DEFINITION of TERMS

➢ SURVEYING – the art and science of determining angular and linear

measurements to establish the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines,
and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on extraterrestrial bodies through
applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques.

➢ PLANE SURVEYING – is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered

to be a flat surface, and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent
that the exact shape of the earth is disregarded.

➢ GEODETIC SURVEYING – are surveys of wide extent which take into account
the spheroidal shape of the earth.

➢ CADASTRAL SURVEYS – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in

urban and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property
lines and boundaries, corners, and areas.

➢ CITY SURVEYS – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of
planning expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of the land and
preparing maps.

➢ CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS – these are surveys which are undertaken at a

construction site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions,
ground configuration, and the location and elevation of structures which are of
concern to engineers, architects, and builders.

➢ FORESTRY SURVEYS – a type of survey executed in connection with forest

management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest
lands.

➢ HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS – refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs,

harbors, oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map
shorelines, chart the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the
flow of streams.

➢ INDUSRTIAL SURVEYS – sometime known as optical tooling. It refers to the use

of surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft,
layout and installation of heavy and complex machineries, and in other industries
where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.

➢ MINE SURVEYS – are surveys which are performed to determine the position of
all underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface
boundaries of mining claims, determine geological formations, to calculate
excavated volumes, and establish lines and grades for other related mining
works.

➢ PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS – a type of survey which makes use of

photographs taken with specially designed cameras either from airplane or
ground stations.

➢ ROUTE SURVEYS – involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork

quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with planning,
design and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission
lines, and other linear projects.
 ➢ TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS – are those made for determining the shape of the
ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.

DEVELOPMENT of SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

➢ ASTROLABE - is an elaborate inclinometer, historically used by astronomers

and navigators, to measure the inclined position in the sky of a celestial body,
day or night. It can thus be used to identify stars or planets, to determine local
latitude given local time and vice versa, to survey, or to triangulate. It was used
in classical antiquity, the Islamic Golden Age, the European Middle Ages and the
Renaissance for all these purpose.

Astrolabe was developed sometime in 140 B.C. The

instrument had a metal circle with a pointer hinged at
its center and held by a ring at the top, and cross staff,
a wooden rod about 1.25m long with an adjustable
cross-arm at right angles to it. The known length of the
arms of the cross staff allow distances and angles to
be determined by proportion. It was originally designed
for determining the altitude of stars.

➢ TELESCOPE – the invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to

Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations. However, it was only when cross hairs for fixing the line of sight
were introduced, that the telescope was used in early surveying instruments.

➢ TRANSIT – the invention of transit is credited to Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime in 1830. Both men were able to put
together in one instrument the essential parts of what has long been known as
the universal surveying instrument.
➢ SEMI-CIRCUMFERENTOR – an early surveying instrument which was used to
measure and lay off angles, and establish lines of sight by employing peep
sights.

➢ PLANE TABLE – one of the oldest type of surveying instruments used in field
mapping. It consists of a board attached in to a tripod in such a way that it can be
leveled or rotated to any desired direction.

➢ DIOPTRA – was perfected by Heron of Alexandria, was used in leveling and for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

➢ R
O
M
A
N

GROMA – used by the Romans as an instrument for aligning or sighting points.

➢ LIBELLA – the Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to be the first users of
Libella. The instrument had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from its
apex and was used to determine the horizontal. Archeologists are of the belief
that the horizontal foundations of the great pyramids of Egypt were probably
defined by this device.

➢ VERNIER – is a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an

instrument, by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or least division of
 the main scale can be determined precisely without having to interpolate. It was
invented in 1631 by a Frenchman name Pierre Vernier.

➢ DIOPTER – an instrument developed by the Greeks sometime in 130 BC, and

known to be their most famous surveying instrument. This was used for leveling,
laying off right angles, and for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

➢ COMPASS – the magnetic compass came into wide use during the 13 th century
for determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It
was first introduced for use in navigation.
➢ GUNTER’S CHAIN – was invented by Sir Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the
forerunner of instruments used for taping distances. It is 66 feet long and
contains 100 links, so that distances may be recorded in chains and in decimal
parts of the chain.

➢ CHOROBATES – this was designed for leveling work.

 ➢ MERCHET – was a device for measuring time and meridian. It was first used by
the Chaldeans in about 4000 BC.

LAB/FIELD WORK
RELATED DEFINITIONS:

• PACE – the length of a single step.

• PACING – consists of counting the number of steps in a required distance.

• STRIDE – two paces or a double step.

• PACE FACTOR – a value determined by dividing the measured or known length

of a line by the mean number of paces taken to walk or traverse the line.

• PACED DISTANCE – the length of a course as determined by pacing.

• TAPING – the process of measuring the length of a line or course with a tape.

• DISCREPANCY – in any measurement, is the difference between any two

measurements involving the same line or course.

• RELATIVE PRECISION of MEASUREMENT – a value determined by dividing

the discrepancy by the mean measured length and where the numerator is
reduced to unity or one.

• BREAKING TAPE – a procedure which involves the measurement of short

horizontal distances usually along uneven or sloping ground and accumulating
these distances to total full tape lengths.

Fig. 1.1 Length of a Pace.

Name: __________________________________ Date: __________
Year/Section: _____________________________

LAB EXERCISE No. 1

PROBLEM : PACING

OBJECTIVES : a) To determine individual pace factor.

b) To measure distance by pacing.

1. Determining Pace Factor.

DISTANCE NUMBER of MEAN No. PACE FACTOR

TRIAL LINE
(m) PACES of PACES (m/pace)
1 AB 124
2 BA 126
3 AB 100 122 124.2 0.81
4 BA 129
5 AB 120

2. Measuring Distance by Pacing.

NUMBER PACED TAPED RELATIVE

LINE MEAN
of PACES DISTANCE DISTANCE PRECISION

CD 100 PF x Mean
DC 105
106.6 90 1/(TD/D)
CD 114 86.346
DC 103 86.346
CD 111
Discrepancy = Absolute difference between Taped Distance and Paced Distance
D = TD - PD 3.654
RP 24.63054 1/25 24.630542
Computations:

1. Computing Pace Factor (PF):

a) Get the sum of the number of paces for the five trials performed on course AB
and then compute the mean number of paces.

b) Divide the known or taped length of course AB by the mean number of paces
for AB to determine the pace factor.

2. Computing Paced Distance (PD):

a) Get the sum of number of paces for the five trials performed on course CD
and compute the mean number of paces.

b) Multiply the mean number of paces for CD by the pace factor to obtain the
paced distance.

3. Computing Relative Precision (PR):

a) Determine the difference between the taped distance of CD and the paced
distance of CD.

b) Divide the difference by the taped distance of CD and reduced the numerator
to unity to determine the relative precision.

Remarks:

1. The accepted precision for measuring distance by pacing usually varies from
1/200 to 1/500.

2. If the computed relative precision of the set of measurements is greater than one
part in two hundred (i.e. >1/200), the measurement should be repeated.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS

➢ Measurement – is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a

quantity in comparison to a given standard.

➢ Direct Measurements – is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard

measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind.

➢ Indirect Measurements – when it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

directly to a quantity to be measured. In this type of measurement, the observed
value is determined by its relationship to some other known values.

Units of Measurements

1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements – common units for length are
kilometer, meter, centimeter and millimeter; for areas, square meter,
hectares (though not an SI unit) for large land areas; and for volumes
cubic meter, liter or milliliter

2. Angular Measurements – SI units for plane angles is the radian, which is

defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a circular having a length
equal to the radius of the circle. (2π rad = 360 deg)

3. Sexagesimal Units – the sexagesimal units of angular measurement are

the degree, minute, and second.

4. Centesimal Units – the Middle East use the centesimal system where the
grad is the angular unit.

➢ Surveying Field Notes – constitute the only reliable and permanent record of
actual work done in the field.

➢ Types of Notes:

1. Sketches – this helps to convey a correct impression, drawn freehand and

liberal size, where many features may be readily shown by conventional
symbols.

2. Tabulations – tabulated form of note keeping conveys the required

information in a simple and definite manner. However, in other types of
surveys, the data may be of such varying character that they cannot be
advantageously tabulated, but must be shown on a sketch or sketches.

3. Explanatory Notes – provides a written description of what has been done

in the field.

4. Computations – calculations of one kind or another form a large part of the

work of surveying.

5. Combination of the above

➢ Information Found in Field Notebook:

1. Title of the Fieldwork or Name of Project

2. Time of Day and Date

 3. Weather Conditions

4. Names of Group Members and their Designations

5. List of Equipment

➢ The Field Survey Party:

1. Chief of Party 8. Rear Tape man

2. Assistant Chief of Party 9. Flagman
3. Instrument man 10. Rodman
4. Technician 11. Pacer
5. Computer 12. Axe man/ Lineman
6. Recorder 13. Aid man
7. Head Tape man 14. Utility men

➢ Errors – is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity. This is inherent in all measurements and result from sources
which cannot be avoided.

➢ Mistakes – are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect

of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution.

➢ Types of Errors:

1. Systematic Errors – is one in which will always have the same sign and
magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged.

2. Accidental Errors – are purely accidental in character, caused by factors

beyond the control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying
measurements
 ➢ Sources of Errors:

1. Instrumental Errors – are due to the imperfections in the instruments used,

either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to their use.

2. Natural Errors – are cause by variations in the phenomena of nature such

as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction, gravity, and curvature of the earth.

3. Personal Errors – arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight,

touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous
or inaccurate.

MEASUREMENT of HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

➢ Distance by Pacing

➢ Distance by Taping – is a form of direct measurement which uses a graduated

tape either made up of steel or fiber glass.

➢ Distance by Tacheometry – is based on the optical geometry of the instrument

employed and is an indirect method of measurement.

1. Stadia Method – the precision of this depends upon the following factors:
a) the refinement with which the instrument was manufactured, b) the skill
of the observer, c) the length of measurement, and d) the effects of
refraction and parallax.

2. Subtense Bar Method – involves the determination of distance by setting

up a subtense bar horizontally at a distant station, and measuring the
horizontal angle subtended by the distance between two targets by a
theodolite.

➢ Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Method – unknown distances may be

determined through their relationship with known distances geometrically,
example determining distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs.

➢ Distance by Mechanical Device:

1. Odometer – a device that can be attached to wheel and then rolled over
the distance to be measured.

2. Measuring Wheel – is very like an odometer except that it is a more

portable and self-contained measuring device.

3. Optical Rangefinder –

➢ Distance by Photogrammetry – refers to the measurement of images on a

photograph.
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

The development of electronic distance measurement (EDM) has developed a

significant advantage in surveying instrumentation and technique. These electronic
instruments allow a rapid and accurate determination of linear distances, horizontal and
vertical angles suitable even for large extent surveys requiring higher orders of
precision.

Electronic distance measuring instrument is a surveying instrument for

measuring distance electronically between two points through electromagnetic waves.
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between
two points, using phase changes, that occur as electromagnetic energy waves travels
from one end of the line to the other end. As a background, there are three methods of
measuring distance between two points:

1. DDM or Direct distance measurement – This is mainly done by chaining or

taping.

2. ODM or Optical distance measurement – This measurement is conducted

by tachometry, horizontal subtense method or telemetric method. These are
carried out with the help of optical wedge attachments.

3. EDM or Electromagnetic distance measurement – The method of direct

distance measurement cannot be implemented in difficult terrains. When
large amount of inconsistency in the terrain or large obstructions exist, this
method is avoided.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT

EDM instruments are classified based on the type of carrier wave as

1. Microwave Instruments

These instruments make use of microwaves. Such instruments were invented as

early as 1950 in South Africa by Dr. T.L. Wadley and named them as Tellurometers.
The instrument needs only 12 to 24 V batteries. Hence, they are light and highly
portable. Tellurometers can be used in day as well as in night.

The range of these instruments is up to 100 km. It consists of two identical units.
One unit is used as master unit and the other as remote unit. Just by pressing a button,
a master unit can be converted into a remote unit and a remote unit into a master unit. It
needs two skilled persons to operate. A speech facility is provided to each operator to
interact during measurements.

2. Infrared Wave Instruments

In this instrument amplitude modulated infrared waves are used. Prism reflectors
are used at the end of line to be measured. These instruments are light and economical
and can be mounted on theodolite. With these instruments accuracy achieved is ± 10
mm. The range of these instruments is up to 3 km.

These instruments are useful for most of the civil engineering works. These
instruments are available in the trade names DISTOMAT DI 1000 and DISTOMAT DI
55.
3. Visible Light Wave Instruments

These instruments rely on propagation of modulated light waves. This type of

instrument was first developed in Sweden and was named as Geodimeter. During night,
its range is up to 2.5 km while in day its range is up to 3 km. Accuracy of these
instruments varies from 0.5 mm to 5 mm/km distance. These instruments are also very
useful for civil engineering projects.

MEASURING TAPES

The following are some of the commonly used types of measuring tapes:

1. Steel Tape 6. Fiber Glass Tape

2. Metallic Tape 7. Wires
3. Non-Metallic Tape 8. Builder’s Tape
4. Invar Tape 9. Phosphor- Bronze tape
5. Lovar Tape 10. Nylon coated Steel Tape

The following are the different taping accessories used in taping distance:

1. Range Pole – also known as flags or lining rods, are used as temporary signals
to indicate the location of points or the direction of lines, and to mark alignment.

2. Tape Clamping Handle – with its scissor-type handle, tape clamps are used to
apply tension with a quick grip on any part of a steel tape without causing
damage to the tape or hands of the tape-man.

3. Chaining Pins – are sometimes called surveyor’s arrows or pins, stuck in the
ground to mark the ends of measured tape lengths or partial tape lengths.

4. Tension Handle – also referred as spring scale, used at one end of a tape for
insuring the application of the correct amount of pull on the tape during the
measurement.

5. Tape Thermometer – in precision taping, thermometers are used to determine

the temperature of the air and the approximate temperature of the tape during
measurement.

6. Plumb Bob – are used for projecting the tape ends to the ground when the tape
must be suspended above the measured lines.

7. Wooden Stake or Hub – used to mark points, corners or station grounds.

8. Leather Tongs – attached to a ring located near the zero-meter mark of the tape
to provide comfortable grip on the tape when measuring.

9. Hand Level or Clinometer – simply a hand level adapted for measuring vertical
angles.

10. Tape Repair Kit – allow emergency repairs to be made on damaged or broken
tapes during taping.

11. Crayons – used for marking points, corners, or stations by indicating cross-marks
on paved roads, sidewalks, or walls.
 SURVEYS
with TAPE

The
tape is not
necessarily
limited only
to the
measuremen
t of
distances. There are various problems
arising in surveying fieldwork which ca
be solved just using a tape. Some of these surveying operations include the following:

1. Laying / Measurement of angles by tape.

As an example, the angle between two sides of a field is to be determined as

shown. The procedure is as follows:

From the figure, measure and mark with stakes a convenient distance, say 50-m
each along line OA and OB. The points at O, A and B are marked by range poles in
order to have a straight line of sight. Measure the distance between CD and locate the
mid-point E. The angle is then determined by using the sine function and trigonometric
table or calculator.
Let us say, distance CE is 25 m; then,
Locate the angle with Sin = 0.5 from the table or by
calculator, which is 30°

therefore, angle 0 = 30° × 2 = 60°

Laying of an Angle using Chord Length

Another situation is how to establish a perpendicular line to either of

the two lines OA and AB to make a right triangle (Fig. 3.9). The angle is
determined by taking the necessary measurements in order to use the sine
or tangent function. However, the above method is slightly quicker than this.
 Laying off an Angle using Perpendicular Line

2. Laying out perpendicular lines

For example, it is desired to layout the centerline of dike CD (Fig. 3.13) perpendicular to
dike AB at point D.

The 3-4-5 method in laying out perpendicular lines

(a) The 3-4-5 method. It is a common knowledge that a right triangle is one whose sides
are in the proportion of triangle, with shorter sides 3 and 4 perpendicular to each other
while the longest side 5 is the hypotenuse. To lay out the perpendicular lines AB and
CD using the same principle, the procedure is as follows:

(i) One tape length of 100 m is convenient to use such that the 0, 15, 35, and 60-m
graduation marks can be held as a loop in one set-up.

(ii) Three men have to do the work. First man holds the zero and 60-m graduation of the
tape, the second man, the 15-m and the third, the 35-m mark.
(iii) The tape is held tight enough, and the first and second men are aligned along AB
while the third man adjusts himself as necessary to keep the tape stretched.

(iv) The points D and C are then marked and extended.

(v) This can be checked by using larger proportions of distance such as 30, 40 and 50m

The Chord-Bisection Method

(i) From Fig. 3.14 measure equal distance of 30 m from both sides of point D.

(ii) While one man holds the tape at 0, another man describes an arc using, say a full
tape length of 50 m.

(iii) The procedure in (ii) is repeated at point 0'.

(iv) Point C is located by the two intersecting lines. Line CD is then perpendicular to AB.
3. Determining Obstructed Distances

AB = √(AC2 + BC2)

AB/BD = BD/BC or
AB =(BD2 /BC)

Lines AC and BC are laid out

and measured
Points C and E are established
such that CD = ½(AC) and CE
= ½(BC)
With DE, parallel to AB, hence
AB = 2(DE)
LAB EXERCISE No. 2

PROBLEM : DETERMINING AREA OF A RECTILINEAR FIELD BY TAPE

OBJECTIVES : a) To learn how to measure horizontal angles with tape.

b) To determine the area of a rectilinear field with tape.

LAB EXERCISE OUTLINE

A. INSTRUMENTS and ACCESSORIES: Tape, Chaining Pins

B. PROCEDURE:

1. Establish the corners of the assigned filed and establish within the field a
centrally-located point.
2. Subdivide the field into a convenient series of connected triangles (refer to figure
shown). Use chaining pins to mark the vertices of each triangle. Call these A, B,
C, D and E.
3. From the centrally-located point, measure distances to each point defining the
corners or vertices of each triangle. Call these distances d 1, d2, d3, d4, and d5.
4. Using the chord method of measuring angles by tape, determine all the angles
about the central point, i.e., Ø1, Ø2, Ø3, Ø4, and Ø5.
5. Refer to the accompanying sample tabulation for the recording of observed field
data.

C.
COM
PUT
ATIO
NS:

1. D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
i
n
g

V
a
l
u
es of Included Angles.
 Included Chord Length of Computed Adjusted
Correction
Angle Distance Side Angle Angle
Ø1
Ø2
Ø3
Ø4
Ø5

2. Determining Area of Each Triangle

A= (1/2) *a*b*Sin C Where:

A1 = area of triangle
a,b = the two measured sides of the
triangle (or d1, d2, d3, etc.)
C = included angle (or Ø1, Ø2, Ø3, etc)

Sides
Triangle Included Angle Area
1st 2nd
ABF
BCF
CDF
DEF
AEF

3. Calculating the Total Area

A (total) = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5

D. REMARKS, HINTS and PRECAUTIONS

1. Determining areas of rectilinear fields by tape is a slow process and is not

advisable when large areas are involved.

2. This method of field survey was widely used before instruments for measuring
angles were built.
3. The accuracy of the values obtained by this procedure is dependent on the size
of the angle, on the care on which the points are set on the line, and on the
accuracy of the measured lengths.
4. Experience will show that with reasonable care value of angle determined by
tape measurements would agree with the value obtained with a transit within one
to three minutes.

5. All distances from the centrally-located point of the field to the different corners
should be measured twice and the mean recorded as its actual length.
MEASUREMENT of VERTICAL DISTANCES

LEVELING

Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to

determine the elevations of points or their differences in elevations.

DEFINITION of TERMS

➢ Level Surface – is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the

direction of gravity or the plumb line.

➢ Level Line – is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal to
the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.

➢ Horizontal Surface – is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a point and is

also perpendicular to the plumb line at that point.

➢ Horizontal Line – a straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level

line at one point.

➢ Vertical Line – a vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of
gravity.

➢ Mean Sea Level – is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway between
high and low tides and is taken as the reference surface to which most elevations
are referred.

➢ Datum – is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea
level to which elevations of areas are referred.

➢ Elevation – for a point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below mean
sea level or any other selected datum.

➢ Difference in Elevation – between two points is the vertical distance between the
level surfaces in which the points lie.

LEVELING METHODS

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – is the commonly employed method of determining the

elevation of points some distance apart by a series of set ups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route.

2. Reciprocal Leveling – is the process of accurately determining the differences in

elevation between two inter-visible points located at a considerable distance
apart and between which points leveling could not be performed in the usual
manner.

3. Profile Leveling – is used to determine differences in elevations between points

at a designated short measured interval along an established line to provide data
from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.

4. Trigonometric Leveling – is employed in determining by trigonometric

computations the difference in elevations between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between
the points.
 5. Stadia Leveling – combines features of direct leveling with those of trigonometric
leveling.

6. Barometric Leveling – involves the determination of difference in elevations

between points by measuring the variation in atmospheric pressure at each point
by means of a barometer.

7. Cross-Section Leveling – applied in railroad or highway construction where a

representation of the ground surface on either side of the centerline is necessary.

8. Barrow-Pit Leveling – is a method of determining the relative elevation of points

in borrow pit excavations for calculating the volumes of earthworks.

TYPES of LEVELS

a. Dumpy Level

b. Wye Level
c. Builder’s Level

d. Automatic Level

e. Tilting Level

f. Geodetic Level
g. Transit as a Level
 h. Laser Level

i. Hand Level

LEVELING RODS

A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for measuring the vertical
distance between the line of sight through a leveling instrument and the point whose
elevation is either required or known.

1. Self-Reading Rod – can be read directly by the instrument man through the
telescope by noting the apparent intersection of the horizontal hair on the rod.

2. Target Rod – has a sliding target which is set and read by a rod man at the
position selected by the instrument man.
➢ Rod Level – is a device used for
fast and correct plumbing of a
leveling.

➢ Targets – is a small device attached to the rod when extremely long sights make
direct reading difficult or impossible.

➢ Telescope – of a surveying instrument is a metal tube containing a system of

lenses which are used to fix the direction of the line of sight and in magnifying the
apparent size of the object in its field of view.

a) External focusing telescope – the objective lens is mounted on a sleeve which

moves back and forth in the telescope barrel as an object is brought into focus.
b) Internal focusing telescope – have an additional auxiliary lens between the
objective and the cross hairs as the focusing screw is turned.
 Basic Parts of a Telescope

a) Objective Lens – is a compound lens composed of crown and flint glass

mounted in the objective end of the telescope and has its optical axis concentric
with the tube axis, the function of which is to allow light to enter the telescope
and form an image of the object sighted within its field of view.

b) Eyepiece – is a form of microscope containing either two or four lenses and is

used to enlarge altogether the image and the cross hairs.

c) Cross Hairs – consists of a pair of lines which are perpendicular with each
other and are used to define the instrument’s line of sight.

➢ Level Vial – is a sealed graduated glass tube containing some amount of liquid
and a small air bubble.

➢ Tripods – consists of three wood or aluminum legs which are securely fastened
to the tripod head by means of a hinged joint.

SOURCES of ERRORS in LEVELING

1. Instrumental Errors
a. Instrument out of adjustment
b. Rod not standard in length
c. Defective tripod

2. Personal Errors
a. Bubble not centered
b. Parallax
c. Faulty rod readings
d. Rod not held plumb
e. Unequal Backsights and Foresights

3. Natural Errors
a. Curvature of the earth
b. Atmospheric refraction
c. Temperature variations
d. Wind
e. Settlement of the instrument
f. Faulty turning points

COMMON MISTAKES in LEVELING

1. Misreading the rod

2. Incorrect recording
3. Erroneous computations
4. Rod not fully extended
5. Moving turning points
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

This is the process of determining the difference in elevation between two or more
points some distance apart.

Basic Terminologies:

• Bench Mark (BM) – is a fixed point of reference whose elevation is either known
or assumed.

• Backsight (BS) – is reading taken on a rod held on a point of known or assumed

elevation.

• Foresight (FS) – a reading taken on a rod held on a point whose elevation is to

be determined.

• Backsight Distance (BSD) – distance measured from the center of the instrument
to the rod on which a backsight is taken.

• Foresight Distance (FSD) – the horizontal distance from the center of the
instrument to the rod on which a foresight is taken.

• Tuning Point (TP) – is an intervening point between two benchmarks upon which
point foresight and backsight rod reading are taken to enable a leveling operation
to continue from a new instrument position.

• Height of Instrument (HI) – (or height of collimation) is the elevation of the line of
sight of an instrument above or below selected reference datum.
Sample Survey Data:

Station Backsight Height of Foresight Elevation Remarks

(BS) Instrument (FS)
(HI)
BM #1 1.38 0.000 Flagpole Pedestal
1 0.785 CAFA-CT FFL
2 1.370 C/L Road @GH
TP-1 0.61 1.040 Pathway Pavement

TP-2 0.53 0.880 Septic Vault

3 1.120 Top Left Corner Pond
(1.725)
4 1.305 Top Centerline Pond
(1.880)
5 1.160 Top Right Corner Pond
(1.905)
6 1.387 Right Centerline Pond
(1.920)
7 1.125 Left Centerline Pond
(2.210)
TP-3 1.705 0.580 Wooden Bench CCS
8 1.950 CCS FFL
TP-4 1.600 1.920 C/L Road at CCS GH
BM#1 1.400 Flagpole Pedestal

Computations:

Height of Instrument = Elevation + Backsight HI = Elevation + BS

Elevation = Height of Instrument – Foresight Elev. = HI – FS
 FINAL DATA:

Station Backsight Height of Foresight Elevation Remarks

(BS) Instrument (FS)
(HI)
BM #1 1.38 1.380 0.000 Flagpole Pedestal
1 0.785 0.595 CAFA-CT FFL
2 1.370 0.010 C/L Road @GH
TP-1 0.61 0.950 1.040 0.340 Pathway Pavement
TP-2 0.53 0.600 0.880 0.070 Septic Vault
3 1.120 -0.520 Top Left Corner Pond
(1.725) -1.125
4 1.305 -0.705 Top Centerline Pond
(1.880) -1.280
5 1.160 -0.560 Top Right Corner Pond
(1.905) -1.305
6 1.387 -0.787 Right Centerline Pond
(1.920) -1.320
7 1.125 -0.525 Left Centerline Pond
(2.210) -1.610
TP-3 1.705 1.725 0.580 2.02 Wooden Bench CCS
8 1.950 -0.225 CCS FFL
TP-4 1.600 1.405 1.920 -0.195 C/L Road at CCS GH
BM#1 1.400 0.005 Flagpole Pedestal
ERROR of CLOSURE: 0.005

ADJUSTED DATA: Corrections applied = - 0.005/5 = - 0.001 to HI’s

Backsight Height of Foresight
Station (BS) Instrument (FS) Elevation Remarks
(HI)
BM #1 1.38 1.379 0 Flagpole Pedestal
1 0.785 0.594 CAFA-CT FFL
2 1.37 0.009 C/L Road @GH
TP-1 0.61 0.948 1.04 0.339 Pathway Pavement
TP-2 0.53 0.597 0.88 0.068 Septic Vault
3 1.12 -0.523 Top Left Corner Pond
(1.725) -1.128
4 1.305 -0.708 Top Centerline Pond
(1.88) -1.283
Top Right Corner
5 1.16 -0.563
Pond
(1.905) -1.308
6 1.387 -0.790 Right Centerline Pond
(1.92) -1.323
7 1.125 -0.528 Left Centerline Pond
(2.21) -1.613
TP-3 1.705 1.721 0.58 0.017 Wooden Bench CCS
8 1.95 -0.229 CCS FFL
TP-4 1.6 1.400 1.92 -0.199 C/L Road at CCS GH
BM#1 1.4 0 Flagpole Pedestal
MEASUREMENTS of ANGLES and DIRECTIONS

A. MERIDIANS

1. True Meridian – is sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic

meridian. It is the generally adapted reference line in surveying practice. This
line passes through the geographic north and south poles of the earth and the
observer’s position. This meridian is also used for marking the boundaries of
land.

2. Magnetic Meridian – is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the
magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely
suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position. As
a line of reference, the magnetic meridian is employed only on rough surveys
where a magnetic compass is used in determining directions.

3. Grid Meridian – is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a

system of plane rectangular coordinates. The use of grid meridian is
applicable only to plane surveys of limited extent. In such types of survey, it is
assumed that all measurements are all projected to a horizontal plane and
that all meridians are parallel straight lines.

4. Assumed Meridian – is an arbitrary chosen fixed line of reference which is

taken for convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a survey
station to an adjoining station or some well-defined and permanent point.

B. Direction of Lines – is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes with an
established line of reference. These can be defined as follows:

1. Interior Angles – the angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon.

Exterior angles are located outside the closed polygon and are referred to as
explements of interior angles.

2. Deflection Angles – the angle between a line and the prolongation of the
preceding line

3. Angles to the Right – are measured clockwise from the preceding line to the
succeeding line

4. Bearing – is the acute horizontal angle between the reference meridian and
the line.

5. Forward and Back Bearing – when the bearing of a line is observed in the
direction in which the survey progresses is referred to as forward bearing
while if the bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite direction it is
called the back bearing.

6. Azimuths – is the direction of the line as given by the angle between the
meridian and the line measured in a clockwise direction from either the north
or south branch of the line.
C. The COMPASS – is a hand-held instrument for determining the horizontal
direction of a line about the magnetic meridian. Its essential features are:

1. Compass box – has a horizontal circle which is graduated from 0 to 90

degrees in each quadrant. The index marks are placed at the north (N) and
south (S) markings and the 90-degree marks at the east (E) and west (W)
markings on the circle.

2. Line of Sight – is usually fixed along the index mark on the north graduation of
the circle. If the line of sight is turned clockwise (or counterclockwise) from
magnetic north, the needle remains aligned with the magnetic meridian, but
the graduated circle rotates in the same direction of turning through the
corresponding angle. The reading which is given is dependent on the position
of the graduated circle.

3. Magnetic Needle – is of magnetized tempered steel balanced at its center on

a jeweled pivot so that it swings freely in a horizontal position. An arrow is
usually marked on the north end of the needle and its south is often having an
adjustable small counterweight made of fine wire.

Types of Compasses

a. Brunton Compass – combine the main features of a prismatic compass,

sighting compass, hand level, and clinometer. When used during a surveying
operation, the instrument can be mounted on a tripod or Jacob’s staff or just
held in one’s hands.

b. Lensatic Compass – consists of an aluminum case containing a magnetic dial

balanced on a pivot, a hinged cover with sighting wire, a hinged eyepiece
containing a magnifying lens for reading the dial graduations, and a sighting
slot for viewing the distant object.

c. Surveyor’s Compass – is now commonly used for forest surveys, in retracing

old land surveys, and in geological explorations. Its main parts include a
compass box containing a graduated circle, two sight vanes, a magnetic
needle and two clamping screws. A glass cover protects the needle and the
graduated circle.

d. Plain Pocket Compass – is like surveyor’s compass, except that it has no

sight vanes. It is a small hand instrument used for obtaining roughly the
bearing of a line. The line of sight is established by a combination of a peep
sight and a slotted vane.

e. Prismatic Compass – the graduation is found on a rotating card instead of

being on the compass box. The card moves with the needle since both are
fastened together. The short sighting devices are provided and magnetic
bearings are read by means of a prism at the same instant the compass is
sighted along the line.

f. Forester’s Compass – is usually made of aluminum or some type of metal

which does not affect the free movement and positioning of the magnetic
 needle. It may be hand-held or supported on a staff or tripod when used in the
field. It is equipped with a front and rear sight and a declination adjustment.

g. Transit Compass – similar in construction with a surveyor’s compass mounted

on the upper plate of the engineer’s transit and often used to check horizontal
angles and directions measured or laid off during transit surveys.

D. COMPASS SURVEYS

Basic Definitions:

1. Traverse – is a series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths

and directions have been determined from field measurements.

2. Traversing – the process of measuring the lengths and directions of the lines
of a traverse for locating the position of certain points.

3. Traverse Station – any temporary or permanent point of reference over which

the instrument is set up. It is usually marked by a peg or a hub driven flush
with the ground and identified by consecutive letters or numbers as the
survey progresses. Traverse stations are sometimes called angle points
because an angle is usually measured at such stations.

4. Traverse Lines – are lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths
and directions are determined.

E. TYPES of COMPASS SURVEYS

1. Open Compass Traverse – consists of a series of lines of known lengths and

magnetic bearings which are continuous but do not return to the starting point
or close upon a point of known position.

2. Closed Compass Traverse – a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic

bearings which forms a closed loop, or begin and end at points whose
positions have been fixed by other surveys of higher precision.