CHAPTER 5
Arrays
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Figure 1 Half-wave dipole array Figure 2 Flat microstrip array
antennas. antennas.
Figure 3 Parabolic array
antennas.
Figure 4 Helical array
antennas.
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Arrays
Usually, the radiation pattern of a single element is relatively
wide, and each element provides low values of directivity
(gain).
In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas with
very directive characteristics (very high gains) to meet the
demands of long-distance communication.
This can only be accomplished by increasing the electrical
size of the antenna.
Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more
directive characteristics.
Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without
necessarily increasing the size of the individual elements, is to form
an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical
configuration. This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is
referred to as an array.
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In most cases, the elements of an array are identical but it is
not necessary.
The individual elements of an array may be of any form (wires,
apertures, etc.).
The total field of the array is determined by the vector addition
of the fields radiated by the individual elements.
To provide very directive patterns, it is necessary that the
fields from the elements of the array interfere constructively
(add) in the desired directions and interfere destructively
(cancel each other) in the remaining space.
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In an array of identical elements, there are at least five
controls that can be used to shape the overall pattern of the
antenna.
These are:
1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array
(linear, circular, rectangular, spherical, etc.)
2. the relative displacement between the elements
3. the excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. the excitation phase of the individual elements
5. the relative pattern of the individual elements
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There are a plethora of antenna arrays used for personal,
commercial, and military applications utilizing different
elements including dipoles, loops, apertures, microstrips,
horns, reflectors, and so on.
The simplest and one of the most practical arrays is formed by
placing the elements along a line.
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Two Element Array
Let us assume that the antenna under investigation is an array
of two infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along the z-
axis, as shown in figure below
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The total field radiated by the two elements, assuming no
coupling between the elements, is equal to the sum of the two
and in the y-z plane it is given by
where β is the difference in phase excitation between the
elements.
The magnitude excitation of the radiators is identical.
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Assuming far-field observations and referring to figure 5.0(b),
The total field reduces to
It is apparent that that the total field of the array is equal to the field of a
single element positioned at the origin multiplied by a factor which is widely
referred to as the array factor. 9
Thus for the two-element array of constant amplitude, the
array factor is given by
which in normalized form can be written as
The array factor is a function of the geometry of the array and
the excitation phase.
Varying the separation and/or the phase β between the
elements, the characteristics of the array factor and of the
total field of the array can be controlled.
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It has been illustrated that the far-zone field of a uniform two-
element array of identical elements is equal to the product of
the field of a single element, at a selected reference point
(usually the origin), and the array factor of that array.
That is,
This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of
identical elements,
Each array has its own array factor. The array factor, in
general, is a function of the number of elements, their
geometrical arrangement, their relative magnitudes, their
relative phases, and their spacing.
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Figure 6.3 Element, array factor, and total field patterns of a two-element array of infinitesimal
horizontal dipoles with identical phase excitation 𝛽 = 0°, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4 .
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Figure 6.4 Pattern multiplication of element, array factor, and total array patterns of a two-
element array of infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with 𝛽 = 90°, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4.
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Figure 6.4 Pattern multiplication of element, array factor, and total array patterns of a two-element
array of infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with 𝛽 = −90°, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4.
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N-Element Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude
and Spacing
An array of identical elements, all of identical magnitude and
each with a progressive phase is referred to as a uniform
array
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Referring to the geometry of Fig 5.1, let us assume that all the
elements have identical amplitudes but each succeeding
element has a β progressive phase lead current excitation
relative to the preceding one (β represents the phase by which
the current in each element leads the current of the preceding
element).
The array factor can be obtained by considering the elements
to be point sources. If the actual elements are not isotropic
sources, the total field can be formed by multiplying the array
factor of the isotropic sources by the field of a single element.
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The array factor is given by
which can be written as
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Since the total array factor for the uniform array is a summation
of exponentials, it can be represented by the vector sum of N
phasors each of unit amplitude and progressive phase ψ relative
to the previous one.
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The array factor can also be expressed in another way as
follows (i)
Multiplying both sides of by , it can be written as
(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) reduces to
which can also be written as
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If the reference point is the physical center of the array, the
array factor reduces to
The normalized array factor is
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The nulls of the array function are found by determining the
zeros of the numerator term where the denominator is not
simultaneously zero.
The values of n determine the order of the nulls (first, second,
etc.).
The maximum values of AF occur when
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Broadside Array
In many applications, it is desirable to have the maximum
radiation of an array directed normal to the axis of the array
[ ]
To optimize the design, the maxima of the single element and
of the array factor should both be directed toward
The requirements of the single elements can be accomplished
by the judicious choice of the radiators and those of the array
factor by the proper separation and excitation of the individual
radiators.
The first maximum of the array factor occurs when
Since it is desired to have the first maximum directed toward
, then 22
Thus to have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform
linear array directed broadside to the axis of the array, it is
necessary that all the elements have the same phase excitation
(in addition to the same amplitude excitation).
The separation between the elements can be of any value.
To ensure that there are no principal maxima in other
directions, which are referred to as grating lobes, the separation
between the elements should not be equal to multiples of a
wavelength
i
The value of makes the array factor attain its maximum
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value
One of the objectives in many designs is to avoid multiple
maxima, in addition to the main maximum, which are
referred to as grating lobes.
Often it may be required to select the largest spacing
between the elements but with no grating lobes.
To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the
elements should be less than one wavelength
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Ordinary End-Fire Array
Maximum radiation is directed along the axis of the array
(end-fire).
As a matter of fact, it may be necessary that it radiates toward
only one direction (either 0 0 or 180 )
0 0
To direct the first maximum toward 0 00
If the first maximum is desired toward 0 180
0
Thus end-fire radiation is accomplished when
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Phased (Scanning) Array
The maximum radiation can be oriented in any direction to
form a scanning array.
Let us assume that the maximum radiation of the array is
required to be oriented at an angle
To accomplish this, the phase excitation β between the
elements must be adjusted so that
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Thus by controlling the progressive phase difference between
the elements, the maximum radiation can be squinted in any
desired direction to form a scanning array.
This is the basic principle of electronic scanning phased array
operation.
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