A • A phase vector, or Phasor, is a

N Phasor representation of a sinusoidal function

T
E whose amplitude (A), frequency (ω), and
N phase (θ) are time-invariant.
N
A • A Phasor can be considered a vector
rotating about the origin in a complex
T
H plane.
E • The cosine function is the projection of
O
R the vector onto the real axis.
Y • Its amplitude is the modulus of the
&
D vector, and its argument is the total
E phase (ωt+θ).
S
I • The phase constant (θ) represents the
G angle that the vector forms with the real
N
axis at t = 0.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Euler's formula indicates that sinusoids can be represented
N
N mathematically as the sum of two complex-valued functions:
A

T
H
or as the real part of one of the functions:
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S An even more compact shorthand is angle notation:
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A ARRAY ANTENNA
T
H
E
O
Lecture #
R
Y
& Dr Sanjeev Kumar Mishra
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Introduction
T
E • In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas with very
N directive characteristics (very high gains) to meet the demands of long
N
A distance communication.
• Problem: Radiation pattern of a single element is relatively wide, and
T
H each element provides low values of directivity (gain).
E • Solution:
O
R • by increasing the electrical size of the antenna.
Y • Array Antenna: formed by multi-elements:
&
D • The individual elements of an array may be of any form (wires,
E apertures, etc.).
S
I • Uniform Array
G • Non-uniform Array
N
A
N
T
E
N • The total field of the array is determined by the vector addition of the
N fields radiated by the individual elements.
A
• depends on the separation between the elements.
T • To provide very directive patterns, it is necessary that the fields from the
H
E elements of the array interfere constructively (add) in the desired
O directions and interfere destructively (cancel each other) in the
R
Y remaining space.
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
• In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls that
N
N can be used to shape the overall pattern of the antenna.
A
• These are:
T • the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular,
H
rectangular, spherical, etc.)
E
O • the relative displacement between the elements [d]
R
• the excitation amplitude of the individual elements [an]
Y
& • the excitation phase of the individual elements
D
• the relative pattern of the individual elements
E
S
I
G
N
A
N N-element Array: Three Dimensional Characteristics
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A
where the an’s are the amplitude excitation coefficients and γ is the
T
H angle between the axis of the array (z-axis) and the radial vector from
E the origin to the observation point, that can be can be obtained from the
O
R dot product of a unit vector along the axis of the array with a unit vector
Y directed toward the observation point.
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Two-element Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Near-field observations
A
N
T
E The total field radiated by the two elements, assuming no coupling between
N the elements, is equal to the sum of the two and in the y-z plane i.e:
N
A

T
H
E
I0: Current amplitude
O
R l: length of the current element, : intrinsic impedance
Y
β is the difference in phase excitation between the elements or
&
D progressive phase shift.
E
Far field Consideration:
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I The characteristics of the array factor and total field of the array can be
G
controlled by varying the separation ‘d’ and or phase ‘’ between elements.
N
A
N
T
E Question 1: Find the nulls of the total field for a two element array when
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I The only null occurs at θ = 90 and is due to the pattern of the individual elements.
G The array factor does not contribute any additional nulls because there is not
N enough separation between the elements to introduce a phase difference of 180
between the elements, for any observation angle.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I Element, array factor, and total field patterns of a two-element array of
G infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with identical phase excitation (β = 0, d =
N
λ/4).
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D The element in the negative z-axis has an initial phase lag of 90 relative to the
E other element.
S As the wave from that element travels toward the positive z-axis (θ = 0 direction),
I it undergoes an additional 90 phase retardation when it arrives at the other
G element on the positive z-axis.
N Thus there is a total of 180 phase difference between the waves of the two
elements when travel is toward the positive z-axis (θ = 0).
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S The element at the positive z-axis has a phase lag of 90 relative to the other, and
I
the phase difference is 180 when travel is restricted toward the negative z-axis.
G
N There is no phase difference when the waves travel toward the positive z-axis.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Question 2: Consider an array of two identical infinitesimal dipoles
N oriented along z axis. For a separation d and phase excitation difference
N
A β between the elements, find the angles of observation where the nulls of
the array occur. The magnitude excitation of the elements is the same.
T
H Solution:
E
O To find the nulls, the field is set equal to zero, or
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N N-element Uniform Linear Array
T
An array of identical elements all of identical magnitude and each with a
E
N progressive phase is referred to as a uniform array.
N
A Far-field geometry of N-element
array of isotropic sources
T positioned along the z-axis
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Array Factor
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N If the reference point is the physical center of
the array, the array factor reduces to
A
N
T
E
N For small values of ψ, the
N above expression can be
A approximated by

T
To normalize the array factors so that the maximum value of each is
H
E equal to unity, Array Factor can be written as
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E For n = N, 2N, 3N, . . ., attains its maximum values because it reduces to a
S sin(0)/0 form.
I The values of n determine the order of the nulls (first, second, etc.).
G For a zero to exist, the argument of the arccosine cannot exceed unity.
N Thus the number of nulls that can exist will be a function of the element separation
d and the phase excitation difference β.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E For large values of d (d >>λ), it reduces to
S
I
For a symmetrical pattern, HPBW
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E For large values of d (d >>λ), it reduces to
S
I
G
N
A
N The maximum of the first minor lobe
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Thus the maximum of the first minor lobe of the array factor is 13.46 dB down from
the maximum at the major lobe.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Broadside Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Ordinary end-fire Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Broadside Array Vs Ordinary End-fire Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N APPLICATIONS
T
E • Most popularly used antennas for RADAR and Satellite are:
N
N • Dish Antenna: Parabolic Reflector Antenna
A • Array Antennas

T • Phased Arrays
H • Passive Phased Array Antennas
E
O • Active Phased array antennas
R • Linear Array
Y
& • Planar Array
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Antenna Architecture Comparison
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Phased (Scanning) Arrays
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E Basic principle of electronic scanning phased array operation:
O By controlling the progressive phase difference between the elements,
R
Y the maximum radiation can be squinted in any desired direction to form
& a scanning array.
D
E In phased array technology, the scanning must be continuous, the
S system should be capable of continuously varying the progressive
I
G phase between the elements.
N
A
N
T
E Ferrite phase shifters: For ferrite phase shifters, the phase shift is
N
N controlled by the magnetic field within the ferrite, which in turn is
A controlled by the amount of current flowing through the wires wrapped

T around the phase shifter.

H Diode phase shifter: using balanced, hybrid-coupled varactors, the
E
O actual phase shift is controlled either by varying the analog bias dc
R voltage (typically 0–30 volts) or by a digital command through a digital-
Y
& to-analog (D/A) converter.
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Directivity
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E The radiation intensity can be written as
N
N
A

T
H
E
O Umax is equal to unity and it occurs at θ = 90°. The average value U0 of
R the intensity reduces to
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Directivity: Ordinary End-fire Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Feed Networks
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Series Feed Networks
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Parallel Feed Networks
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Non-uniform Arrays
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Binomial Array
T
E Excitation coefficients are determined from a binomial series expansion,
N the array is known as a binomial array. [J. S. Stone]
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G The above represents Pascal’s triangle. If the values of m are used to represent the number
N of elements of the array, then the coefficients of the expansion represent the relative
amplitudes of the elements.
A
N Planar Arrays
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Directivity: Planar Arrays
T
E The directivity of the array factor AF(θ, φ) whose major beam is
N
pointing in the θ = θ0 and φ = φ0 direction, can be obtained by
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y Directivity of an array with bidirectional characteristics (two-sided pattern
&
D in free space) would be half the directivity of the same array with
E unidirectional (one-sided pattern) elements (e.g., dipoles over ground
S
I plane).
G
N
A
N Directivity: Planar Arrays
T
E For large planar arrays, which are nearly broadside, the directivity
N
reduces to:
N
A

T
where Dx and Dy are the directivities of broadside linear arrays each,
H
E respectively, of length and number of elements Lx, M and Ly, N.
O
The factor cos (θ0) accounts for the decrease of the directivity because
R
Y of the decrease of the projected area of the array.
&
D For most practical amplitude distributions, the directivity is related to the
E
S beam solid angle of the same array by
I
G
N
A
N Circular Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Circular Array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Array Factor
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E where Rn is the distance from the nth element to the observation point.
O
R
Y which for r >> a reduces to
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A
=excitation coefficients (amplitude and phase) of nth element
T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
Layout of 8x8 Elements Microstrip Array Antenna
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N 2Simulated Radiation Patterns of 8x8 Array Antenna
A
Layout of 16x8 Elements Microstrip Array Antenna
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
Layout of 16x16Elements Microstrip Array Antenna
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Measured E-Plane Radiation Patterns @ 20.25 GHz for 16x16 elements array antenna
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N High Gain antenna- FPC resonator
T
E
N Reflection coefficient of the PRS be
N ρ ejψ
A j
E   E  1   e n f ( )
n 2
0
T
2 2 2 L
H   2 L tan  sin   .   
1   cos
E 2 2 4 L
O   4 L tan  sin   .  2  2
2   cos
R
Y  4 
  n  n   .L cos     
n    1  2
&  E  E0 f ( )
1
D  ( e j n
) 
1  e j
1   2  2  cos

E n 0 1  2
S f 2 ( )
S 1    2  cos
2

I
G
N
A
N High Gain Antenna- Structures
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
90
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N  Gain increases with increase in
N superstrate resonant height and
A
number of superstrate layers.
T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
93
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
94
A
N Directional-antennas MSA array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I Low efficiency due to dielectric and line losses
G High cross-polar radiation due to the feed-line network.
N
95
A
N Reference
T
E
N 1. C A Balanis, Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 2005.
N 2. G S N Raju, Antennas and Wave Propagation, Pearson publication,
A
2005.
T 3. G Kumar and K P Ray, Broadband Microstrip Antenna, Arctech
H
E Publication, 2003.
O 4. R K Shevgaonkar, Electromagnetic Waves, 2006
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N