.

i) Dead load + snow load it any

ii) Dead load + partial or full live load whichever causes the max stress
iii) Dead load + wind load + internal pressure
iv) Dead load + wind load + internal suction
The forces in roof truss may be found analytically or graphically by drawing force
diagram. A design table for forces in various members of the roof truss :is
prepared. In this design table, the forces in various members for different
combinations of loads are tabulated. The design forces for various'members of the
roof truss are noted.

11.5 DESIGN 0 3 PURLINS

Purlins are beams spanning between trusses. The term purlin is used to describe
beams in inclined roofs of various types at right angles to the slope of the roof and
are designed to support roof loads including wind pressure. The roofing is directly
attached to the top flange of the purlins by clips, screws etc. occasionally angles
are used as purlins(Figure 11.4).
Purlins are subjected to vertical loads due to dead load, live loads as well as forces
nonnal to the roof coverings due to wind pressures. Purlins thus are subjected to
biaxial bending. The vertical loads may be resolved in components parallel and
perpendicular to the roof slope. Moreover, the pulins are also subjected to torsion
about their longitudinal area due to the eccentricity of the same loads. This also
reduces their flexural capacity.
73
 I -
Principal
rafter '

in
L~PUIL Truss

Figure 11.4 : XX, YY are Principal Axes

11.5.1 Design of Angle Iron Purlins

If the slope of roof truss is not greater than 30' and steel is conforming to grades
Fe 410-0 or Fe 410-W, then, the angle purlins may be designed as an alternate to
the general design procedure, as recommended by IS : 800-1984. However, the
following requirements which are based on a maximum imposed load of
0.75 k ~ l m are
* fulfilled.
Step 1
The depth of angle purlin in the plane approximate to the incidence of the
maximum load is not less than (1145)th of the length of purlin.
Step 2
The width of angle purlin is not less than (1160)th of the length of purlin.
Knowing the depth of purlin, and width of purlin, a triangle section is
selected from IS1 Hand-bood No. 1.
Step 3
The maximum bending moment in a purlin is taken as

where,
W = Total uniformly distributed load on the purlin incllldir,g wind load, and
L = Distance centre to centre of the rafters
The loads are assumed as acting normal to the roof surface. The bending of
the purlin about the minor axis is neglected.
Step 4
The maximum bending stress calculated for M,,, should not exceed the
maximum permissible bending stress in compression or in tension. The design
of purlins takes into account the wind load. Therefore the permissible stresses
in bending in compression or tension are 1.33 times the usual permissible
values (viz., dead load plus live load, dead load plus half the live load) shall