Ghosh 26

CHAPTER – II

NIGERIA : A SOCIO – HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

PART A : A BRIEF REVIEW OF POLITICAL, RELIGIOUS AND ECONOMIC

STRUCTURE OF NIGERIA

The Federal Republic of Nigeria, like quite a number of African countries, is a

product of British imperialistic activities. Nigeria acquired its name, from ‘River Niger’-

that was suggested by Flora Shaw ,a British journalist, who later became the wife of first

colonial governor of Nigeria Fredrick Lugard. This has been acknowledged by Adebola

Babatunde Ekanola:

Nigeria is not a nation. It is a mere geographical expression. The word

‘Nigerian’ is merely a distinctive appellation to distinguish those who live

within the boundaries of Nigeria from those who do not …It was a product

Britain, by virtue of its superior technology and economy subjugated

people of diverse nationalities and organized them to construct Nigeria in

1914 with the amalgamation of Northern and Southern protectorates. (27)

Thus, Nigeria an early twentieth century colony became an independent nation in

1960. Modern Nigeria is one of the most well known countries of Africa. It is the largest

country of West Africa. Nigeria has 36 administrative states. Abuja is the newly

reconstructed capital of Nigeria. However, Lagos – the former federal capital territory,

situated on the southern coastline occupies its position as the important port and hub of

finance and commerce. Though Nigeria covers only 3% of African landmass and is the

largest country of Africa yet it is the most populous country of Africa and contains about

1/6th (20%) of African population. According to World Bank the population of Nigeria
 Ghosh 27

stands at 151319500 million in 2008, and is burgeoning at the rate of 2.5% (2008 est). It

is projected that their population explosion would make Nigeria the eighth most

populous nation of the world. African societies since historic times lived in rural settings.

In 1990, about 70% of Nigerian population lived in rural areas but the rural population is

gradually shrinking as the people engaged in agriculture had income levels averaged

among the lowest in the country. Moreover, these people had to bear additional problems

like inadequate health and education infrastructure – a familiar disadvantage of rural

areas. Moreover years of colonial rule made western style education and university

degrees a prerequisite for better jobs, salaries, social position and comfortable life. Thus,

most of the Nigerian families, rural and urban, want their youth to acquire educational

qualifications that ultimately leads to migration to urban centers. So contemporary

Nigeria is witnessing a rapid reorientation of social and economic systems and is moving

towards urbanism. After independence, especially since the oil boom of 1970’s there was

a massive development of roads, transportation services. Thousands of paved and dirt

roads connected villages to cities and it led to movement of people from rural to urban

environments. These cities provided employment opportunities to youth in various

manufacturing sectors like textile mills, steel plants, car assembly plants, large

construction companies, trade, corporate and financial institutions. Historically

Yorubaland and Hausaland had cities even before the advent of colonizers. Kano,

Katsina, Zoria, Sokoto, Ibadan were some of the important cities in northern Nigeria

during the pre-colonial and pre-independence period. These cities mainly functioned as a

centre for trade and politics. But Igbo belt was largely rural. But, after 1990, there has

been a massive growth of urban areas even in Igboland.

It is difficult to construct conclusive statements regarding the evolution of Nigerian

economy in wake of inadequate evidence concerning Nigerian economic development

 Ghosh 28

during pre-historic times. Archaeological evidence suggests that the early inhabitants of

Nigeria interacted amongst themselves to exchange knowledge about the usage of tools

and other agricultural equipments so that these crude instruments could be used to

cultivate in ecologically advantageous areas. They also tried to improvise their tools by

using new techniques and implemented them for superior agricultural produce and cutting

of forest to increase cultivation land. It was also needed in their transition from nomadic

life that consisted of hunting and food gathering to settled communal life in which

domestication of animals and cultivation of food crops were of vital importance. Growing

of crops by the people of late stone age was facilitated as some crops like yam and oil

palm grew in the wild and they only had to reproduce them in certain areas like the fertile

river valleys.Very little evidence is available about the spread of iron in Nigeria.

However, archaeological data suggest that knowledge to work with iron existed, around

third century B.C., in the area of Nok culture situated in Niger valley. In the fourteenth

and fifteenth centuries, several trade routes became prominent – such as the link between

Hausaland and Borno; Borno and Adamawa and the Benue valley; Hausaland with Nupe

and the confluence; Hausaland with Yorubaland; Yorubaland with Benin.

Gradually as the volume of trading activities increased people felt the need to

establish a kind of valuation and exchange. Cowry shells and iron currency were mainly

regarded as exchange units. However vast distances that had to be travelled by the

producers and consumers through densely forested areas (when wheel was unknown),

different cultures, clothing patterns, ornaments and differences in diet were some limiting

factors of pre-colonial Nigerian economic exchange. One of the most important yet dark

aspects of Nigerian trade history is the trading of slaves. There was a widespread demand

of slaves among African communities. The Trans-Saharan trade that existed as early as

eleventh century A.D. also perpetuated slave trade. Slaves were acquired chiefly for
 Ghosh 29

labour and military purposes. “Through this trans-Saharan trade Nigeria supplied a wide

array of luxury items notably textiles and leather products, pepper, kolanuts, ivory and

ostrich features. In exchange, Nigeria obtained luxury items as clothes, metalwork, spices,

dates, books, paper, salt…, they also brought horses to be used as cavalry."

(Falola,History 29)

In the late fifteenth century Nigeria, especially the southern region engaged in

slave trade with European countries. The Portuguese explorers first arrived on the south

coast of Benin with various intentions like engaging in trade; understanding the

topography of Africa, and spreading Christianity. The Portuguese traders also wanted

cheap labour for mining and other activities near the gold coast and hence started

acquiring slaves from the riverain areas of Nigerian Delta. The Portuguese historical

records state that “by 1480, it had become a regular practice for one or two Portuguese

caravels to enter their rivers each year in search of slaves. At this time, the whole coastal

region acquired in Portuguese charts and document by the name of five slave rivers."

( Ikeme, 236)

Most of the inhabitants of these coastal regions engaged in fishing and inter

village rivalry was common as they always had conflict over fishing grounds. The

prisoners of such encounters may have provided the first slave cargos. This slave trade

with Europeans that started with the contact between Benin and Portugal soon spread to

other regions like the kingdom of Ijebu in the west. By the sixteenth century, British,

French and Dutch companies also participated in slave trade. Dutch West India Company,

Royal African Company of Britain and other European companies explored the coastal

areas of Nigeria solely for the purpose of obtaining slaves. Gradually the trade expanded

to the hinterland and the chiefs and merchants responded to the lucrative slave trade.

They raided the neighbouring villages chiefly with the purpose of acquiring slaves and "it
 Ghosh 30

is estimated between 1672 and 1711 English ships carried some 125000 slaves from West

Africa for the Sugar Islands of West India.…to them must be added perhaps as many

again taken by French, Spaniards and Portuguese” ( Ikeme,241) These slaves were

exchanged through barter system, for importing gems, metal bars, copper, glass beads,

liquor and knives. Slave fairs were organized at regular intervals in various markets and

it served the dual purpose of obtaining European and local goods. More and more

communities responded to the profitable slave trade and it precipitated conflict among the

neighbouring states such as “Lagos against Badagry, Bonny against Andoni and New

Calabar against Okrika” ( Ikeme, 245)

These wars to capture the slaves divided the states in two economic zones. In

some states like Benin, Oyo and Ijebu, slave trading was a marginal economic activity

whereas in Niger Delta and some states it was a dominant economic activity. Thus the

slave trade that continued for three hundred years was largely concentrated in the areas

fringing the coast. The slave trade had some positive consequences too. Nigerian people

developed greater contacts with European market. European clothes and other products of

western world were introduced in the lives of pre-modern Nigerian citizenry. New crops

like cassava, potatoes and maize became a part of Nigerian food palate. But alternatively

it caused tremendous psychological and physical strain on slaves. De-humanizing

treatment was meted out to the slaves who had no rights and were treated as property.

Able-bodied men and women were drained from the society and enslaved thus tilting the

Nigerian population balance. Most of the natives remained poor as the narrow economy

based on slave trading profited a small section of people "middleman". On the whole it

eroded the Nigerian society and economy as it was over dependent on slaving. However

the British, during their rule, abolished slavery and put an end to this degrading trade by

the end of eighteenth century.

 Ghosh 31

Even in the nineteenth century, agriculture was the mainstay of Nigerian

economy. The agricultural produce was exchanged against other products or men’s’

labour. Slowly, various skilled workers like carpenters, hunters, cattlemen, fishermen

emerged and they rendered their skills and energies to the service of the society. Dairy

products such as milk and meat; clothes; ornaments like bracelets, anklets, necklaces were

exchanged among neighbouring states. During the years 1893 to 1913 when the

establishment of colonial rule was in its emerging stage, most of the obstacles to the free

flow of trade throughout the country were eliminated .The arranging of railway lines

between Lagos and Niger and Niger to Kano during the period of 1895 and 1912

provided modern means of transportation. By 1914, cocoa, kolanuts, rubber and

groundnut plantation were established across various areas of Nigeria. Slowly, industrial

activities like mining of tin, coal and other minerals were also started by the early phase

of nineteenth century. Colonial attitudes assumed Nigeria to be backward and relegated

her to the role of a provider of raw materials and market for British goods. In the post

second world war period more schools, roads, and hospitals were built by the colonizers

but the primary objective of British rule was exploitive.

The economic objectives of British rule were to make Nigeria financially

self-sufficient, produce raw materials and consume imported manufactured

goods…To protect the British industries, competitive ones would not be

created in Nigeria; the peasantry had to produce more export crops than

food for local needs; new changes must promote external trade; and

foreign merchants must be allowed to operate without much restriction.

(Falola, History 74)

'Nigerianization' grew faster during the second phase of colonial rule, that is, after

1914. Many Nigerians were employed as clerks in various offices. British also initiated a
 Ghosh 32

number of services of the industrialized world. Modernized transportation services

(harbours, roads and railways) and communication services (telegraphic and postal) were

launched. New coins and notes of various denominations were introduced. Many people

were engaged in services like teaching in schools; building railway lines; working in

communication sector thus creating a new class of 'wage earners'. Manufacturing did not

begin before 1945, apparently to avoid competition with European companies. The period

since 1950, the pre- independence decade, was a turning point for the economy of modern

Nigeria. Discovery of oil in Niger Delta fields and its production by 1958 provided a

major boost to economic sector. It also introduced a number of oil related occupation and

increased Gross Domestic Product.

Mining petrochemical industries, paper pulp mills, steel industries, breweries,

cement factories, textiles mills, and various other manufacturing units sprouted in few

urban areas. However, most of the people were engaged in the traditional occupation like

fishing, agriculture and cattle farming depending upon the environment and location.

People living in riverain areas were largely occupied in fishing. Fertile inlands helped to

flower agriculture. However, food crops varied with location. In the north, there are

mainly legumes and grains (corn, cowpeas, millets and sorghum); in the south there are

root crops (cassava, yam, cocoyam, and taro). Fulani cattlemen had been very successful

in rearing livestock. After independence, the Nigerian economy was divided into two

sectors - formal and informal. The formal sector was largely controlled and monitored by

the feudal and state government as they provide employment to a substantial population.

Funds were allocated to initiate developmental plans in various sectors like social,

economic, health and welfare services. These plans when implemented by government

generated employment. During 1970's and 1980's Nigeria was awash with oil generated

money and suddenly became one of the richer nations of Africa. Naira became a strong
 Ghosh 33

regional currency. Oil revenues, royalties from companies and taxes imposed on the

public provided the funds of public finance. The informal sector was also well organized.

Self-employed Nigerians catered to a host of services like equipment repair, production of

household appliances and range of other products of daily needs.

Domestic trade followed the traditional route of south to north and vice

versa and from rural to urban areas….Cattle, onions and beans move from

north to south, kolanuts, cassava and plantation move from south to north

and yams from middle belt to many parts of the country.(Falola,Culture11)

But after 1980's successive corrupt governments misused the oil money and

Nigeria a regional power of 1970's mainly because of its oil reserves was turned into one

of poorest nations of the world. Massive devaluation of Naira and rampant unemployment

are some of the major setbacks of Nigerian economy. In the present day, Nigeria also

engages in international trade with many countries of Europe, Asia and USA. Cars and

tools and luxury items are imported whereas crude oil, tin, rubber, cotton and peanuts are

exported. Finally it can be said that in spite of all its problems, Nigerian economy holds

the position of being the second largest economy in Africa following that of South

Africa.The history of indigenous groups and people of Nigeria dates back to pre-historic

times. Brass items in Bida, brass and copper heads in Ife-Ife and Benin, bronze products

in Igba Ukwu, terracotta animals in Borno, terracotta heads in Nok; quartz, basalt and

granite tools dating back to the Palaeolithic age are scattered in various locations.

Archaeological findings have confirmed that human life existed in Nigeria even in the

pre-historic period. The pre-historic period can be divided into‘stone age and metal age’.

Jos plateau in the middle belt is one of the early Stone Age sites. The areas around Jos

plateau along with the areas north to the Niger, Torabe and Benue rivers harbours

evidence of late and middle stone age whereas evidence of

 Ghosh 34

SOKOTO CALIPHATE
CALI

SONGHAI EMPIRE

• FIGURE : 6. Sokoto Caliphate and Shonghai Empire

• SOURCE:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_
of_Nigeria
 Ghosh 35

KANEM EMPIRE

• SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanem_Empire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ _Empire

BORNO EMPIRE

• FIGURE :7.Kanem and Borno Empire

• SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornu_Empire
 Ghosh 36

metal stone age is scattered all over the country. During, the Stone Age human beings

were nomads but subsequently settled down and started cultivation. Microlithic tools like

bones, arrows and spears were engaged by them for agriculture and other activities.

Archaeological excavations at a site near Daima revealed that inhabitants of that region

cultivated millet and sorghum and herded cattle. It is generally believed that by the fourth

century A.D., knowledge and use of iron expanded to various areas of Nigeria leading to

transformation and improvisation of agriculture and warfare. However, according to

archaeological findings Nok civilization that emerged in the middle belt of Nigeria was a

major Iron Age civilization. Metal age began with the discovery and use of iron. Later on

copper, brass and bronze were also used by the people.

The achievements of the metal age became pronounced in such places as

Igbo -Ukwu in the ninth century A.D.; Ife-Ife from the 10th to 12th century

A.D.; Benin from the 13th to 14th century A.D…. The use of iron and other

metals… promoted the emergence of cities and centralized political

systems such as those of Ife-Ife, the Hausa city states, Benin, Karem and

Borno. ( Falola, History 18)

They are a testimony of pre-historic times of Nigeria. This metal age provided a

powerful impetus rise of societies. In pre-colonized Nigeria there were two dominant

forms of states - centralized societies or states and non-centralized states known as

stateless societies. Centralized states had elaborate political system and comprised of

various cities, kingdoms, and villages. The king was all powerful and exercised direct

control over the territory. The king would expand his empire that was generally ruled by

his successors. The king could be usually the head of a clan who emerged as the most
 Ghosh 37

powerful among his tribe and gradually flexed his strength over other clan heads thus

bringing them under his authority. An influential priest who used his religious doctrinaire

to acquire political grounds or a mighty warrior from a weak group having the capability

to weaken other groups could also become kings. After establishing his kingdom, the king

would try to expand his empire by subordinating other groups and confiscating their lands

and important markets. The territory was flexible - expanding or contracting depending

upon military strength of the kingdom. The kingdom was divided into provinces for

administrative purposes. The province comprised of many villages and towns inhabited

by different ethnic communities. These communities participated in inter and intra

community trade and generated wealth by other commercial activities. Majority of the

citizens lived in villages and engaged in agricultural pursuits. They were governed by

chiefs appointed by the king. The chief levied and collected taxes, tributes and gifts thus

earning revenues and finance for the public treasury. The chiefs were generally loyal

subjects of the king but also had close affinity with the local authority. This helped to

reduce conflict between the central authority and provincial interests. In the process king

and chiefs accumulated generous amount of wealth. Many able-bodied citizens became

soldiers in the king's army and fought hostile neighbours and some were engaged in

trading sector. Some were diplomats and helped to foster political relations and

consolidate power. Eventually the empire would come to an end when a more powerful

leader would overthrow the king by successful wars of conquest. Examples of such

centralized states are dotted on all over the country:

In the south east were the Ijo city states such as Nembe, Elem, Kalabari,

Bonny and Okrika. In the southwest were the powerful kingdoms of Benin

and Oyo and several other Yoruba states. In the middle belt were the Nupe
 Ghosh 38

and Igala kingdoms. In the north could be found Karem-Borno Empire and

the Hausa states. ( Falola, Culture15)

The second category of states was the non-centralized states such as those of Igbo

and Ibibio territories of eastern Nigeria. The socio-political machinery of these states has

been discussed later while briefing the Igbo society. Thus, pre- colonial Nigeria was made

up of many states governed by various forms of governance. Gobi, Kebbi, Zaria, Kano

and Katsina were some of well known Hausa kingdoms of thirteenth century. Jukun

Empire flourished in the middle belt of Nigeria. The Yoruba Empire of Oyo attained

prominence in southern Nigeria during the tenth century. Benin, yet another great empire

of the south, emerged during fourteenth century and thrived for a couple of centuries

before falling for the British conquest in 1897. A number of riverain kingdoms also had

visible presence in the Niger-Benue Confluence area.These centralized and non-

centralized societies were self-sufficient and engaged in viable agricultural and

commercial pursuits until their exposure to Europeans. From the tenth century onwards

Nigerian natives were introduced to European presence. These Europeans chiefly the

Portuguese, British, and French citizens arrived on the shores of Nigeria with four major

intentions: to explore the African terrain; to propagate Christianity; to conduct trade and

of course the main motive was to establish the imperial rule. In fact in the book History of

Nigeria Toyin Falola all the issues were ultimately related:

All are ultimately related -- explorers provided useful knowledge for

others to use and encouraged the traders to move to hinterland;

missionaries served as the pathfinders for the colonialists; traders indicated

the profits to be made from imperialism and together with the

missionaries, pressured the British government to takeover Nigeria.“ ( 39)

 Ghosh 39

Britain employed various measures to consolidate their stronghold over the socio-

economic, political and religious forces of Nigeria. Initially they setup exploration

missions on the pretext of understanding the course of rivers Niger and Benue. Several

British explorers traversed through the Nigerian hinterland to enhance geographical

knowledge. But actually the chief purpose of such missions was to determine the

commercial value of Nigerian resources. After gaining the confidence of the natives and

rulers by eluding them of dubious European intentions, Europeans entered into the city

states and villages on yet another purpose - the spread of Christianity. The same has been

expressed by Chinua Achebe in his novel Things Fall Apart. Records reveal that in 1842,

the first batch of Christian missionaries arrived at Badagry. Between 1842 and 1892, a

number of European and American missionaries arrived in Nigeria. In an effort to reduce

the cost of mission work and to protect the European from tropical diseases "a crop of

morally upright and well trained Africans was drafted for mission work as clergy and

leaders to create among the people ‘a self governing, self supporting, self propagating

church’.”(Falola, History 41) So, liberated slaves were assigned the task of enlightening

the natives about Christianity. In the initial years, the Christian missionaries received

lukewarm response from the inhabitants but later on, the embracement of Christianity was

accelerated because of the involvement of native Africans. Christianity acquired the

position of new religion in the southern and middle region though it failed to conquer the

Islamic north as Islam was the practicing religion of Northern Nigeria dating back to

eleventh century. These clergymen volunteers along with their European fathers keenly

initiated a host of social welfare activities like education and health services.

Some of the missionaries were responsible for favouring the imposition of British

rule as they believed that native rulers were a source of hindrance to their missionary

work. They also generated among the natives interest for European goods and new crops
 Ghosh 40

like maize, cassava and citrus fruits. Commercial interests brought more and more British

on the fringes of Nigerian coast. The abolition of slave trade and transition of trade in raw

products - the so called legitimate commerce – defined the Euro-Nigerian commercial

relations during the nineteenth century. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, it

was obvious that Nigeria would become a colony of Britain. They annexed Lagos in 1898

and erstwhile parts of country were brought under British authority by 1905. This

involved a long process of suppressing uprisings, engineered by few pockets of

resistance, either by diplomacy or coercion. With the assistance of well equipped

advanced political and military resources, British rule in Nigeria was firmly

consolidated.Thus

The British conquest of Nigeria occurred in two stages: the southern phase

from 1850 to 1897 and the northern phase from the turn of century to

1914. In 1912, Sir Fredrick Lugard was appointed the governor general of

the colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the Northern Nigeria.

( Falola, History 54 )

On first January, 1914 the two protectorates were amalgamated by Lugard, 'the

principal architect' of 'amalgamation scheme' that projected Nigeria as a nation state

having confined boundaries with a common political head. Since then the majority of

Nigerians identified themselves with the nation state they had inherited from colonialism.

However, this British rule of Nigeria lasted only for 60 years. Anti colonial feeling was

rampant among the Nigerians owing to their dissatisfaction with pro-British policies.

Increased interference of colonizers in matters concerning their socio-religious systems,

profits made by foreign companies being siphoned off Nigeria, lack of educational

institutions both at the grass root and higher levels, burden of taxes, poor health services,

inadequate representation in civil and commercial sectors, racism were some of the issues
 Ghosh 41

that initiated resentment against the imperialists. Furthermore during the World War II,

Nigerians became aware of various happenings that were taking place in various parts of

the world.A generation of Black modern thinkers like Edward Wilmot Blyden, Bishop

James Johnson, Mojola Agbebi, John Payne Jackson and William Bright Davies initiated

the feeling of pride in being an African; they reminded the people about antiquity of

African heritage and its contribution to civilization. Their influential opinions circulated

through meetings, media, pamphlets stimulated political consciousness among the people

and nationalism became a force to reckon with. These elite Africans, armed with western

education pressed for greater reforms but later on demanded for complete self-rule and

independence. Initially the nationalist movement was centered in a few urbanized centres

but with time nationalist movement made inroads into towns and villages and shook the

foundation of imperial rule.Ndabaningi Sithale says,"There are two dangers to the peace

of the world- Communism and White supremacy. Both are based on same principles, both

employ the same methods and both aim at the same thing - domination of others. White

supremacy is to us what Russian communism is to Russian satellite countries.” (28)

From 1951 onwards, it became clear that imperial rule was in its final analysis. With

approaching independence, there was an effort to establish more participatory political

and economic institutions and a new constitution was formed in 1954 that envisaged a

federal structure of government for the whole country and ensured that the three main

groups - Yoruba, Igbos and Hausa/Fulanis could wield dominance over the respective

regions. According to Glenn A. Odum:

Britain and Neo-Nigeria had planned Nigeria's independence for slightly

less than two decades before the official transfer of power took place. The

new elections held just before the official day of independence in 1960

asked the nation to select between three major political parties divided
 Ghosh 42

roughly by region: the action group (AG) in the west; the Northern

National People's Congress (NPC) in the North, the National Council of

Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC) in the east … corresponded generally to

divisions between the Housa-Fulani (North), Yoruba (West) and Igbo

(East) groups living in Nigeria. (205)

Nigeria attained independence on 1st October 1960. At independence Nigeria was

regarded as a beacon of hope for prosperity and democracy. Unfortunately Nigeria was

going to be enmeshed in a host of issues that would bring instability in the years to come.

Most notable obstacle to the vision of United Nigeria; was the ethnic differences ,

apprehension of the minority groups – their fear of being stifled, violence, corruption and

unemployment. The first general elections were held in 1959. According to the

constitutional provisions, the country was split into three geo-political regions and the

identities and ideologies of those regions were manifested in the political parties of those

territories. So three major political parties in the fray were NPC, AG, NCNC. The

election results declared NPC to be the majority party and it formed a coalition with

NCNC to control the federal government. NPC, the prime party of Northern Nigeria, tried

to promote the interests of Northern region and diverted a major chunk of federal

spending to that territory. This embittered the parties of other region and apprehension of

northern dominance precipitated inter- party conflicts. The three parties disagreed on

almost all the issues - economy, foreign policy, census and elections. Intra-party crisis

caused split in the parties. Hence the first four years of independence were marred with

numerous problems -unemployment, corruption in the state offices, uneven rate of

development, massive looting of state coffers .Since then independent Nigeria witnessed

many elections and military regimes and finally in the 2007 general elections Umaru Yar'

Adwa and Goodluck Jonathan, both of PDP were elected President and Vice President
 Ghosh 43

respectively. This present ruling government must resolve the problems rooted in

Nigeria’s peripheral capitalist system like poverty, malnourishment and disparities in

income, wealth and social justice to ensure political and democratic stability in Nigeria.

The legacy of religious landscape of Nigeria dates back to times that have limited

historical evidence. Ancient Nigerians believed in indigenous religions. The indigenous

religions were localized; the inhabitants of different areas had their own sets of Gods,

Goddesses and ceremonies. These innumerable indigenous religions and its encompassing

beliefs about the existence of God, creation of universe, welfare of society and man

occupied a pre-eminent place in the lives of early Nigerians. All these primordial

religions had some common characteristics - worship of Gods and Goddesses; veneration

of ancestors; elaborate religious ceremonies. Even the celebration of certain festivals like

Igbo Yam Festival and Annual Masquerade of Yoruba had religious undertones. These

religion bestowed semi-god status to king and chiefs.One of the best known African

indigenous religion is that of the Yoruba, a group speaking a common language, a belief

in Oduduwa as their ancestor, and Ife-Ife as their original homeland. However these

indigenous religions started losing believers with the advent of Islam and Christianity.

The religion of Islam was propogated in North Africa during the caliphate of Umar.B.Al-

khatab the second successor of Prophet Muhammad as the religious and political head of

Muslim community.

Trade links between North Africa and West Africa was one of the key factors that

bolstered the penetration of Islam in West Africa. According to historical documents,

Kanem-Borno was the first territory of Nigeria that embraced Islam and Mai Humuai was

the first Muslim ruler of Kanem-Borno. Gradually some of the Islamic scholars of Borno

migrated to Hausaland and were instrumental to the foundation of Islamic tradition in

these areas. Islamic influence reached Nupe and Yorubaland around seventeenth century.
 Ghosh 44

Till the seventeenth century, Islam was professed mainly by merchants, chiefs and kings.

But by eighteenth century, a sizable section of population converted to Islam. The

successful Jihad led by Uthman Don Fodio, in the nineteenth century assisted the

establishment of Islam as the religion of the masses. The position of Islam was further

consolidated in Northern Nigeria with the establishment of Sokoto Caliphate. Conversion

to Islamic faith was favoured for a number of reasons. Firstly the ideologies of this

modern religion satiated the social and spiritual needs of the people. Secondly it promoted

literacy through Quranic education. Moreover the worldview preached by Islam did not

demand subordination to Whiteman .The Whiteman's religion Christianity - an import of

European intrusion was introduced in the lives of Nigerians in the eighteenth century.

However Christianity recorded a phenomenal growth after the abolition of slave trade.

Europeans had converted many slaves into Christians during their period of slavery.

These slaves were liberated by the Christian missionaries and were made the 'native

agents' to spread Christianity.

Conversion in the early years was motivated by a desire not just to preach

the gospel but to redeem Africa from their so called barbarism and

economic deprivations; to create a so called industrial class that would

produce for the market, and to produce new elite that would be the agents

of change. (Falola, Culture 44)

Different sects of Christianity like Anglicans, Methodists, Catholics vigorously

competed amongst themselves to attract most number of converts. Christianity made

remarkable progress in the south and middle belt of Nigeria in the twentieth century. The

most appealing aspects of Christianity were its association with Western ideas and formal

educational system. Christianity expected Nigerians to be civilized, educated and thus it

deeply reformed the traditional education pattern of Nigeria that did not have the concept
 Ghosh 45

of formal education. Gradually, out of long standing association with Christianity of the

west and cultural awakening of educated Christian converts emerged of African Church

Movement. “The vision of Nigerian Church union, in the form it took, was very much the

creation of outsiders. Anglican, Methodist and Presbyterian missionaries, influenced by

the growing ecumenical movement and supported by their home mission societies, played

a leading role in launching the proposals for Nigerian Church union.” (Steed and

Sundkler , 950) It is important to note that both Islam and Christianity had been

indigenized by Nigerians. Various elements of primordial cultures like charm making,

divination, belief in dreams and visions has been incorporated in Islam. Indigenization of

Christianity allowed the Nigerians to baptize African names, control the churches,

practice polygyny and use African dance and music in worship.However since 1980's,

religious tensions between the two communities have escalated as Nigeria is witnessing

an Islamic resurgence and Islamic leaders want to impose Shariat law across the state.

This demand has been fiercely protested by Christian community and led to clashes and

riots that has claimed thousands of lives and destroyed property worth in millions. The

1976 draft of the constitution states that "Nigeria is one and indivisible sovereign

Republic, secular, democratic and social.” (Falola, Culture 49) Therefore, in the present

day it is imperative that both the minaret and the pulpit should endeavour to maintain the

secular tone of country.

Nigeria is a melting pot of diverse ethnicities. The poly-ethnic nation is home to

about 250 ethnic groups and languages. However there are three dominant ethno-

linguistic groups. The Yorubas predominate in the Ogun, Ondo, Oya and Osun states. The

Hausa and the Fulanis constitute the largest groups in Sakoto, Kaduna, Jigawa, Katsina

and Kano states. Other important groups include the Kanure in Borno and Yobe states;

the Edo in Edo state the Ibibio in Akwa Ibam state; the Ijaw in Rivers state, the Tiv in
 Ghosh 46

• FIGURE : 8.Principal Linguistic Groups

• SOURCE : www.learnc.org/ip/multimedia
 Ghosh 47

Benue and plateau areas; and the Nupe in Niger state. The Hausa in the past have been

officially estimated to constitute 21%, Igbo 18%, Fulani 12%, Ijaw10%, Kanuri 4.1 %,

IbIgbo 3.6 %, Tiv 2.5% and others 18.7%. Each group develops and manipulates its own

mythology of descent, regards themselves as the descendants of a common ancestor,

share same historical origins and are anchored in a particular territory. Every ethnic group

possesses a number of distinguishing characteristics. They speak the same language or

different dialects of the same language. Its members share an exclusive culture, rituals,

beliefs and moral practices. They have their own identifiable way of life, mode of dress,

food and food habits, socio-cultural dispositions, common mechanisms and patterns of

socializing its members, systems of marriage, family organizations and domination or

parity of men and women in their respective societies. Its members forge relationships

between political and economic spheres that help in accessing resources of the same

family to consolidate trust, reliability, defence and mutual assistance wherever needed or

solicited. Finally, it can be said that each ethnic group in Nigeria is an interest group - a

cultural expression of kith and kin ideology. In the recent times, the diverse ethnic

groups having different social, politico-economic and environmental circumstances are

slowly homogenizing as a result of growing interactions among the people of Nigeria.

The importance of social relations and family as social institution is universally

acknowledged by all Nigerians whether traditional or modern. Values of unity are

instilled among the family members. The family acts as a welfare and insurance agency

for all the members. It is an unit of production. Provisions for shelter; maintenance of

household activities; economic activities and procreation are some of the key functions of

a Nigerian family. Traditionally the Nigerians live in extended families. In a typical

extended family people of different generations live together as close to one another and

believe that they are bonded together by common ancestor. In Nigeria, there is no
 Ghosh 48

distinction between family and kinship. The values and reality of extended family and

kinship are imbibed in them from the very childhood. "The children quickly realize that

they stand in the circle of history; their ancestors represent the past, their parents

represent the present, and they represent the future … and are trained to cherish the past

and respect the present." ( Falola, Culture 29) These extended families are a part of

village community and in a rural areas, family and village community are synonymous.

The proverb 'It takes a village to raise a child' expresses the harmonious interactions

between members of a village. A child is expected to obey and respect parents, elderly

people, uncle and aunts of household and neighbourhood.

Nigeria is essentially a patriarchal and patrilineal society. In a patrilineal society -

one's lineage is traced through male ancestors. Majority of Nigerians forbid marriage

within same lineage. Their system grants inheritance rights to men. Marriage is regarded

as the most important social custom as it ensures maintenance and expansion of lineage.

Besides, it is instrumental to formation of alliances between two different kinship groups.

Donating brides-wealth is one of the most important rituals of Nigerian marriage. This

involves the transfer of property from a man's lineage to the women's family. Muslims

and Christians solemnize their marriages in adherence to the rites granted by their

religion, whereas traditionalists evoke gods and ancestors to bless their marriages and

offer prayers. Various kinds of marriages forms are widely practiced across Nigeria.

Prominent are - monogamous marriages - it comprises of one man and one wife and

polygynous marriages that allows one man to have marriage alliances with more than one

woman. Polygyny is most prevalent form of marriage among traditionalists and Muslims.

Christians, especially those who are residing in rural areas, also practice polygyny.

Traditionally, polygynous marriages are favoured by Nigerians, both men and women, for

a number of reasons. Prime reason is the predominant agrarian economy of Nigeria that
 Ghosh 49

requires many hands to labour in the farms, and perform other duties related to house,

extended family and village. Besides in the areas where the population of women was

more than men, it allowed every woman (desiring to marry) to have a husband. It also

neutralized the loss of children owing to high infant mortality rate. This practice also

ensured the birth of many sons that in turn helped to enlarge the kinship group. Widow

inheritance is yet another form of marriage that is allowed by the Nigerian social milieu.

In these marriages, the widow of the deceased brother is married to younger or elder

brother in law.

Thus demography, politics, history, economy, social and cultural milieu, diverse

ethnic groups and their unique culture lends a flavour to Nigeria that is quintessentially

Nigerian. This ‘generalized’ Nigerian perspective is well expressed in some of the works

of Buchi Emecheta but the lives of the people of Igbo ethnicity is more exhaustively

captured in her literary endeavors. Hence a brief preview about the Igbos will provide a

better understanding of her creative texts.

PART B: NIGERIA AND THE IGBOLAND

The Igbos is an ethnic community mainly inhabiting in the south eastern region of

Nigeria. The Igbo community extends over 8 of 36 states of federal republic of Nigeria -

These are Abia, Arambra, Ebaneje, Enugu, Imo and some parts of River states. These

Igbo territories are generally referred as Igboland. The population of the Igboland is

estimated to be about 30 million (2006) and is one of the most densely populated regions

of Nigeria. Ala Igbo (the land of the Igbos) is the word that is used by Igbos to identify

their ethnic group and the people are referred as Ndi-Igbo. The term Ala-Igbo essays the

idea of 'territorial delimitation', that is the majority of Igbo clans in the same

'geographical-territorial' unit. These Igbo people have their unique socio-cultural and
 Ghosh 50

political norms. In a traditional Igbo social milieu, family is the primary social unit and

the Igbo word for family is Eze. Topographically speaking, the Igbo ethnic group was

carved into precise units each of which was composed of five or more subdivisions more

or less dimensionally hierarchical in order.

The first four of these can be distinguished by the name of the section

they were representing in the ethnic group:

1. Onuama (extended family)

2. Umunna (lineage)

3. Ogbe' (village)

4. Mba' (clan)

5. Ikpa, Ohia-ubi, Oke-Ohia (a mass of land and pieces of uninhabited

farmlands, forest and bushes). (Aligwekwe,81)

The Igbo traditional extended family comprises of a number of households that

reside within the premises of Onuama. The households can be categorized into three

levels. The first is 'Eze-nne-na-nna'. In this type of house-hold, the husband practices

monogamy and lives with his wife and children.The second type of household is ‘Eze-

nna' where the man is married to several wives (polygynous household) and finally the

household of mother ‘Eze-nne’. In a polygynous setup, the mother's hut was of paramount

importance to the children as it provided the much desired intimacy that could not be

afforded by the father who was shared by other half-sisters and brothers.All these

households were a part of the Igbo extended family - called Onuama.

The Onuama was composed of (i) the father of Ego and his wife or wives

(in the case of polygymous setup) and the children including also the
 Ghosh 51

mother of the father and the father and mother of Ego (ii) Ego's father's

wives (in case of a polygynist), the brothers and sisters of Ego including

his half brothers and half sisters.(iii) Ego's brother's wives and children of

Ego; all enlarged much more extended family. ( Aligwekwe, 43)

The patrilineal and often polygynous Igbo society bestows a lot of significance to

male child. These male children ultimately dominate the entire household in their

adulthood. Igbos males wielded authority over socio-political matters and were granted

considerable social weight-age. Besides they also monopolized over a host of economic

activities that made them more privileged and wealthier than their female counterparts.

Cultivation of Yam, rearing of cattle mainly sheep and goats, extraction of palm wine

were some of commercial privileges enjoyed only by men. On the other hand, women

were allowed to cultivate cocoyam (a lower grade of the species of the yam) and rear

chickens. She was obliged to fetch water, and firewood, cook meals and perform other

household duties. They were expected to teach culinary and other household skills to the

female children.

The Onuama was the focal point and hub around which revolved the lives of the

family members. All the children of the extended family were born in the compound of

the Onuama. The birth of the child was marked with cheers, congratulations, singing,

dancing and other ceremonies. After some weeks, the child was initiated into his or her

Onuama by the ritual of Ikpo-Aha (Naming of newborn babies). The names in the

community were generally in accordance with certain Igbo values; historical, aesthetic,

spiritual, philosophical, sentimental or related to some special event associated with the

birth of the child. In a way the naming of the child was meant to situate him in the

society; let him know his worth and make him understand what was expected of him.

Parents and other members of the Onuama were responsible for the physical and other
 Ghosh 52

developmental aspects of the child. If the child was abnormal or handicapped, he was

'destroyed' by the Onuama. Thus from the infancy period, a child is aware of the

existence of Onuama that allowed him to develop contact with humans; imparted lessons

about the laws of sharing (even his father in a polygynous setup) and provided him

security, shelter, food, education, training to earn his livelihood and other amenities that

were required by him throughout his life. It also helped him to learn the art of defending

himself in the midst of other members of Onuama. One of the positive aspects of Igbo

social milieu was that an Igbo child was never totally an orphan, as he was meant to

belong always to a particular Onuama in which he was obligatorily helped by the

members. An adult member of Onuama was supposed to take into his charge the young

orphans of even his extended family, educate them and give them the same rights as her

own children, till adult age.

In an Onuama, all the members believed that they had descended from a common

ancestor Nna-Mbu (the first father) and therefore identified themselves with their paternal

patrilineage (Umunna of the father). Nevertheless, he maintained relations with four other

lineages namely – Umunna of the mother, Umunna of the mother of the father, Umunna

of the mother of the mother and Umunna of the spouse. “The Igbo term for lineage is

Umunna (the patrilineage). The Umunna as a patrilineage limit is made up of the sum

total of the agnatic units each of which is called the Onuama (the extended family).”

( Aliwekwe, 61) Marriage among Igbos was not a union between man and wife but of

two lineages. The wife, from the day of her marriage was granted the same rights as the

other members of her husband’s lineage and was acknowledged as an integral part of the

patrilineage of her husband. It provided her piece of land and trees of commercial value

for economic independence. As for the menfolk, his Umunna was the basis of his

existence. It is his Umunna that conferred upon him his social and personal identity and
 Ghosh 53

accentuated his economic independence. He was supposed to reside in his Umunna all his

life, marry, procreate and integrate her children (especially male) in the Umunna .In a

traditional Igbo cultural milieu, when several patrilineages believe that they are the

progeny of a common remote ancestor, an Obge (village) is said to have formed. The

village was named after the remote ancestor (the first father). The village unit played an

important role for socio-economic and individual advancement. Besides, every village

had a deity (a common god) that was worshipped at the village temple usually situated in

village market place. It also contributed to the development of personality of the child and

promoted interaction among them through their initiation into age-groups or age-grades.

Children were encouraged to participate in the economic endeavours of their parents,

accompany them to the market and assist them in farm work. Besides, they were also

involved in various ceremonies, religious, wedding and funeral. Numerous sports

competitions, especially wrestling, were held for physical development. Games like mbi

or Okwe were learnt by them to enhance mathematical ability and intellect. Elders of the

village and families were expected to tell stories, tales and fables to the children to impart

knowledge about the history, physiology and philosophy of the Igbos.

The last and the largest subdivision of Igbo social structure is the Mba (clan) that

is formed when a number of villages acclaimed themselves to be the descendants of some

mythical or very remote ancestor and he was regarded as the founding father of the clan.

The size of the clan could be as large as to accommodate ten to fifteen villages or could

be composed of only four to five villages. The members of each clan were expected to

interact amongst themselves, conduct trade for economic advancement and participate in

various ceremonies related to the clan. Thus, each Igbo was a member of his Onuama,

Umunna, Ogbe and Mba. This concept of being a member of each of these social units

developed in them the preference of ‘living in a sort of agglomeration’. The Igbo cultural
 Ghosh 54

tradition did not encourage isolated living and rather emphasized on unity and solidarity.

This kinship system imposed a number of socio-economic and religious obligations on

him that could be only be carried out by co-habiting in close proximity with other

member of their community.

For the Igbos, agriculture was the traditional economic occupation. Yam (known

as jii in Igbo) and cocoyam (called ede) were the principal crops cultivated by the Igbos.

Cassava also became a part of the main root crops after European intervention. Apart

from there tubers, various types of legumes like Akidi, Nwodudu, Mkpokoro, groundnut

were also harvested. Vegetables such as Ugu, Oha, Ugboguru, Apu, Anara were also

grown in the garden of the Onuama and consumed. British invasion also introduced

edible fruits in the cuisine of Igbos .Out of all the crops that were harvested; the

cultivation of Yam had supreme importance among ancient Igbos. Yam was not only

consumed but was considered to be a gift of god from the creator (Chineke) and God

Ifejioku (the God of Yam) was its protector. Yam was also an indicator of wealth. The

wealth and position of a man in Igbo society was directly proportional to the quantity of

Yam possessed by him in his Yam barn. Igbo economic-religious ideology conferred

higher social position to those men who along with the surplus quantity of Yam and

livestock were capable of fulfilling certain social obligations. Titles like Oba and Eze-iji

(king of Yam) were awarded to men who had over thousand ekwe– jii (poles of Yam).

All the cultivation was done on the land of Igbos’ – that was considered a heritage

of the ancestors. Umunna was the ultimate proprietor of the land and therefore it was

mandatory for the Umunna to allocate portions of land to each male member of the

Umunna. However, some lands like the market square, lands sanctified for religious

purposes and ‘bad bush’ (where the corpses of abnormal children , abominable men and

women were thrown) were non-appropriated. Igbo community also emphasized the
 Ghosh 55

growing and tendering of trees and plants of financial value and this practice was known

as Izu Osisi aku. Various kinds of palms especially Nkwu was grown for economic,

nutritional, symbolic, spiritual, social and religious value. The wine that is extracted from

the palm nut has symbolic significance in ceremonies like initiation, betrothals, marriages

and funerals.

The practice of animal rearing is known as Ikpa anu. Many types of animals like

chickens, sheep and goats were domesticated for meat and dairy products. They were also

offered for religious sacrifices. Several types of small scale industries were nurtured by

the ancient Igbo community. Prominent among them were the blacksmiths, carpenters,

sculptors, women art workers and basket weavers. Different types of agricultural tools

(like the machetes, hoes, spades, and shovels) and household tools (like knives, forks,

needles) were manufactured by the ironsmiths. Carpenters produced stools, recliners,

artistically decorated boxes, doors, coffins and an array of other items as per the

requirements of the community. The art of pottery was the prerogative of women.

Various kinds of pots for cooking, storing water were crafted by women.

The social stratification among the Igbos can be divided into five levels:

1) Ogananya 2) Dimkpa 3) Ogbenye 4) Ohu 5) Oshu

However, the most definitive social division within the Igbo community was the diala

and nondiala dichotomy. Ogananya, Dimkpa and Ogbenye belonged to the dialas, where

as the Ohu and Oshu were considered to be nondialas. Ogananya means great men who

are in possession of material riches (Aku) and social prestige (Okwa). Titles like Ozo and

Eze are bestowed upon them. Dimkpa signifies able men or women who are not only

capable of earning their livelihood but also are in possession of abilities to face the

adversaries of life with courage and conviction. Dimkpas were supposed to have
 Ghosh 56

economic independence coupled with formidable personality that matched their equally

ambitious minds. They were expected to uncover the ways that would uplift their social

status of Ogananya. Ogbenye or Mbi portrayed the social groups that once possessed

material riches and social titles but now had fallen into poverty. The word Mbi (poor) also

signifies orphaned children whose loss of parents was considered to be irreplaceable and

thus were adopted by other members of the family .The Ohus were relegated in the

category of non-diala. The ancient Igbos believed that Ohus were prisoners of war or

hostages captured during inter village rivalries. A morally loose or poor person seeking

refuge from a master was also designated as Ohu. Oshus were considered as social out

caste – a sub human being and were considered to be the ‘misfits’ of the Igbo society.

All communication with the rest of the society, be they diala or Ohu, at

marriage level and habitation level were forbidden to the Oshu….The

Oshu was forbidden to live in the same quarters as a diala….It was

preferred that the Oshu built their houses apart, far from the houses of the

community…. The Oshu lived generally at the proximity of the altar of

God to which they were consecrated. ( Aligwekwe, 153)

However, the Oshu, Ohu and dialas could interact during religious ceremonies

and sacrifices as Oshu was the person dedicated to the God of the community and was

supposed the play the role of the guardian of its altar, and thus had access to the offerings

(food, animals and money) to the God.

The political machinery in Igbo society started at the Onuama level. The most

elderly man of the Onuama was generally regarded as the political head of the family

provided his physical, intellectual, moral and economic abilities were intact. He was

known Onye–isi– Onuama and gave his verdict on various disputes of the extended

family such as matrimonial discords, interpersonal rivalries, and economic disparities.

 Ghosh 57

HIGH TITLED IGBO MEN

• FIGURE : 9 .Titled Igbo Men

• SOURCE : Agbasiere, Joseph-Therese. Women in Igbo Life
and Thought. London : Routledge. 2000.page no.xxviii.Print
 Ghosh 58

HIGH TITLED IGBO WOMEN

N

• FIGURE : 10 .Titled Igbo Women

• SOURCE : Agbasiere, Joseph
Joseph-Therese. Women in Igbo Life
Thought.. London : Routledge. 2000.page
and Thought
no.xxiv.Print
 Ghosh 59

He also presided over the familial and religious festivities. He was considered as

the father of the Onuama and the other members were supposed to obey him. The Onye-

isi-Onuama of each Onuama represented his Onuama in the Ndi-Amala (the government

of the lineage–Umunna). Ndi-Amala was formed when the elders of various Onuama

formed a council .The head of Ndi-Amala was known as Opara. He was authorized to

give his judgement on various issues such the distribution of land, intra and family feuds,

and sentenced punishment for abominable crimes and non-obedience to religious

obligations. He was regarded as the intermediary between the Umunna, its ancestors and

lineage God.

The next level of Governance was at the village level “The Igbo traditional

government at the village level was then a ‘direct democracy, par excellence and was

very clearly defined: The General assembly was composed of all the lineages, which

allowed the political participation of all the adults of the village, men and women alike.”

(Aligwekwe,165) The village assembly known as Oha, resolved various problems related

to village. Religious and economic issues wear also redressed. Conventions of relations

with neighbouring villages wear also maintained by village assemblies. The verdict on

problems was given by selected members of the assembly and Umunna. At the apex was

the governance conducted by the clan.

The governance of the traditional Igbo clan had a system of political assembly

(Oha). They were attended by the representatives of the villages called Ndi-nochirianya-

Ogbe. “The members of Ndi-nonchirianya-Ogbe were in general the members of Ndi-

Amala (the council of elders), Ndi-Eze (the initiated of Ozo), the Eze-jii, all of whom

were grouped under titled men of society…” (Aligwekwe,168) The clan assembly was
 Ghosh 60

presided by Onye –eze or Onye–isi –ala. Thus, the goverance of Igbo community is truly

democratic and it has been expressed by Igbo saying Igbo enweghi eze, which mean that

the Igbos have no ruler or monarchial rule and usually any form of supremacy by a group

or person is not accepted.

Economy and religion were also interrelated with the Igbo political institutions.

The market square of the village was the centre for economic transactions, political

assemblies, religious ceremonies and marriages. It was the place of interaction for the

members of different villages. Trading between different village communities was

encouraged by the political groups. Thus the site of economic exchange was also the

venue of political negotiations and helped to reinforce solidarity among the people.

Religious and political values were also interdependent in Igbo society. Every individual,

Onuama, Umunna, village and clan had their own set of common god and goddesses. The

personal God of every individual was known as his ‘Chi’. The Igbo religion is heavily

polytheistic and like all the societies it played a dominant role in the day-to-day affairs of

ancient Igbos.

The Igbo traditional religion conceived the existence of two worlds

namely,

i) the world as we see it inhabited by the living: (Uwa nka anyi bi na

ime ya).

ii) ii) the world of spirits: (Ala ndi-muo) the dwelling place of creator

of the world, the Great God – (Chineke’, Chukwu) as well as that of

divinities (Umuagbara), of the ancestors,(Ndichie) and of good and

bad lesser spirits – (Umumuo, Ndimuo), and the future dwelling

place of the living after death. ( Aligwekwe, 185)

 Ghosh 61

The Igbos framed a sort of hierarchy of Gods. At the apex, was the creator

(Chineke) or cause (Chukwu). The next level was occupied by the ancestors (Ndichie) and

then by divinities (nature Gods and Goddesses).All the ancient Igbos believed in the

existence of supreme God Chineke which in Igbo lexicon means ‘Chi-who-creates’ (God

who creates) and ‘Chi-who-distributes’ (God-who distributes). They also believed in

Chukwu (God is great) Chi-Ukwu .Igbos also worshipped their ancestors in the form of

God Ndichie. The ancestors, after their death, were believed to be living with Chineke.

They were expected to shower blessings to their respective lineages. This idolization of

ancestral God gave rise to “cult of ancestor’ in Igbo religion. The people believed that

dead people had the power to bestow happiness yet at the same time could punish them

for wrongful deeds.

Among the divinities, the Goddess motherland (Ala) was of primal importance.

The divinity of Ala was in close affinity with the daily life of people. Ala represented the

fertile land that provided food, the land where men were born, lived, walked and

ultimately buried. Thus Ala had the right to be concerned about the welfare of the people

as well as punish the culprits for their shameful deeds such as murder, incest, and

abortion. Igbos also worshipped the river Gods like Urashi, Nwangele, Imo-miri based on

the names of these rivers. These sacred rivers were considered to be the abode of certain

gods. Women were forbidden to cross the rivers during their menstrual cycle. Prayers and

sacrifices were offered to the river Gods in order to seek protection and prosperity. The

Sun God (Anyanwa), thunder God (Amadioha), Sky God (Igwe) were also worshipped by

the Igbos. Sun God was considered to be the power that-made plants and crops grow. Sky

God was regarded the harbinger of rain. The power to intimidate wrong doers was

attributed to Thunder God.

 Ghosh 62

Oracular powers were also ascribed to some divinities that empowered them to

know about the thoughts and secrets of men, both present and future. The decision of the

oracle was unalterable and was a sort of judicial institution for the traditional Igbo

community. Another God that was widely revered by the Igbo people was the God of

Yam (Aha-Njoku or Ifejieoku) Sacrifices were offered to Yam God before plantation, at

the initial harvest and finally at the final reaping. Religious sacrifices and prayers were an

important part of Igbo religious ceremonies. Aja-Chi (sacrifice to chi) and Igbo-Aja

(community sacrifice to God) are some of significant religious sacrifices that were widely

practiced, by the primordial Igbo society. The sacrificial ceremonies intended to appease

the gods, drive away evil spirits, showed them the path of righteous living. It was also a

mode of complaining against the injustices imposed upon them by the Gods.

Apart from their uncompromising faith in traditional Gods and Goddesses Igbo

people also believed in dibias. The dibias could be principally classified under 3 heads:

Dibia Aja – He was delegated to offer sacrifices as specified by the Dibia Afa who had

divine powers and therefore could make personal contacts with the spirits. They were

assigned the task of finding the wishes that the Gods had for the beings of the earth. He

prescribed the type of sacrifice that had to be made by the community or individual as the

circumstance may be. Dibia Ogwu were the native medicine men to whom people visited

to cure themselves of health related maladies. The dibias cured diseases by roots, herbs

mixtures and so on. Some of them were surgeons of the skin, bone and blood vessels.

The ancient Igbo peoples living in a world of their own were disrupted of their

peace when they had their first contact with the Europeans.
 Ghosh 63

Their ‘European interaction’ can be classified into three parts:

1. The socio-economic contact which could be subdivided into two

principal stages namely, the stage dominated by the slave trade per se, and

the period regime of the “Royal Niger Company” – a stage purportedly

labelled ‘Legitimate Trade’.

2. The socio-political dimension: the establishment of the British colonial

government.

3. The arrival of Christianity. (Aligwekwe,233)

The Europeans were incapable of penetrating the hinterland on their own and

therefore had to take the help of intermediaries to perpetuate slave trade in Igboland.

These middlemen were assigned the task of capturing men, women and children from the

Igbo territory and bring them to the parts from where they were shifted to European

colonies. The Igbo oral tradition reports that the oracle of Arochukwu became infamous,

as it was converted into a place of capturing people by slave hunters and these hunters

received the support of the ministers in their mis-endeavours. It is estimated that from

1800 to 1820, about 16000 men and women were exported annually. These middlemen

did not maintain any distinction between the dialas and non-dialas and captured people

from both the communities alike. This slave trade percolated some serious repercussions

in the society. It destabilized the economic structure of the society, deprived the

community of able manpower and tilted the population ratio. The European slave trade

was more detrimental to human dignity compared to the slavery system of Igbo

community. In the traditional slavery system, it was obligatory for the masters to fulfill

certain responsibilities towards their slaves. But the concept of slavery that originated in

the western world and the imposition of slave trade by western merchants corroded the
 Ghosh 64

harmonious structure of the community as native people, in the face of poverty, got

involved in slave marketing practices. Thus, it can be said that concept of western slavery

system in all its ramifications and consequences was not a part of traditions and customs

of ancestral Igbo society and so it resulted in moral, and socio-economic ‘erosion’.

This dislocation of the Igbo society was further accentuated with the introduction

of so called ‘legitimate trade’ by Royal Niger Company (RNC). This legitimate trade by

RNC was started with the buying of Igbo products like palm oil, timber, elephant tusks,

spices, cotton, baskets, mats, calabashes and certain local food products. Besides, raw

materials and other minerals were also exported from the region, to Europe in order to

boost European industrialization – an endeavour that turned the European economy in

modern and developed one. The company monopolized over the trade in Igbo territory

and the British charter of 1888 granted them the rights to allocate and acquire land. The

charter also allowed them to administer justice and maintain law and order in the region.

Gradually the administration became “more legislative, more expansionist and finally

extremely political”. Ultimately, they were successful in establishing a sort of governance

over “the oil rivers protectorate” – the southern part of Nigeria. It also tried to expand its

stronghold over the northern territories of Nigeria by waging war against the Emirs of

Northern Nigeria with the sole intention of consolidating its commercial interests in

Northern territories. By 1900, Northern Nigeria was also declared as a ‘protectorate’. In

1914 the British government, in order to increase its political foothold, amalgamated the

two protectorates and established its authority over the state of Nigeria including

Igboland. The British government had to put immense efforts in order to form colonial

government. Infact historians believe that the intrusion of RNC was basically a precursor

to the ambitious designs of British government intending to establish colonial rule in

Nigeria. The ‘conquest’ of non-centralized society of Igbos was indeed a challenge for
 Ghosh 65

British invaders. One of the greatest mistakes of imperialistic government was their

inability to understand the political realities of Igbo people. The British deciphered the

absence of monarchial system in Igbo political culture, as “organized anarchy”. In a bid to

reign over the Igbo region, the colonial government launched military offensive on

various Igbo clans. With their superior military power they could vanquish one or two

political clans with confidence. But as they moved forward to conquer other clans or

villages, the previously pilloried villages rose from the ashes rebuilt their farms and huts

and resumed their normal lives. However, the Igbo people voluntarily cooperated with the

colonial authority on a number of initiatives launched by the government that were

considered beneficial to the society. The tirade against slavery system, human sacrifices,

village and clan wars; cannibalism were accepted by people with great enthusiasm.

British goods like zinc roofing sheets, cement etc that were previously non-

existent were used excessively. The introduction of wheel and its application in bicycles

and cars were also enthusiastically welcomed by the primordial society. Never the less,

many measures launched by the government that were not ideologically acceptable were

discarded by the people. They reacted sharply against the dishonesty and monopolistic

tendencies of western invaders. The Igbo form of resistance against the western invasion

was based predominantly on diplomacy. They tenaciously held the socio-economic

domain by holding the charge of their land and means of production. They also insisted

that the colonial authorities should uphold the people’s interests. Fair trade and exchange

systems were also demanded by the Igbos. They rejected the western methods of

plantation, sabotaged their projects and refused to assist with the autocratic European

employers. The dissatisfaction of the Igbo people can be understood through the Nativist

movement launched by the group of Ekumeku to protest against the system of native

court institutionalized by the imperial authorities. The Aba women’s riot is yet another
 Ghosh 66

example of Igbo protest against colonial system. In this riot of 1929, Igbo women

regrouped themselves to protest against the payment of taxes by Igbo women. These Igbo

campaigns and strategies not only helped in maneouvering unfavorable situations but also

pursued western and native interests in equal measure. It also toned down the subjugation

of Igbo natives by British. Thus, western authorities had no option but to chisel down

their schemes, practice patience and endurance an order to adjust to the ‘ground realities’

vastly different from the European ideology.

The phenomenon of urbanization is yet another eco-political concept that was

conceived by the western environment. It was induced by the colonial government to

bring some pro-western changes in the lives of Igbo community. This instrument of

urbanization was shaped through the widening of roads and markets, construction of

railway lines to improve communication between the natives and transportation of goods.

These urbane trends profited the Igbos as well as altered their opinion and reaction to the

realities of western form of modernization especially when they found out that it could

function in harmony with the traditional ambition of the people. Traditionally, the Igbo

villages possessed certain characteristics of the urban community. They lived in a sort of

agglomeration; produced their food; engaged in trade with the neighbouring villages and

were more or less self-sustainable. This village-urban life of Igbos animated with values

such as trust, confidence and warmth rendered a unique identity of its own but this

quintessential Igbo life, so meticulously established by Igbo forefathers rapidly

diminished in face of western modernization.

Amidst the reconstructed socio-politico-economic structure brought about by

western intrusion, Igbos struggled a lot to establish themselves in various parts of Nigeria.

But their rise in contemporary social circles, did not detach them from their Umunna,

village and clan. In order to pay homage to their traditional obligations, they frequented
 Ghosh 67

the group meetings held in Umunna, participated in age groups and formed a sort of

congregation of the members of the village living in the cities. To maintain cordial

relations amongst themselves some members of Igbo society, who were able to gain

social, political or economic standing in the cities were expected to build big houses in

their compounds. They were also supposed to divert certain amount of wealth to promote

developmental projects in their village.

The invasion of modernized west also altered the Igbo religious experience. The

Christian missionaries liberated the slaves from their masters and educated about

Christian faith. These redeemed slaves converted to Christianity aimed to Christianize the

Igbo hinterland but their efforts were dampened by the existing politico-religious

institutions. In the initial years, Christianity was considered the religion of slaves and

converted freeborns reverted back to pagan practices that bestowed the much desired

social titles and prestige to the believers of traditional religion. But some of the social

changes initiated by the missionaries earned them faith from the natives and gradually

Christianity became the dominant religion of the Igbos. For example, the missionaries

strictly denounced the system of domestic servitude among the natives. They also

protested against the shame of humanity – the western slave trade and appealed to the

colonial government to abolish slavery. The missionaries for gaining a better perspective

of Igbo philosophy, ideology and way of life penetrated into the traditional milieu. The

missionaries set up stations of the mission so as to live in the midst of natives. Slowly

they were drawn to each other, reciprocated their system of thought and wisdom, before

finally joining hands to reject redundant and dehumanizing socio-religious beliefs.

Igbo language was also learnt by the missionaries with two intentions, one was to

be familiarized with the Igbo culture and other was to show respect to the Igbo

civilization. The missionaries initiated various charitable organizations like hospitals,

 Ghosh 68

schools etc. to overhaul the society. Because of the enthusiasm of the people to get

children schooled, the village councils welcomed the missionaries to set up schools.

However the greatest contribution of the missionaries was in the field of education. The

system of school education, a novelty, was zealously accepted by the people. Initially the

slaves were sent to the schools but later on school education became a symbol of richness

and social prestige. It liberated the intelligence of the people and assured them the

confidence to challenge the autocratic colonial policies. They attempted to mould the

mentality of the people in favour of Christian doctrine by drawing comparisons with the

traditional religion - Chineke the supreme God could be compared with Christian

supreme God. The missionaries also strived to retain some of the unique social

institutions of Igboland – like Age grade. Colonial intruders in pursuit of selfish motives

largely obliterated the age groups from the face of Igbo society. But the missionaries

foreseeing the worth of age grades in combating the social – political equilibrium

encouraged the age grade philosophy. This state of mutual contact and confidence

facilitated the implantation Christian faith. After the adoption of Christian faith, the

missionaries tried to dissuade them from entering into polygynyous marriages but

patriarchal Igbo ideologies continued to practice polygyny and gradually inculcated it into

the Igbonized version of Christianity. Igbo names were also baptized by the indigenous

churches of Nigeria.

Thus, a brief review of Igbo society political, religious economic structures

exhibits the logicalities and illogicalities inherent of the culture. The modern day

Igboland, acculturated and inculturated, as a result of contact of western civilization,

should haul off the inappropriate but retain the values that are laudable and beneficial.
 Ghosh 69

PART C: REFLECTIONS OF IGBOLAND IN THE NOVELS OF BUCHI

EMECHETA

Buchi Emecheta has brilliantly captured the above mentioned Nigerian and Igbo

perspectives in her novels. Emecheta is of the view that novels should reflect the nuances

of a society and as such her novels reveals the world of Igbos to the non-Igbo readers .Her

novel, The Bride Price, in the style of a folk tale, generates a brief sketch of the social

realities of traditional Igbos. The legal concepts of 1950’s Nigeria have been efficiently

portrayed by Emecheta. This decade witnessed the institutionalization of modern

Nigerian law that functioned at par with the customary judicial system. The modern

judicial system, an import of British colonial policies passed the historic Act of

Emancipation and the Abolition of Osu law in 1956. This act enabled the Oshus to own

land. The customary legal disability that barred the Oshus from entering into any sort of

land transactions was abolished. In the novel, Chike’s father Mr.Ofulue (an Oshu)

purchases a large area of land and uses it for cultivation. Besides, the Oshus being the

first natives to receive western education were positioned in respectable occupations. This

can seen through the academic achievements of the Ofulue family. Senior Ofulue was

former head master, one a gynecologist and Chike a middle school teacher. This fact is

also been reiterated in the following lines,“In the olden days, slaves used to be sent there

(to missionary schools) simply to appease the disapproval of the white missionaries ; but

later events were to show that it was these same educated slaves who ended up

commanding key position.” ( BP ,74)

However, the social stigma that was attached to being an Oshu could not be erased

from the minds of freeborns. Customary Igbo laws prohibited marriages between the

descendants of slaves and freeborns. But Aku-nna attempts to defy their Ibuza tradition

by falling in love with Chike and eventually marrying him. Her bold attempt to challenge
 Ghosh 70

the ancient Igbo laws is deeply resented by the members of her family and village

community of Ibuza. Her enraged step brothers vow to end the unacceptable love – affair.

They say,“ The son of Ofulue? You mean Chike, the school teacher? But he is the son of

slaves….She could be interested in him to that extent!” He further retorts, “I will kill her

if this is true”, Osenekwu swore to himself. ( BP, 79)

When the news of Aku-nna’s stepping into the world of womanhood reaches

Okonkwo ( Aku-nna’s step father), he is prompted to have a patriarchal talk with her.

“Aku-nna, Chike Ofulue is only a friend…Now that you have grown, that friendship must

gradually die. But die it must!” ( BP, 116) Upon learning about the apparent love-affair

between Aku-nna and Chike, Aku-nna’s mother reacts dramatically. “Ma Blackie cried

and cursed her fortune in being saddled with such a daughter. Had they even seen a girl

like this daughter of hers. Who was wanted by so many good families but who preferred

to choose a common…” (BP,121)

These, deep seated prejudices exhibit the mindsets of the freeborns who refuse to

maintain cordial relations with the Oshus. Further in the novel, the vengeful destruction

of Ofulue plantation done in order to revenge Ofulue’s abetting Aku-nna’s elopement

with Chike highlights the criminal conspiracies that are hatched against Chike’s (Oshu)

family for daring to defy the laws of the land. This instance of criminal mischief shows

that the two communities could not perceive social relations beyond adversarial terms.But

the modern judiciary, based on the system of equality “did not make allowance for the

slaves, so the Ibuza people lost the case and were ordered to compensate the Ofulue

family in kind. The free men had to plant new cocoa for the slave and heavy fines were

duly paid.”( BP, 155)

 Ghosh 71

The novel also provides information about the various types of marriages and

wedding customs practiced in Ibuza. When Aku-nna’s father dies, her mother is inherited

in marriage by her father’s elder brother in accordance with the customary law of ‘widow

inheritance’ –an accepted marriage form in Nigeria. The reason has been explained by

the narrative voice: “It is so even today in Nigeria: when you lost your father you lost

your parents…A fatherless family is a family without a head, a family without shelter, a

family without parents, infact a non-existing family.” ( BP,28)

The title of the novel The Bride Price shows the significance of the custom

of Bride Price among the Igbo community. A marriage, in which the groom’s family

kidnaps the bride is also permissible, provided the bride price is paid to the bride’s

family. Aku-nna is kidnapped by Okoboshi’s family. Their marriage is solemnized

through various fertility and other rituals so that she might give birth to a number of

children, to expand the Obidi lineage.Singing, dancing and feasting are performed to

bless the marriage.After the wedding ceremonies are over, Okoboshi Obidi’s male

relatives approach Okonkwo to discuss the matter of bride price that they were

customarily obliged to pay to Aku-nna’s stepfather. When Aku-nna elopes with Chike,

Chike’s father (at the behest of Chike) offers a bride price of fifty pounds to Okonkwo, in

an attempt gain his consent in marriage, but Okonkwo refusal to accept the bride price

shows the ‘historical antagonism’ that the freeborns had for descendants of slaves.

“ Chike’s persistence had moved him to offer Okonkwo a bride price of fifty pounds,

double the amount that Ibuza custom originally stipulated,… Okonkwo had refused and

to add insult, made Ofulue understand that he had not given daughter to any slave.”

( BP,157)

Marriage, funeral, religious ceremonies and familial milestones among Igbos are a

curious mixture of tribal customs and Christian rites. In the early section of the novel,
 Ghosh 72

Ezikel Odia (Aku-nna’s father) cuts a lock of curl from Ma Blackie’s hair, in lieu of the

Igbo custom that demands that a woman should permanently belong to a man who had

cut a lock of curl from a woman’s head. This can understood when Aku-nna imagines

that “She would have her marriage first of all solemnized by the beautiful goddess of

Ibuza, then the Christians would sing her a wedding march…then her father would call up

the spirits of his great, great grand parents to guide her…” ( BP,10) The funerals are also

a conglomeration of traditional and Europeans customs. When Aku-nna’s father dies

expert mourners started their customary expression of grief. “There were expert

professional criers who listed the goods deeds performed by the departed and tactfully left

out the bad. His lineage would be traced out loud, the victories of his ancestors sung and

their heroic past raised to the winds ” ( BP, 29) This was by distribution of Kolanuts and

singing Christian hymns in Igbo.When Ma Blackie comes to know about Aku-nna’s first

menstrual period she instructs her about the “do and don’ts of womanhood in their

culture. She must not go to the stream, she must not enter her stepfather’s house nor the

house of any Eze chief until it we all over.”(BP,115) Igbos desire love to be awarded

with social titles like Obi, etc. Aku-nna’s stepfather also dreams of being an Eze with the

help of the money that he will receive as Aku-nna’s bride price.The European interaction

developed in the Igbos a liking for European concepts. The western form of school

education that was largely imparted by missionary societies was attended upon by Aku-

nna, and other children of Ibuza.The Igbos leaning towards for Christianity that was

preached by Europeans is also suggested in the lines:

The sermon was usually preached by an African… and such sermons did

not carry much weight with the faithful of Ibuza. A sermon preached by an

Irish father, full of mystic incantations that formed part of the rigmarole of
 Ghosh 73

catholism, imparted to the Ibuza citizens the feeling that they have been

spoken to by the God Almighty himself. ( BP ,100)

Earlier in the novel, when Aku-nna’s father dies, people went him to go to the

heaven of Christians as the heaven of Christians was new and therefore more alluring

than traditional land of the dead. Though most of the Igbos had converted to Christianity

the indigenous traditions, customs and superstitions were on integral part of their

religious routine. The narrative voice says,“What was more difficult to make out was

whether to classify the people as Christians or pagans. Many people went to church and

about three quarters of those who did attended the Catholic Church, for there was a

general belief in Ibuza in things mysterious.” ( BP ,100)

Every Igbo individual has a personal God, Chi. When Aku-nna elopes with

Chike, Okonkwo feels dishonoured and decides to take revenge. He carves an idol of

Aku-nna and pierces it with needles in front of his Chi.Their faith in river Gods is also

highlighted when Aku-nna asks for the forgiveness of the river stream, as she crosses the

stream during her menstrual period. Later on, Ma Blackie had to pacify the river God by

sacrificing a day old chick to the stream. Their belief in medicine men commonly known

as dibias forces Ma Blackie to return to their native village Ibuza. She strictly follows the

rituals prescribed by the dibia and drinks the concoctions prepared by him in order to

conceive another child. Ma Blackie also tried to cleanse and purify her system by river

Oboshi to enhance her fertility.

Her novel The Slave Girl provides insight into the socio-cultures perspectives of

twentieth century Nigeria. Emecheta, in the prologue, gives corroborative evidence about

Igbo world view through the mythological story about a young prince Umijei, who was

banished from his town of Isu (located in the eastern part of Nigeria) for unintentionally
 Ghosh 74

killing his opponent in a friendly wrestling match as “To the people of Isu, it was always

a case of a life for a life; it did not matter whether one of the lives was that of a peddlar

and the other that of a beloved prince.” (SG,9) The affirmation of equality is etched in the

traditional laws and hence is diligently adhered to by all Igbos. Umejei’s father Oba of Isu

says “But in our clan all souls are equal, none is greater than the other.” ( SG ,9)

The main motif of the novel is the institution of slavery. The author chooses Ma

Mee to render early twentieth century Nigerian outlook about slavery: “Ma Mee walked

back to her stall telling herself that buying and selling people could not be helped.

“Where would we be without slave labour and where could some of these unwanted

children be without us”. It might be evil, but it was a necessary evil.” (SG, 64) Thus this

institution of slavery provided labour on the one hand in exchange for a roof and food on

the other. Ma Palagada’s house that had bought the rights over many male and female

slaves throws light on the nuances that encapsulates the life of slaves. Most of the slaves

in Palagada house belonged to poverty stricken families, like that of Chiago, whose

parents could not afford to feed her. Some of them like Ojebeta, were orphans no longer

wanted by their families. Twins (discarded by the society) were also sold into slavery and

of course a considerable number of slaves were those who had committed abominable

sins, therefore ostracized by the society and were condemned in the abyss of slavery.

Ma Palgada, her husband and children symbolized the decadence of Nigerian

society and the emergence of black burgoiuse class that integrated British mores into the

indigenous society. The psuedo-elilist class lacked the loyalty to primordial ‘socio-

moral’ values and take pride in enslaving the ‘have-nots’.Pa Palagada and his son Clifford

predilection to sexually molest enslaved females epitomize the sexual abuse of slave girls

at the hands of their male masters. But they mould themselves to resign to the seeming
 Ghosh 75

fatality of their condition as documented through the conversation between Chiago and

Nwayinzo:

“But of both father and son want you; there will be trouble in this household.”

“Yes, I certainly do not want the father to feel that I like his son better than him. I

don’t like either of them. But what can I do…

“Yes”, drawled Nwayinuza sleepily, “but what can we do?” ( SG,94)

Infact, the authorial intention is to show that the slaves were not badly off

in the context of early twentieth century Onistha society. They were fed and clothed,

included in the Christian Missionary societies, and taught to read and write Igbo

alphabets. Ojebeta and her ‘comrades’ regularly went to church on Sundays and read the

Christian Bible translated in Igbo language. But, their daily routine was fraught with

drudgery. They had they get up at the first crowing of cock, run to the stream to fetch

water, assist Ma palagada in her household chores and proceed to Ete market, ‘balancing

piles of unsold cloth an their heads’.The slaves developed a sort of camaraderie among

them to soothe their misfortunes. Ojebeta and Amanna, develop a very special friendship

in captivity. Being deprived of normally of childhood, they have common insecurities and

apprehensions. In the slaves sleeping quarter’s Amanna and Ojebeta “became comrades

in bed wetting. So for the next two or three years, Amanna and Ojebeta enjoyed the

shared comfort of mutual shame.” ( SG, 91)Nevertheless Emecheta also registers her

agony at some of the incriminating practices such as the burying slaves with their

mistresses .Chiago recalls the burying of a female slave with her wife of her master.

On the eve of the burial, she was brought and ordered to lie down in the

shallow grave. One of her sons…took a club and struck the defenceless

woman on the back of her shaved head…soon her voice was completely
 Ghosh 76

silenced by the damp earth that was piled on both her and dead woman.

(SG,62)

The innocence and trustworthiness of the Ibuza people made it easier for the

British to colonize Nigeria. The narrative voice says, “The people of Ibuza didnot realize

that their country, to the last village, was being amalgamated and partitioned by the

British.” (SG,15)Their humanitarian and philanthropic attitude is further expressed as

Okwue Kwu (Obejeta’s father) helps an ailing white man and says “ But is it not a

wicked man who would fight someone who is knocking at the gates of death?” ( SG,15)

In the novel Emecheta also expresses her view about the unique socio-political

institution of age groups, “Age groups, made up of those born within the same three year

period, were like members, from adolescence, would organize meetings and dances for

important occasions”. (SG,23) But the flip side of the practice is also revealed when

Okolie sells his sister in return for a few shillings that will help him to buy accessories

needed for the upcoming coming of age dance. He says , “So I deserve to have the money

I need so badly for my coming of age dance.”( SG,37) Certain folk beliefs of Igbo

culture, like the myth of Ogbanje, is elaborately reconstructed to represent birth and

regeneration, independence and enslavement, power and powerlessness. When Ojebeta is

born, her father, in order to break the Ogbanje child’s cycle of life and death, undertakes a

perilous journey to the mythological kingdom of Idu (as advised by the native doctor –

dibia) to get charms and cowries that they believe with protect her from again returning

back to the land of the dead.

The topography of Igbo markets is vividly described by sketching the landscape of

Onistha market called otu. “One of West Africa’s big meeting places, was situated on the

bank of river Niger and served not only the people of Onistha but those from surrounding
 Ghosh 77

Igbo towns and villages as well.” ( SG,43) Besides, Igbos Yorubas, and Northerners like

Housas and Fulanis also set up stalls for buying selling products. These markets served

as the locus for socio-political and economic transactions. The narrative voice says, “The

market was where people who wanted to display their dances went, be it an age-group or

a family showing the end of their mourning for a departed relative.” (SG,43)

Her novel The Joys of Motherhood illustrates the transitional Nigeria of the pre-

independence decade. Emecheta’s characters like Nnu Ego, in The Joys of Motherhood

lament upon the disorganization of the time-tested social, economic and political

structures - an outcome of systemic colonial intrusion . The colonial experiences

challenged and quavered the faith of the natives in indigenous norms. The tradition of

Ibuza and Igboland seemed retrogressive when compared to capitalist society that focused

sharply on individual pursuits. This trait of individualism- a trademark of western

ideology is characterized by Nnu Ego’s sons- Oshia and Adim. These University

graduates immigrate to USA and Canada to further their education their education. But in

the process, they abandon their parents. Oshia openly refuses to provide monetary help

when asked by his father at evident by the conversation between Nnaife and Oshia:

Nnaife says, “Now, young man, when are you going to take on your family

responsibilities?” to which Oshia retorts back “What responsibilities, Father?” ( JOM

,200) This individualistic attitude, sternly discouraged in Igbo culture, devastated the

fabric of collective support system that was characteristic of Igbo familial tradition. The

sons were expected to provide economic and emotional support of their parents and other

members of the extended family. But, city- bred Oshia and Adim shrugged off their

familial duties.

Emecheta’s narrative also suggests that the architectural design of houses

especially the house boys’ quarters, jobs of natives and, salaries exhibited the unequal
 Ghosh 78

social- politico economic power relations that existed between the white masters and

black servants. They natives were treated as objects of convenience by the British rules.

Nnu Ego is dismayed at the sight of ‘ queer looking place’- the quarter where she had to

live with her husband Nnaife employed as a washerman for The Meers. Nnu Ego, chides

her husband for taking pride in his washerman job that is considered unmanly by Igbo

norms. The narrative states “She had at first rejected his way of earning a living and had

asked him why he could not find a more respectable job…But every time she saw her

husband hanging out the white woman’s smalls, Nnu Ego would wince as someone in

pain.” ( JOM,47)

What is regrettable according to the author was the natives’ nonchalance to their

demeaning status. When Dr. Meers refers to Nnaife as a baboon, he refrains from

protesting against it. Emecheta believes that Nnaife was type of man who would

gesticulate and say, “we work for them and they pay us. His calling me a baboon does not

make me one.” ( JOM,47) This shift in mentality is also bemoaned by Nnu Ego’s Friend

Cordelia:“Men here are two busy being white men’s servants to be men. Their manhood

has been taken away from them. The shame of it is that they don’t know it. All they see is

money shining white man’s money.” ( JOM,51) Emecheta also highlights the undisputed

power that the colonizers had over the colonized. The non- elite and uneducated of pre-

colonial Nigeria were largely ignorant about the international political scenario. For

example, Nnu Ego has no idea as to why Nnaife is forced to join army . Even Nnaife is

unaware about the causes of the war and is literally coerced to fight for the British

against the ‘Germanis’.We read that ,“In another room they were eventually told why

they had been enlisted. They were to join the army.” ( JOM,145)The British simply

exploited the natives without giving anything in return and the common man of Nigeria

had to bear the war induced crunch related to goods, moneyand jobs. “By about the year
 Ghosh 79

1941, it was clear to most of the people in the country there was going to be a war

somewhere . Money was short so were jobs.” (JOM,126) Emecheta also points at the new

economic structure imposed by colonial policies that was robbing the agarian Igboland of

its young citizens:

In growing numbers they were leaving their village homes to look for jobs

in Lagos and this phenomenon was robbing many areas of their most able

bodied men…Those who left reckoned that it was better to go and work

for a master or company rather income depended upon the whim of

weather and upon their own physical strength. ( JOM,141)

In her novel Destination Biafra Emecheta raises some pertinent queries related to

the Biafran secessionist movement like the historical reasons that germinated the Nigerian

– Biafran divide ; the reasons that started the separatist movement and many other

unasked and unanswered questions. The identities of some of the key politicians who

dominated the Nigerian politik can be interpreted as follows: Saka Momoh is Yakub

Gowon, Chief Odumosu (Chief Awolowo) Chief Durosaro (Samuel Akintola) Samuel

Odemgembe (Finance minister of Nigeria), Chijioke Abosi (Odumegwu Ojukwu) and

Brigadier Oynemere (Aguiyi Ironsi).Emecheta suggests that the legacy of democracy that

was handed down to the Nigerians by the British was unsuitable for a country like Nigeria

divided across ethnic and religious lines. It had the seeds of chaos that ultimately spelt

doom on the country.Emecheta maintains that the British desire to safeguard their

economic interest induced them to support Hausa candidates “the thing is to back the

house we everything we have….I only hope the Housas turn out vote for their own men.

All I know is that a Housa man must be Prime minister.” ( DB,70)

 Ghosh 80

The British considered that feudalistic, politically unseasoned and seemingly

moderate Hausas would be better promoters of their commercial interests rather than the

radical Igbos and Yorubas who might hamper their economic ambitions. That is why

Sardauna’s non-acceptance of Prime ministerial part upsets and worries General

MacDonald.Thus, Emecheta rightly points out that the keys to the corridors of power lied

in the hands of their former colonizers and this supposed British interference is defended

by Alan Grey:

These vast areas are full of oil, pure crude oil, which is untouched and still

needs thorough prospecting. Now we are to hand it over to these people,

who’ve had all these minerals since Adam and had not known what to do

with them. Now they are beginning to be aware of their monetary value.

And after independence they might sign it all over to the Soviets for all we

know. (DB,78)

The ‘foreign’ manipulation of general elections, appointment of Nguru Kano (a

northerner) as the prime minister and installing an Igbo in the ceremonial part of

president, sowed the seeds of insecurity amongst Igbos. However, Emecheta suggests that

Nigerian politicians concerned in gaining power and materialistic babbage that comes

along with it instigated ethnicity based politics and thus was equally to blame for the

breakdown of political structures. The narrator also reveals that during election

campaign,“One candidate, to the accompaniment of the talking drums, told his

constituents that if they voted for person of another tribe, the would be selling their own

soul to the devil.” (DB,16) Emecheta’s narration also implies that the squabbles between

the two rival chiefs, Chief Odumosu and Chief Durosaro also contributed to the initial

outbreak of human carnage in western Nigeria.“At home, the Ogedemgbes switched on

the television…the squabbles of the two western chief were reported. But the horrific
 Ghosh 81

news started to come over thirty people have been killed…many market places had been

emptied as rival thugs looked for their opponents.” (DB,48)

She also indicates that the hostility between the Northerners and Igbos introduced

the inevitable unrest. During the first coup, when Sardauna and Kano were executed, “not

a single top Igbo politician was killed.” ( DB,66) The Northerners were further

antagonised by the Igbos’ insensitivity: “The banners, placards and slogans thrust up

where the Igbos lived in Housaland jeered at the death of Sardauna.” ( DB,69) The first

coup created an atmosphere of mutual distrust and uncertainty among the people and

defence personnel alike. To stabilize the situation Brigadier Onyemere (Ironsi) was

appointed as the Head of the state. His credentials as an upright individual earned him

acceptance inspite of ethnic diversities. As a leader of the troubled nation, he made

attempts to minimize interethnic rivalry. He offered his condolences to the ‘violated’

Northerners and tried to appease the dissident groups.But, Onyemere is murdered during

a counter-coup and Saka Momoh (Gowon) becomes the new Head of state. Momoh’s

appointment increases the apprehension among Igbos that “the majority ethnic group

takes it all” and Abosi vocalizes the need for establishing a new nation Biafra: “I would

rather say our destination is Biafra… we are not yet independent. We sent away one set of

masters, without realizing that they have left their stooges behind… I think the country

needs a military respite and so to Biafra we will go Destination Biafra!” (DB,60)

However according to Emecheta Biafra was an incompetent carved entity, bereft

of unity and encumbered with ideological differences. The writer is deeply angst at the

infighting among the Igbos, divided by a river (Western Igbo and eastern Igbo), which

turned them into oppressors and oppressed as the case may be. The tussle between Abosi

and John Nwokolo also abated the massacre of western Igbos, accused as saboteurs, by

the Eastern Igbos. This is expressed by Dr. Eze “we will have to leave them to their fate.
 Ghosh 82

We cannot afford to worry about them now. Those of them who wish to cross the river

into the east are welcome to do so.” ( DB,182)Further, Abosi’s reply to Ozimba’s enquiry

about the lack of seriousness to resolve the issue, symbolizes a house torn apart by its

inmates, “We will solve the problems when the war is over. Biafra stands for freedom,

freedom from the persecuted easterners, most of whom are Igbos. Yet, let’s leave it like

that.” ( DB, 183)Thus, Destination Biafra attempts to interpret the political crises that

embroiled the whole nation and ravaged Igboland.

In her novel Double Yoke, she laments over the poor conditions of living in the so

called giant of Africa .She indirectly criticizes the Nigerian government for its inability to

provide basic amenities to its citizens. NEPA (Nigerian Electric Power Authority) is an

organization regulating the generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.

But the services rendered by NEPA are grossly inefficient and power outages are a

common occurrence across the cities and villages of Nigeria. We read that “NEPA

controlled the life style of many people of Nigerian. They gave and took away electricity

lights wherever they felt like it. Ofcourse it was pointless to inform the rest of the

population before the cuts, since there were so many on a typical day.” ( DY,4) The

drainage system of, cities were shown in poor state. Open gutters and dangerous potholes

caused accident with alarming regularity as evident in the narrative “A little girl lost her

life on her way back to school because it was raining and the open gutters carried her

away.” (DY, 80)

In the novel Ete Kamba shows his disappointment at the ill-managed road

infrastructure. Meteoric rise in the number of vehicle, drivers refusal to obey traffic rules,

unruly behaviour of private car owners, crazy motorcyclists maneuvering through the

busy roads lead to traffic congestions in Nigerian cities. He says, “The planners never

realized that Calabar would grow so fast, and Nigeria as a whole so rich overnight, that
 Ghosh 83

there would be so many families with so many cars; that it would be almost impossible

for people to walk.”(DY,65) Emecheta also points that constricted Nigerian economy,

corruption, frequent political upheavals, non-expansion of commercial activity in other

sectors caused economic deterioration, inflation and escalation in the cost of living. Ete

Kamba is hopeful that university education would earn him a decent job but his hopes are

refuted by Akpan’s claim:

Ete Kamba… You are one of those who think after leaving here you will

get an elegant wife, live in three room bungalow with a Nigerian

assembled Peugeot car in the drive. No chance, my friend you will be

lucky to be a head teacher in a village school, with a dusty badly built

house and a motorcycle. ( DY,65)

Later on, Ete-Kamba himself realizes that even the highly qualified people were

satisfied with menial jobs and price rise was burning holes in the pockets of salaried class.

One had to acquire PhD to lead such a luxurious life. Emecheta also describes the

religious fanaticism that was fast engulfing the length and breath of Nigeria. Ete Kamba

notices that: “Calabar is one of those places where a modern African brand of religion is

mushrooming fast”. Almost all the taxis had religious slogans written over them – ‘I am a

miracle’ and ‘Do you love Jesus’.”(DY, 78) Emecheta is of the view that Africa was still

in infancy in the matters of religion. The people hysterically prayed to Jesus to liberate

them from the life full of hardships. “For many people in Nigeria… whose education was

very low or non existent and who became of life’s demands have really not been able to

recapture the art of deep thinking, which was once mastered by their ancestors – going

about in the streets shouting ‘Alleluya Jesus is coming now’ was easier to understand.”

( DY, 79 ) Various histrionically oriented activities were encouraged by the Elders and

Prophets of their communities. Political and religious leaders managed to cynically

 Ghosh 84

manipulate religion. We read that :“These Elders and Prophets… encouraged them to

dance, jump and roll on the floor, beat their chests, work out their frustrations on

themselves, then go home tired and empty, to build up energy on their scanty diets, for

the next breast beating session.” (DY,79) Thus, Double Yoke attempts to bring out from

the closet the social, economic and religious disorders that are uprooting the

contemporary Nigerian society.

In one of her ‘London novels’ Second Class Citizen Emecheta provides

glimpses of contemporary Igbo society willing to adopt western influences but unable to

break-free from the strangle hold of traditional Igbo expectations. The traditional social

milieu encouraged gender differentiation and its marked preference for male child is

poignantly essayed by Adah: “She was a girl who had arrived when everyone was

expecting and predicting a boy. So, since she was such a disappointment to her parents, to

her immediate family, to her tribe, nobody thought of recording her birth.”( SCC,7)The

tragedy of being born as a girl continued throughout the life of Adah. Even school

education that was considered to be of paramount importance among colonial Igbo

community was preferably reserved for the male children of the household. Adah

says,“School, Igbo never played with that ! They were realizing past that one’s saviour

from poverty and disease was education. Every Igbo family saw to it that their children

attended school. Boys were usually given preference.”( SCC ,9)

Gender oriented roles of the traditional Igbos also gets highlighted when the

protagonist of the novel, Adah is expected to gain expertise in womanly skills like

sewing, cooking, fetching water and so on. She was not supposed to stay in school. “A

year or two would do, as long as she can write her name and count. Then she will learn

how to sew.” (SCC,9) Igbo families want to expand their lineages and thus tend to have

to have large number of children. The society values those women who are prolific in
 Ghosh 85

child bearing. This tendency makes them reject any kind of family planning gear. Francis,

the husband of Adah, forbids her to use any birth control apparatuses. Consequently,

Adah has to bear the brunt of ‘forced pregnancies’ and by the age of twenty two, she is

the mother of five children.

The mistrust and animosity that existed between the diverse ethnic groups of

Nigeria comes in the forefront when Adah refuses to work in a shirt factory that

presumably employed a considerable number of Yoruba’s “the type of illiterate Yoruba

who would take joy in belittling anything Igbo.”( SCC,40) The Nigerian peoples’

affiliation with the language of the colonizers is manifested in Francis’s yearning to see

his child Titi ‘speaking only English’. According to the author “this was due to fact that

Nigeria was ruled for so long a time by the English. An intelligent man was judged by the

way he spoke English.” (SCC,54)

Emecheta through her mouth piece ‘Adah’ points at the Igbonization of

Christianity. “Nigerian Church which usually had a festive air” and Christmas night in

Nigeria “was a noisy night, holy may be, but fireworks night, the night of palm wine

drinking in the streets, the night of bell-ringing.” ( SCC,134)In the novel, Adah also

reminiscences about the vibrant rural life of Nigeria where: “in the afternoon, people

would be all out on their verandas, talking and eating sugarcane, coconut or bananas.”

(SCC,104)

These above mentioned instances bring into limelight a brief Nigerian and Igbo

overview but Emecheta being more concerned about the problems assailing Nigerian

women uses her literary capabilities to express the position of Nigerian women.
 Ghosh 86

FINDINGS:

1. However, the social stigma that was attached to being an Oshu could not be erased

from the minds of freeborns. Customary Igbo laws prohibited marriages between the

descendants of slaves and freeborns. But Aku-nna attempts to defy their Ibuza

tradition by falling in love with Chike and eventually marrying him. Her bold attempt

to challenge the ancient Igbo laws is deeply resented by the members of her family

and village community of Ibuza. These rigidities of culture are often found among

Indian communities. Educated People living in the urban India do not want to break

the ethnic and moral bonds. Unfotunately such hardcore stance leads to honour –

killings – one of the evils of our society.

2. The funerals are also a conglomeration of traditional and Europeans customs. When

Aku-nna’s father dies expert mourners started their customary expression of grief.

“There were expert professional criers who listed the goods deeds performed by the

departed and tactfully left out the bad. His lineage would be traced out loud, the

victories of his ancestors sung and their heroic past raised to the winds ” ( BP, 29)

This was by distribution of Kolanuts and singing Christian hymns in Igbo.Similar

type of mourning customs are prevalent in some parts of Rajasthan especially in the

Jaisalmer region — where aristocratic women were long kept secluded and veiled—of

hiring professional women mourners on the death of a male relative, a rudaali

(pronounced “roo-dah-lee”—literally, a female “weeper”) to publicly express the grief

that family members, constrained by their high social status, were not permitted to

display. Dressed in black and with unbound hair, a rudaali beat her breast, danced

spasmodically, rolled on the ground, and shed copious tears while loudly praising the

deceased and lamenting his demise; the ability to hire such a performer was a mark of

social status.