Chapter 8

Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

8.1 Molecules and atomicity
8.2 Covalent bonding and covalent compounds
8.3 Dative covalent bond
8.4 Formulae and names of covalent compounds
8.5 Relative molecular mass and formula mass
8.6 Chemical bonding and constituent particles in different
substances — a summary

Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

8.1 • understand what a molecule is

• distinguish between monoatomic, diatomic and triatomic molecules

8.2 • describe the formation of a covalent bond

• describe, using electron diagrams, the formation of single, double and triple covalent bonds
+
8.3 • describe the formation of the dative covalent bond by means of electron diagrams using NH4 and
+
H3O as examples

8.4 • interpret chemical formula of covalent compounds in terms of the elements present and the
ratios of their atoms

• write the names and formulae of covalent compounds based on their component atoms

• communicate scientific ideas with appropriate use of chemical symbols and formulae

8.5 • define and distinguish the terms: relative molecular mass and formula mass

• perform calculations related to relative molecular masses and formula masses of compounds

8.6 • recognize the chemical bonding and constituent particles in different substances
Chapter 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

We cannot distinguish between salt and sugar very easily from their appearance. In fact, salt and sugar
have many different properties (e.g. taste). Salt and sugar belong to different classes of compounds
although they look alike. Salt is an ionic compound while sugar is a covalent compound.

salt sugar

Salt and sugar look alike, but they differ a lot in a microscopic point of view.

Think about...
What is a covalent compound?
A covalent compound is a compound in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds.

What is the major difference between an ionic compound and a covalent compound?
An ionic compound is usually produced by combining a metal with a non-metal. It consists of positive ions and negative ions held together
by ionic bonds. In a covalent compound, non-metal atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
What are other examples of covalent compounds?
Refer to Table 8.2 on p.9 of this chapter for more examples.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

covalent compound 共價化合物

ionic compound 離子化合物
 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

8.1 Molecules and atomicity

PowerPoint
In Chapter 7, we have learnt that all non-metals (except graphite) and most
compounds made up of only non-metals are non-conductors of electricity
e.g. iodine, carbon (diamond), distilled water, etc. Covalent bonds are
found in these non-conductors. Before we can understand what covalent
bonding is, we have to learn a term called molecule.

Molecules in compounds and elements

Molecules in compounds
Compounds made up of only non-metals usually consist of neutral
particles called molecules. A molecule of a compound consists of
atoms of different kinds. For example, water consists of water
molecules. Each molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom chemically joined together. The formula of water is H2O
(Figure 8.1).

3D Model
(Water)

a water molecule

hydrogen atoms

oxygen atom

Figure 8.1 Water consists of water

molecules, H2O. Each H2O molecule
consists of two H atoms and one O
atom.

Other examples of molecules of compounds include carbon dioxide

(CO2), ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) and hydrogen chloride (HCl). See
Figure 8.2.
CE2003(I)1(a)(i)
3D Model
(Ammonia) 3D Model 3D Model
3D Model H
N (Methane) (Hydrogen
(Carbon dioxide) O C O H H
C chloride) H Cl
H H
H
H
Figure 8.2 Molecules of
some compounds. carbon dioxide ammonia methane hydrogen chloride

ammonia 氨
carbon dioxide 二氧化碳
diamond 金剛石
graphite 石墨
methane 甲烷
molecule 分子
3 8

covalent bond 共價鍵 hydrogen chloride 氯化氫 non-conductor 非導電體

 II Microscopic world I

Molecules in elements
Up till now, you have learnt that some compounds consist of ions,
while some consist of molecules. But how about elements? What
particles do they consist of?

Elements consist of either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of

atoms. (Refer to Chapter 9, p.16 for more details.) Most non-metals consist
of discrete (or separate) molecules. For example, chlorine consists of
discrete chlorine molecules. Each chlorine molecule consists of two
chlorine atoms chemically joined together (Figure 8.3). The formula of
chlorine is therefore Cl2.

chlorine atoms
3D Model
(Chlorine)

one chlorine molecule

a chlorine atom cannot

exist on its own under
room conditions

Figure 8.3 Chlorine consists of chlorine molecules. Each chlorine molecule Cl2 consists of
two Cl atoms chemically joined together.

A molecule of an element consists of atoms of the same kind. For

example, a chlorine molecule consists of chlorine atoms only; a sulphur
molecule consists of sulphur atoms only. Other examples of molecules of
elements are shown in Table 8.1 on p.5.

Key point
A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which
can exist on its own under room conditions.

8 4 room conditions 常温常壓 discrete 個別的

 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Note 1
Remind students that the atomic
symbol of an element represents
Atomicity
also its chemical formula only in the
cases of metals, carbon, semi- The number of atoms in a molecule of an element or a compound is called N1
metals and noble gases. This is atomicity. Table 8.1 summarizes the atomicity of molecules of some
because the smallest particle of
such elements is just one single elements.
atom.

Element Formula Atomicity Simple model of molecule

Argon Ar 1

Hydrogen H2 2

Chlorine Cl2 2

Oxygen O2 2
3D Model
(Oxygen)

Nitrogen N2 2

Ozone O3 3

Phosphorus
P4 4
(White phosphorus)

Sulphur S8 8
3D Model
(Sulphur)

Table 8.1 The atomicity and the simple model of molecules of some elements. (More details about simple models of molecules
will be discussed on p.10.)

It should be noted that argon (Ar) is monoatomic, oxygen (O2) is

diatomic, ozone (O3) is triatomic and so on.

Class practice 8.1

A8.1 1. Which of the following elements/compounds consist of molecules?
1. CH3OH, I2, HCl
2. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 2 NaCl, CH3OH, I2, KBr, Fe2O3, HCl, NaNO3, NH4Cl, Ag
(e) 5 2. What is the atomicity of the following molecules?
(a) He (b) F2 (c) Ne (d) Br2 (e) CH4

atomicity 原子數
diatomic 雙原子的
ozone 臭氧
triatomic 三原子的
5 8

monoatomic 單原子的 white phosphorus 白磷

 II Microscopic world I

8.2 Covalent bonding and covalent

PowerPoint compounds CE1999(I)4

Covalent bonding in some non-metal elements

Animation Formation of covalent bond in a chlorine molecule (Cl2)
(Formation of
covalent bonds)
Take chlorine gas as an example. Under room conditions, chlorine atoms
cannot exist by themselves. Instead, chlorine gas consists of discrete
molecules. Each molecule consists of two chlorine atoms chemically
joined together.

The chlorine atom (Cl) is very unstable. Its outermost shell contains
only seven electrons i.e. one electron less than an octet. It needs one
more electron to get the electronic arrangement of a stable argon atom
(2,8,8). Each chlorine atom shares its outermost shell electron with
another chlorine atom (one electron from each chlorine atom), forming a
single covalent bond. Therefore, a chlorine molecule (Cl2) consists of
two chlorine atoms. In the molecule, each chlorine atom has a stable
octet. See Figure 8.4.
a shared pair of electrons
forms a single covalent bond

electron
sharing a lone pair
Figure 8.4 Electron diagrams Cl Cl + Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl of electrons
showing the sharing of a pair
of electrons in the formation of
a chlorine molecule (only the 2,8,7 2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8,8
outermost shell electrons are chlorine atom (Cl) chlorine atom (Cl) chlorine molecule (Cl2)
shown).

Covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction

between the shared electrons (negatively charged) and the two nuclei
(positively charged) of the bonded atoms.

Key point
CE2007(II)2 A covalent bond forms by the sharing of outermost shell
CE2011(I)8
electrons between two atoms.

A pair of electrons shared between two atoms is known as a bond

pair of electrons, or simply, a bond pair). A pair of outermost shell
electrons that is not shared between two atoms is known as a lone pair
of electrons (or simply, a lone pair). Thus, in a chlorine molecule, there
are one bond pair and three lone pairs in each chlorine atom.

8 6 bond pair (of electrons) 鍵合電子對

covalent bond 共價鍵
lone pair (of electrons) 孤電子對
nucleus 原子核
directional 有方向性的

electrostatic attraction 靜電吸引力 single covalent bond 共價單鍵

 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Formation of covalent bond in an oxygen molecule (O2)

An oxygen atom contains six electrons in its outermost shell. It needs
two more electrons to get the electronic arrangement of a stable neon
atom (2,8). Each oxygen atom shares two of its outermost shell electrons
with another oxygen atom, forming a double covalent bond. Therefore, an
oxygen molecule (O2) consists of two oxygen atoms. In the molecule, each
oxygen atom has a stable octet. See Figure 8.5.

2 shared pairs of electrons

form a double covalent bond

electron
a lone pair
sharing
Figure 8.5 Electron diagrams of electrons
O O + O O O O O O
showing the sharing of two
pairs of electrons in the
formation of an oxygen 2,6 2,6 2,8 2,8
molecule (only the outermost oxygen atom (O) oxygen atom (O) oxygen molecule (O2)
shell electrons are shown).

Formation of covalent bond in a nitrogen molecule (N2)

A nitrogen atom contains five electrons in its outermost shell. It needs
three more electrons to get the electronic arrangement of a stable neon
atom (2,8). Each nitrogen atom shares three of its outermost shell
electrons with another nitrogen atom, forming a triple covalent bond.
Therefore, a nitrogen molecule (N2) consists of two nitrogen atoms. In the
molecule, each nitrogen atom has a stable octet. See Figure 8.6.
CE1999(II)1
CE2000(I)9(c)(i)
3 shared pairs of electrons
form a triple covalent bond

electron
sharing a lone pair
Figure 8.6 Electron diagrams
N N + N N N NN N of electrons
showing the sharing of three
pairs of electrons in the
formation of a nitrogen 2,5 2,5 2,8 2,8
molecule (only the outermost nitrogen atom (N) nitrogen atom (N) nitrogen molecule (N2)
shell electrons are shown). Note 2
Cl−Cl is a structural formula. It shows
that the two chlorine atoms in the
Molecular formula and structural formula molecule are joined by a single
covalent bond.
Learning tip A bond pair of electrons is often represented by a stroke (–) between the
When we say the
atomic symbols. Hence, a chlorine molecule Cl2 can be written as Cl–Cl, N2
‘formula’ of a
molecular substance, O 2 as O= O, and N2 as N≡ N. Cl2, O2 and N2 are the molecular N3
we usually refer to its formulae of the elements, while Cl – Cl, O = O and N ≡ N are their
‘molecular formula’. Note 3
structural formulae.
In the examinations, some students wrongly wrote ‘N’, ‘H’ and ‘O’ as the
chemical formulae for nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen respectively.
double covalent bond 共價雙鍵
molecular formula 分子式
structural formula 結構式
triple covalent bond 共價三鍵
stroke 橫線
7 8
 II Microscopic world I

Key point
The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula
which shows the actual number of each kind of atoms in one
molecule of the substance.

Key point
The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula
which shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one
molecule of the substance.

Covalent bonding in some covalent compounds

What is a covalent compound?
Concept check For compounds containing two or more non-metal elements, the atoms
✘ Nitrogen is a are usually held together by covalent bonds. These compounds are known
covalent compound.
as covalent compounds.
✔ A nitrogen molecule
consists of nitrogen Take hydrogen chloride (HCl) as an example. To get a stable electronic
atoms only. Nitrogen
is an element but
arrangement, one electron from a hydrogen atom and one electron from a
not a compound. chlorine atom are shared to form a single covalent bond. Therefore, a
hydrogen chloride molecule consists of one hydrogen atom and one
chlorine atom. Its structural formula is H–Cl. See Figure 8.7.

a shared pair of electrons

forms a single covalent bond
electron
sharing a lone pair
H H+ Cl Cl H Cl
H Cl of electrons

1 2,8,7 2 2,8,8
hydrogen atom (H) chlorine atom (Cl) hydrogen chloride (HCl)

Figure 8.7 Electron diagrams showing the sharing of electrons in the formation of a
hydrogen chloride molecule (only the outermost shell electrons are shown).

8 8 covalent compound 共價化合物

 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Table 8.2 gives electron diagrams that show the formation of covalent
bonds in some simple molecules. All of them are molecules of covalent
compounds.

Electron diagrams showing covalent bond formation Molecular formula Structural formula
CE1999(I)6(a)(i)
CE2008(II)19 DSE2013(IB)1(a)

H O H H O H
H2O H O H

1 oxygen atom + 2 hydrogen atoms 1 water molecule

a lone pair
of electrons

H N H H N H
NH3 H N H
H a bond pair
H of electrons H
1 nitrogen atom + 3 hydrogen atoms 1 ammonia molecule

H
H
H
H C H H C H
CH4 H C H
H
H
H

1 carbon atom + 4 hydrogen atoms 1 methane molecule

Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl C Cl Cl C Cl
CCl4 Cl C Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl

1 carbon atom + 4 chlorine atoms 1 tetrachloromethane molecule

CE2002(I)8(b)(i)
DSE2013(IB)1(a)(iii)

O C O O C O O C O
CO2

1 carbon atom + 2 oxygen atoms 1 carbon dioxide molecule

Table 8.2 Electron diagrams showing the formation of covalent bonds in molecules of some simple molecules (only the
outermost shell electrons are shown). CE2000(II)1

tetrachloromethane 四氯甲烷
9 8
 II Microscopic world I

CE2001(II)1
Number of electrons contributed for sharing CE2001(I)7(a)(i)
CE2002(II)36
After studying the molecules just mentioned, we may notice that an atom
involved in covalent bond formation contributes a certain number of
electrons for sharing. This number is equal to the additional number of
electrons needed to get the electronic arrangement of the nearest noble
gas. See Table 8.3 for some examples.

Additional number of
Number of electrons needed to Number of electrons
Atom outermost shell get the electronic contributed by an
electrons arrangement of the atom for sharing
nearest noble gas
Hydrogen 1 1 1

Carbon 4 4 4

Nitrogen 5 3 3

Oxygen 6 2 2

Fluorine 7 1 1

Table 8.3 Number of electrons contributed by an atom for sharing when forming covalent
bonds.

Simple models of molecules

As seen in Table 8.1, we can use simple models to represent molecules.
There are two common kinds of models. The models shown in Table 8.4
are called ball-and-stick models and space-filling models respectively.

Molecule H2 Cl2 O2 N2

Ball-and-
stick model

Space-filling
model

8 10 ball-and-stick model 球棒模型

space-filling model 填空模型
 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Molecule H2O NH3 CH4

Ball-and-
stick model

Space-filling
model

Table 8.4 Ball-and-stick models and space-filling models for some simple molecules.

Experiment 8.1 Experiment Workbook 1

Building models of covalent molecules

PowerPoint
In this experiment, you are going to build models of some covalent molecules.

Class practice 8.2

A8.2
1. (a) 1. Element X has an electronic arrangement of 2,6. X is a gas at room
X X temperature and pressure and it consists of discrete diatomic molecules.
(a) Draw an electron diagram (showing electrons in the outermost shells
(b) Covalent bonding. It forms
when each atom in the molecule only) of a molecule of X.
of X contributes 2 outermost (b) What is the bonding that joins the atoms together in the molecule of
shell electrons for sharing.
(c) There are two bond pairs and X? Explain how it forms.
two lone pairs on each atom of (c) Find the number of bond pairs and the number of lone pairs on each
X.
atom of X.
2. (a)
2. Compound Y forms when nitrogen reacts with chlorine. CE2011(II)2
Cl N Cl
(a) Draw an electron diagram (showing electrons in the outermost shells
Cl only) of a molecule of compound Y. DSEPP2012(IB)3(b)(i)
(b) Find the number of bond pairs and the number of lone pairs on the
(b) There are three bond pairs and nitrogen atom in the molecule of Y.
one lone pair on the nitrogen
atom in the molecule of Y.
(c) Write the molecular formula and structural formula of Y.
(c) Molecular formula: NCl3
Structural formula: Cl N Cl

Cl

11 8
 II Microscopic world I

8.3 Dative covalent bond DSE2013(IB)2(c)

PowerPoint
In a normal single covalent bond, each atom contributes one electron for
the shared pair. However, in some compounds, a covalent bond forms by
sharing a pair of electrons coming from the same atom.

Key point
A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a covalent bond
formed between two atoms where both electrons of the shared pair are
contributed by the same atom.

Atoms which have lone pairs of electrons may form dative covalent
bonds. Let us consider the following examples.
DSEPP2012(IA)3

+
Dative covalent bond in ammonium ion (NH4 )
Animation When an ammonia molecule combines with a hydrogen ion to form an
(Formation of
ammonium ion, a dative covalent bond forms between the lone pair of
dative covalent
+
bonds) electrons on the N atom in NH3 and a H ion (Figure 8.8). The symbol
‘ ’ is used to represent the dative covalent bond.

H H

H N H H N H
H H

ammonium ion

H H
+
or H N H H N H

H H

dative covalent bond

Figure 8.8 Electron diagrams and structural formulae showing the formation of an
+
ammonium ion (NH4 ).

8 12 coordinate bond 配位鍵

dative covalent bond 配位共價鍵
 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is a common ionic compound that

Learning tip
+
The ammonium ion contains ammonium ion (NH4 ). It contains both ionic bonds (between
+ –
NH4 and Cl ions) and covalent bonds (four N–H bonds). Three of the
+
(NH4 ) has an overall
charge of +1 distributed
N–H bonds are normal covalent bonds and one is dative covalent bond.
all over the structure.

It should be noticed that dative and normal covalent bonds differ

only in the way they form. Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it
cannot be distinguished from a normal covalent bond. This means that
all the four N–H bonds in ammonium ion are identical.

+
Dative covalent bond in hydronium ion (H3O )
When hydrogen chloride gas is passed into water, hydrogen chloride
+ –
molecules break down to give hydrogen ions (H ) and chloride ions (Cl ).
+
A dative covalent bond forms between a H ion and a lone pair of
electrons on the O atom in H2O. A more stable ion, hydroxonium ion
+
or hydronium ion (H3O ), is obtained as a result. See Figure 8.9.

H O H Cl H O H Cl

H H

hydronium ion

or H O H Cl H O H Cl
H H

dative covalent bond

+
Figure 8.9 Electron diagrams and structural formulae showing the formation of hydronium ion (H3O ).

Class practice 8.3 DSEPP2012(IA)3

A8.3
1. 1. When gaseous boron trifluoride (BF3) reacts with ammonia (NH3), a solid
F (BF3NH3) forms. Draw the electron diagram of BF3NH3.
H
–
H N B F
2. There is a dative covalent bond present in a BF4 ion. Draw an electron
2.
diagram of the ion.
H F
F

F B F

F
boron trifluoride 三氟化硼
hydronium ion 水合氫離子
hydroxonium ion 鋞離子 identical 相同的
13 8
 II Microscopic world I

8.4 Formulae and names of covalent

PowerPoint compounds
Formulae of covalent compounds
The formula of a covalent compound indicates the ratio of one atom to
the other(s) in the molecule. There is a quick method to work out the
formula of a covalent compound. See ‘Problem-solving strategy 8.1’
below.

Problem-solving strategy 8.1

Writing the formulae of covalent compounds

Try it now
Work out the formula of the compound formed between nitrogen Work out the formula of the
and hydrogen. compound formed between
carbon and chlorine.
1 Write down the symbols of the elements involved. The
➊ C CI
element that occurs first in the following series is written
first.
B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F
N H
2 Write the electronic arrangement of the above atoms. ➋ C CI
N H 2,4 2,8,7

2,5 1
3  ecide the number of electrons each atom needs to attain the
D ➌ C Cl
4 1
stable electronic arrangement. Write the numbers down.
N H
3 1
4 Take the number of electrons required by each atom across to ➍ C Cl
the other. 4 1
= C1 Cl4
N H
3 1
= N1 H3
5 Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio. ➎ CCl4
NH3
(Omit the numeral ‘1’)

Class practice 8.4

A8.4
(a) CF4 (b) H2S
Write the formulae of the compounds formed between:
(c) PH3 (d) SiCl4 (a) carbon and fluorine (b) hydrogen and sulphur
(c) phosphorus and hydrogen (d) silicon and chlorine

8 14
 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Names of covalent compounds

The system for naming covalent compounds is different from that used for
naming ionic compounds. If a compound forms from only two non-metal
elements, the compound should be named according to the following
rules:
1. The element that occurs first in the following series is named first:
B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F
2. The name of the second element should end up with -ide.
3. A prefix (mono, di, tri, tetra and so on) is usually used to indicate the
number of atoms of that element in a molecule of the compound.

Take chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4) as

examples:
Learning tip
ClF3
The prefix ‘mono’ is
usually not added Name: chlorine tri fluoride
to the name of the indicates that there are 3 fluorine
first element in the atoms in a molecule
molecule of the
compound. N2O4
Name: dinitrogen tetra oxide = tetroxide
indicates that there indicates that there are 4 oxygen
are 2 nitrogen atoms atoms in a molecule
in a molecule

Some of the covalent compounds can be named according to the above

rules, but there are examples that cannot be predicted in the same way.
Some of these examples are summarized in Table 8.5.

Formula of covalent compound Name of covalent compound

CH4 Methane

Table 8.5 Names of some NH3 Ammonia

covalent compounds. The
name of these compounds H 2O Water
cannot be predicted using
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide
the above rules.

Class practice 8.5

A8.5
(a) Hydrogen chloride Write the names of the following compounds:
(b) Carbon monoxide
(c) Carbon dioxide (a) HCl (b) CO (c) CO2 (d) SO2 (e) SO3
(d) Sulphur dioxide
(e) Sulphur trioxide

chlorine trifluoride 三氟化氯

dinitrogen tetroxide 四氧化二氮
hydrogen peroxide 過氧化氫
15 8
 II Microscopic world I

8.5 Relative molecular mass and

PowerPoint formula mass
What is relative molecular mass?
In Chapter 5, we have learnt that the relative atomic mass of an element
is the weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of all the naturally
12
occurring isotopes of that element on the C = 12.00 scale.

For elements and compounds consisting of molecules, relative

12
molecular mass is the mass of one molecule of it on the C = 12.00
scale. Relative molecular mass carries no unit. It can also be called
molecular mass.

Key point
Note 4 Relative molecular mass = Sum of relative atomic masses of all N4
Some students may find difficulty in
writing the relative molecular mass
of an element or a atoms present in a molecule of the
of a diatomic molecule. For example, compound element or compound
students may think that the relative
molecular mass of Cl2 is 35.5 instead
of 71.0.

Take water (H2O) as an example.

Relative molecular mass of H2O = 1.0 × 2 + 16.0 = 18.0

relative atomic relative atomic

mass of hydrogen mass of oxygen

hydrogen atom

oxygen atom

Figure 8.10 The mass of a water molecule (H2O) is equal to the sum of the mass of one
oxygen atom and the mass of two hydrogen atoms.

8 16 molecular mass 分子質量

relative molecular mass 相對分子質量
 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

What is formula mass?

Some compounds (such as ionic compounds) do not consist of molecules.
We use formula mass to describe their relative masses. Formula mass
carries no unit. The formula mass of a substance (or species) is the mass of
12
one formula unit of it on the C = 12.00 scale.

For a pure substance with a formula, the simplest unit is its formula
unit. In ionic compounds, like magnesium chloride, a formula unit of
2+ –
magnesium chloride is MgCl2, which consists of one Mg ion and two Cl
ions.

Take hydroxide ion (which is a species, not a substance) as an example.

– –
It has the formula OH . A formula unit of it corresponds to one OH ion.

Key point
Formula mass of a = Sum of relative atomic masses of all
substance (or species) atoms present in a formula unit of the
substance (or species).
Learning tip
Never speak of the
relative molecular
mass of magnesium
Take magnesium chloride (MgCl2) as an example.
chloride, as there are
Formula mass of MgCl2 = 24.3 + 35.5 × 2 = 95.3
no molecules in this
compound.
relative atomic mass relative atomic mass
of magnesium of chlorine

H20 Example 8.1

Determining the formula masses of some substances or species
Calculate the formula mass of
2–
(a) C6H12O6 (b) SO4 (c) Al2(SO4)3

Solution
C6 H12 O6
Learning tip
(a) Formula mass of C6H12O6 = 12.0 × 6 + 1.0 × 12 + 16.0 × 6
• The formula mass of C6H12O6 is
= 180.0 equal to its relative molecular
mass. This is because this
S O4
2– compound consists of molecules.
(b) Formula mass of SO4 = 32.1 + 16.0 × 4 • It is wrong to speak of the relative
2–
= 96.1 molecular masses of SO4 or
Al2(SO4)3 because they consist of
Al2 (SO4)3 ions only, not molecules.
(c) Formula mass of Al2(SO4)3 = 27.0 × 2 + (32.1 + 16.0 × 4) × 3
= 342.3

formula mass 式量
formula unit 式單位
17 8
 II Microscopic world I

Formula mass is a general term applicable to all substances (or species)

with a formula. In comparison, relative molecular mass only applies to
molecular substances.

Class practice 8.6

A8.6
1. (a) 12.0 + 1.0 × 4 = 16.0
1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of: CE2010(II)31

(b) 12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 = 30.0 (a) CH4 (b) C2H6 (c) C12H22O11
(c) 12.0 × 12 + 1.0 × 22 + 16.0 × 11 = 342.0
2. (a) 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5 2. Calculate the formula mass of:
(b) 12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 = 30.0 (same as relative 2–
molecular mass) (a) NaCl (b) C2H6 (c) CO3 (d) Cu(NO3)2․3H2O
(c) 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 = 60.0
(d) 63.5 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2 + 3 × (1.0 × 2
+ 16.0) = 241.5

8.6 Chemical bonding and constituent

PowerPoint particles in different substances — a
Concept check
summary
✘ Ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) is made up
of only non-metals, so
it is considered as a
Metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond — a
covalent compound. summary
✔ Although ammonium In the previous sections, we have discussed metallic bond, ionic bond and
nitrate is made up of
only non-metals, it is an
covalent bond in different substances. Some of their information is
ionic compound. It summarized in Table 8.6 below.
consists of ammonium
+
ion (NH4 ) and nitrate
–
ion (NO3 ). CE2007(II)43

Metallic bond Ionic bond Covalent bond

Nature electrostatic attraction electrostatic attraction electrostatic attraction

between a ‘sea’ of holding the oppositely between the shared
negatively charged charged ions together electrons and the two
electrons and positively nuclei of the bonded
charged metal ions atoms

Formation escape of outermost transfer of one or more sharing of outermost

shell electrons from electrons from one shell electrons between
metal atoms atom (or group of two atoms
atoms) to another

Directional/ non-directional non-directional directional

non-directional
Table 8.6 A summary of information about metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond. CE2008(II)18

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 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Think about Particles that make up matter — a summary

Molecules and ions
come from atoms. All matter is made up of particles. Atoms, molecules and ions are different
Why?
types of particles. Figure 8.11 summarizes the constituent particles of
Think about various substances.
When an atom gains or loses one or
more electrons, an ion is produced.
A molecule of an element consists of
atoms of the same kind.
Constituent Examples
A molecule of a compound consists particles
of atoms of different kinds.
metals atoms copper (Cu)

elements
molecules argon (Ar)
non-metals (exception: chlorine (Cl2)
carbon) sulphur (S8)

Pure substances

compounds made usually water (H2O)

up of only non- molecules ammonia (NH3)
metals

compounds
compounds made ions potassium oxide (K2O)
up of metal(s) sodium chloride
and non- (NaCl)
metal(s)

Figure 8.11 Constituent particles of various substances. CE2003(I)1(a)(i)

Class practice 8.7

A8.7
(a) Molecule Decide whether the following formulae stand for an atom, a molecule or an
(b) Atom or molecule ion.
(c) Ion 2–
(a) CHCl3 (b) Ar (c) Cr2O7 (d) Mg
(d) Atom
2+
(e) Molecule (e) S8 (f) Ba (g) I2 (h) P
(f) Ion
(g) Molecule
(h) Atom

potassium oxide 氧化鉀

sodium chloride 氯化鈉
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 II Microscopic world I

Key terms
PowerPoint

English term Chinese translation Page

1. atomicity 原子數 5

2. ball-and-stick model 球棒模型 10

3. bond pair of electrons (or bond pair) 鍵合電子對 6

4. covalent bond 共價鍵 6

5. covalent compound 共價化合物 8

6. dative covalent bond/coordinate bond 配位共價鍵/配位鍵 12

7. diatomic 雙原子的 5

8. double covalent bond 共價雙鍵 7

9. formula mass 式量 17

10. formula unit 式單位 17

11. lone pair of electrons (or lone pair) 孤電子對 6

12. molecular formula 分子式 7

13. molecule 分子 3

14. monoatomic 單原子的 5

15. relative molecular mass/molecular mass 相對分子質量/分子質量 16

16. single covalent bond 共價單鍵 6

17. space-filling model 填空模型 10

18. structural formula 結構式 7

19. triatomic 三原子的 5

20. triple covalent bond 共價三鍵 6

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 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Progress check
PowerPoint

Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.

Page
1. What is a molecule? 3

2. How does a covalent bond form? 6

3. How can we describe the formation of single covalent bond using electron diagrams? 6

4. How can we describe the formation of double covalent bond using electron diagrams? 7

5. How can we describe the formation of triple covalent bond using electron diagrams? 7

6. How do we write the molecular formulae and structural formulae of molecular

7
substances?

7. What is a covalent compound? 8

+
8. How can we describe the formation of dative covalent bond in NH4 by means of electron
12
diagrams?
+
9. How can we describe the formation of dative covalent bond in H3O by means of electron
13
diagrams?

10. How do we write the names and formulae of covalent compounds based on their
14–15
constituent atoms?

11. What is the meaning of relative molecular mass? 16

12. What is the meaning of formula mass? 17

13. How can we perform calculations related to relative molecular mass and formula mass? 17

14. What are the differences between metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond? 18

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 II Microscopic world I

Summary
PowerPoint

8.1 Molecules and atomicity

1. A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its own under
room conditions.

2. Compounds made up of only non-metals usually consist of molecules. Elements are made up of
either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of atoms. Most non-metals consist of discrete
molecules.

3. The number of atoms in a molecule of an element or a compound is called atomicity.

8.2 Covalent bonding and covalent compounds

4. A covalent bond forms when one or more pairs of outermost shell electrons are shared between
two atoms. For example,

H Cl H Cl

1 hydrogen atom + 1 chlorine atom 1 hydrogen chloride molecule

5. Covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and
the two nuclei of the bonded atoms.

6. A shared pair of electrons (bond pair) makes a single covalent bond, e.g. H–Cl.
Two shared pairs of electrons make a double covalent bond, e.g. O=C=O.

a double covalent bond

Three shared pairs of electrons make a triple covalent bond, e.g. N≡N.

a triple covalent bond

7. Some atoms have unshared pairs of outermost shell electrons. These are known as lone pairs,
e.g. a lone pair of electrons

H O H

1 water molecule

8. The molecular formula of a molecular substance shows the actual number of each kind of
atoms in one molecule of the substance, e.g. CH4.

9. The structural formula of a molecular substance shows how the constituent atoms are joined
up in one molecule of the substance, e.g.
H

H C H

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 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

8.3 Dative covalent bond

10. A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a covalent bond formed between two atoms
where both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by the same atom.

8.4 Formulae and names of covalent compounds

11. The formulae of covalent compounds can often be constructed using a quick method. Refer to
‘Problem-solving strategy 8.1’ on p.14.
12. The system for naming covalent compounds is different from that used for naming ionic
compounds. Refer to the rules stated on p.15.

8.5 Relative molecular mass and formula mass

13. Relative molecular mass of an element or a compound

12
= Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a molecule of it on the C = 12.00 scale

14. Formula mass of a substance (or species)

12
= Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of it on the C = 12.00
scale

8.6 Chemical bonding and constituent particles in different substances — a summary

15. All matter is made up of particles: atoms, molecules or ions.

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 II Microscopic world I

Concept map
PowerPoint

Complete the following concept map.

Outermost

electron shell of atoms

come(s) from

Shared The nuclei of the

pair(s) of electrons two bonded atoms

is the electrostatic
Single covalent bond
attraction between

can be
COVALENT BOND Double
covalent bond

can be Triple
found in covalent bond

Non-metallic elements Covalent compounds

e.g. H2, Cl2 e.g. CH4, H2O

both exist as
Molecular
formulae

Relative molecular mass molecules

is the sum of can be
relative atomic represented by
Structural formulae
masses of all
atoms present in

(Hints: Cl2, double, electrostatic, H2O, nuclei, molecular, outermost, relative molecular mass, shared,
triple)

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 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

13. (c) (d) (e) (f)

H

Chapter exercise H Br F N F H P

H
H
H Si H

F
H

Fill in the blanks Section 8.3

dative
8. A covalent bond is a covalent
Section 8.1
bond formed between two atoms where both
molecule
1. A is the smallest part of an element electrons of the shared pair are contributed by
or a compound which can exist on its own under the same atom.
ordinary conditions.
Section 8.5
2. The number of atoms in a molecule of an element Relative molecular mass
atomicity 9. of an element or
or a compound is called .
a compound is equal to the sum of relative atomic
Section 8.2 masses of all atoms present in a molecule of the
element or compound.
3. In a hydrogen molecule, the hydrogen atoms
share a pair of electrons, forming a Formula mass
10. of a substance (or
single covalent bond. species) is equal to the sum of relative atomic
masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of
4. In an oxygen molecule, the oxygen atoms share
two the substance (or species).
pairs of electrons, forming a
double
covalent bond. Section 8.6
5. In a nitrogen molecule, the nitrogen atoms share 11. Metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond are
electrostatic
three pairs of electrons, forming a all in nature. However,
triple
covalent bond. both metallic bond and ionic bond are
non-directional
while covalent bond is
molecular
6. The formula of a molecular directional .
substance is the formula which shows the actual
number of each kind of atoms in one molecule 12. The three types of particles that make up all matter
are atoms, molecules and ions .
of the substance.
structural
7. The formula of a molecular
substance is the formula which shows how the
constituent atoms are joined up in one molecule
of the substance. 13. (a) Cl (b)

S C S
Cl C Cl

Practice questions
Cl
Section 8.2
13. Draw the electron diagram of the compound formed from each of the following pairs of elements. (Assume
that each atom in the compound has attained the electronic arrangement of a noble gas.)
(a) Carbon and chlorine
14. Electron diagram of NH4Cl: Electron diagram of CHCl3:
(b) Carbon and sulphur + H
(c) Hydrogen and bromine H
Cl C Cl
(d) Nitrogen and fluorine H N H Cl

(e) Phosphorus and hydrogen H Cl

(f) Silicon and hydrogen

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 II Microscopic world I

14. Draw the electron diagrams of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and trichloromethane (CHCl3) respectively
(showing electrons in the outermost shells only). (Answers on p.8-25.)

Section 8.4
15. Give the molecular formula and the name of the compound formed from each of the following pairs of
elements. (Assume that each atom in the compound has attained the electronic arrangement of a noble gas.)

Molecular formula of
Constituent elements Name of the compound
the compound

(a) Carbon and oxygen CO2 carbon dioxide

(b) Nitrogen and hydrogen NH3 ammonia

carbon tetrafluoride/
(c) Carbon and fluorine CF4
tetrachloromethane

(d) Nitrogen and chlorine NCl3 nitrogen trichloride

(e) Carbon and hydrogen CH4 methane

(f) Phosphorus and chlorine PCl3 phosphorus trichloride

Multiple-choice questions Which of the following combinations is correct?

X Y
Section 8.2
A. Sodium Fluorine
16. The following table shows the electronic B. Carbon Sulphur
arrangements of four elements W, X, Y and Z. C. Nitrogen Oxygen
D
D. Oxygen Chlorine
Element Electronic arrangement
18. Which of the following substances contains the
W 2,8,6
least number of bond pair of electrons?
X 2,8,1 A. Nitrogen 18. No. of bond pair of electrons

Y 2,8,4 B. Hydrogen N2 3
C. Oxygen H2 1
Z 2,8 O2 2 B
D. Ammonia
NH3 3

Which of the two elements would probably form 19. Which of the following substances contains the
a covalent compound? greatest number of lone pair of electrons?
19. No. of lone pair
A. W and X 16. W reacts with X to form ionic A. Hydrogen chloride
of electrons
B. X and Z compound instead of covalent B. Ammonia HCl 3
compound.
C. W and Y C. Nitrogen NH3 1
Z is a noble gas. It does not form
C A
D. Y and Z compounds with other elements. D. Water N2 2
H2O 2
17. The following shows the electron diagram of a 20. Which of the following correctly represents the
compound formed from elements X and Y (only molecular formula of hydrogen?
the outermost shell electrons are shown). A. H 20. (A): It is the chemical symbol of
hydrogen.
B. H–H
(B): It is the structural formula of
C. H2 hydrogen.
Y X Y C
D. H H (C): It is the molecular formula of
hydrogen.
(D): It is the electron diagram of
17. (Explanation on p.8-28.) hydrogen.

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 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

Section 8.3 Section 8.5

21. Which of the following is the correct structural 22. Which of the following combinations concerning
formula of a hydronium ion? the relative molecular mass and formula mass of
methane (CH4) is correct?
A. B.
Relative molecular mass Formula mass
H O H H O H
A. 16.0 g 16.0
H H
B. 16.0 16.0
–1 –1
C. 16.0 g mol 16.0 g mol
C. D. D. 16.0 16.0 g
B
H O H H O H
22. Both relative molecular mass and formula mass carry no units.
H H

23. (a) A: 2,1; B: 2,4; C: 2,6; D: 2,8; E: 2,8,2; F: 2,8,7

(b) Element D
C
23. (c) (i) + (ii) 2+ 2
Structured questions
A F E C
Section 8.2
23. The following is a part of the Periodic Table containing six elements A to F (A to F are NOT chemical
symbols of the elements.).

Group
I II III IV V VI VII 0
Period
2 A B C D

3 E F

(a) Write the electronic arrangements of elements A to F.

(b) Which element(s) has/have already attained an octet of electrons? 23. (d) BC2; C=B=C
(c) Draw electron diagrams to show the bonding in (e) A diatomic molecule refers to a
molecule of an element or a
(i) the compound formed between elements A and F. compound which consists of 2
(ii) the compound formed between elements C and E. atoms (i.e. its atomicity is 2).

(d) Write the molecular and structural formulae of the covalent compound formed between elements B
and C.
(e) Both elements C and F consist of diatomic molecules. What is meant by ‘diatomic molecule’?
(f) Draw electron diagrams (showing electrons in the outermost shells only) to show the bonding in
(i) the diatomic molecule C. 23. (f) (i) (ii)
(ii) the diatomic molecule F. C C F F

Section 8.3
24. You are given the following substances:
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), chlorine (Cl2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N2), water (H2O), sodium
chloride (NaCl), oxygen (O2), helium (He)
24. (a) Chlorine, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, water,
(a) Which of the above are molecular substances? oxygen, helium
(b) Which of the above are covalent compounds? (b) Carbon monoxide, water
(c) Ammonium chloride, chlorine, carbon monoxide,
(c) Which substances contain covalent bonds? nitrogen, water, oxygen
(d) Ammonium chloride
(d) Which substance(s) contain(s) dative covalent bond?
(e) Ammonium chloride, sodium chloride
(e) Which substance(s) contain(s) ionic bond?
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 II Microscopic world I

25. Compound X is produced when ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride.

(a) Draw the electron diagram of an ammonia molecule.
(b) What type of bonding is present in an ammonia molecule?
(c) How many bond pairs and lone pairs are there in an ammonia molecule?
(d) Write the molecular and structural formulae of
(i) ammonia; and
(ii) hydrogen chloride.
(e) What is the name of compound X?
(f) Describe, with the help of an electron diagram, all types of bonding present in compound X.

17. (A): An ionic compound, NaF, forms when sodium reacts with fluorine.
(B): A covalent compound, CS2, forms when carbon reacts with sulphur.

S C S

(C): A covalent compound, NO2, forms when nitrogen reacts with oxygen.

O O

(D): A covalent compound, Cl2O, forms when oxygen reacts with chlorine.

Cl O Cl

25. (a)

H N H

(b) Covalent bonding is present in an ammonia molecule.

(c) There are 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair of electrons in an ammonia molecule.
(d) (i) Molecular formula: NH3 Structural formula: H N H

H
(ii) Molecular formula: HCl Structural formula: H Cl
(e) Ammonium chloride
(f) In ammonium chloride, there are four N–H covalent bonds, in which three are normal covalent bonds and one is dative covalent bond.
+ –
Ionic bond is present between NH4 and Cl ions.
Electron diagram of ammonium chloride:
+
H

H N H Cl

8 28