FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE

www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

GST 2201: NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURE

Introduction

This aspect of the course discusses the geography, evolution and ethnic composition of the area now known
as Nigeria. This is to enable us understand the existing and diverse peoples in the area and in the long run, to
ensure a smooth process of integration, tolerance and national development. Thus, we shall discuss the
geography, evolution, independence and other developments in the Nigerian State; selected Nigerian ethnic
groups, their economic and political system ethnic diversity, process of integration, challenges and the way
forward.

The Nigerian State

Nigeria is an area in West Africa bordering the Gulf of Guinea, between Benin and Cameroon. Thus, it
shares borders with Benin, Cameroon, Chad and Niger. It has a total land area of 934,768 square kilometres.
13,000 square kilometres of this area is however, covered by water. The geographical area now known as
Nigeria evolved from different independent states, kingdoms and empires, including the Borno Empire, the
Hausa States, the Sokoto Caliphate in the North; Oyo Empire, Igbo Segmentary societies, Ijaw, Ibio and
Benin kingdoms in the South; Tiv, Idoma, Nupe and Igala Kingdoms in the Benue Valley. The country’s
population which was 45.14 million at independence, increased to over 216 million in 2022. This population
is made up of about 300 ethnic groups who speak over 500 languages. However, the dominant groups
include the Hausa-Fulani (29%), Yoruba (21%), Igbo (18%), Ijaw (10%), Kanuri (4%), Ibibio (3.5%), Tiv
(2.5%) and others constituting the remaining 12%.

Archaeological records revealed that as early as 9,000 BC or even earlier, people were already living in the
area now called Nigeria. There are also records of early civilisations in the Nigerian area such as Nok in the
present Kaduna State (7th century), Igbo-Ukwu in the 9th century and Ife which dates back to around 1200
to 1400 C.E. Notable among early areas of human settlements were Iwo-Eleru and Okigwe area in southern
Nigeria; Taruga an area around the present Federal Capital Territory; and the Jos-Plateau area. These
peoples were identified with economic activities such as agriculture, iron technology, pottery, and later trade
through the Sahara and the coastal regions. A significant aspect of this economy was the slave trade, which
involved the capture and forceful transfer of able-bodied Nigerians mainly to the Americas. It is important
to note that despite the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which abolished slavery worldwide, it continued in Nigeria
and Africa generally up to the 1880s and beyond.

Colonisation
The era of industrial revolution in Europe created the need for agricultural commodities, especially palm oil,
palm kernel, cocoa and cotton. By the close of the 19th century, trade in the Nigerian area had become
highly competitive, especially among European firms. However, in order to avert trade conflicts, Sir
Taubman George Goldie amalgamated the competing firms into the National African Company, which later
became the Royal Niger Company (RNC) in 1886. Meanwhile, between 1851 and 1961, Lagos had been

1
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

bombarded and annexed by the British. This control was extended to Yorubaland between 1862 and 1893.
The Igbo, Ijaw and other neighbouring ethnic groups became part of the British colonial empire in 1885.
However, most of the areas in the Sokoto Caliphate were not conquered until after formal colonial
administration in January 1901. Yet, others surrendered. With the conquest of Kano and the surrender of
Katsina in 1903, major areas of the north were brought under the Brutish colonial rule except Borno, which
was not subdued until the period around 1914.

It is important to state here that many Nigerian areas did not willingly accept British occupation and control.
For example, Jaja of Opobo, Nana of Itshekiri, Ovonranwen of Benin, Caliph Muhammadu Attahiru I of
Sokoto and others vehemently opposed British control of their areas. Their forces however, could not
withstand those of the colonialists as a result of possession of superior military weapons. Consequently,
most of such native rulers were deposed and replaced, while others fled. A striking instance of resistance
against colonialism was that of Attahiru and many of his followers who organised swift resistance against
impeding British colonisation. However, they fell to the superior firepower of the colonialists, suffered
heavy casualties and fled Sokoto. In 1903, Attahiru and many of his followers were killed in one of the
resistance movements at a place called Mbormi (about 76 kilometres from the present day Gombe). Even
after colonisation, some forms of resistance still persisted across Nigeria. These included refusal to pay
taxes, avoiding colonial administrators, migrations, and revolts.

With a formal occupation of a substantial part of the Nigerian area, Dame Flora Shaw suggested the name
Niger Area in 1900. Shaw was a British journalist and a writer and was later known as Lady Lugard. The
name ‘Niger Area’ was later adopted and modified as ‘Nigeria’. For the purpose of administrative
convenience, Lagos colony was merged with the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria in 1906. In 1914, the
protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated. This event marked a fusion of hitherto
diverse and in some cases, hostile ethnic groups under a single political leader, Sir Frederick Lugard. As the
governor of the new Nigeria, Lugard began the process of integrating all regions by establishing central
institutions such as the Central Secretariat in Lagos, the Legislative Council and integration of services of
the military, judiciary, treasury, post and telegraphs. However, this integration process was later undermined
by rising regional and ethnic consciousness.

Formation of socio-political groups

At this stage of Nigerian history, the earlier resistance to foreign occupation and control took another
dimension –demand for self government and formation of social and political associations. Worthy of
mention at this period were the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) founded by
Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe in 1944; the Action Group (AG), which was officially launched in
1951 by Obafemi Awolowo; the Northern Peoples’ Congress formed in 1949 with Ahmadu Bello, Abubakar
Tafawa Balewa and Aminu Kano as its leaders. Unfortunately, these political parties were founded along
regional and ethnic lines, and thus not nationalistic in nature. For instance, the NPC developed from a
Hausa/Fulani cultural organisation called Jamiyyar Mutanen Arewa; developed out of a Yoruba socio-
cultural group, Egbe Omo Oduduwa, founded London in 1945 by Obafemi Awolowo; the NCNC drew its
major support from the Igbo ethnic group. This development laid a foundation for regional and ethnic
nationalism and politics in the future Nigeria. Between 1957 and 1959, independence was granted to

2
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

Regional governments in the East, West and North. In 1960, Nigeria was granted her independence from
British colonial rule.

Challenges at independence
Nigeria became independent on October 1 1960 with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as its first Prime Minister
while Nnamdi Azikiwe became the President. On October 1 1963, Nigeria became a Republic. Despite the
fact that Azikiwe was the President, Balewa was seen as more powerful. The newly independent Nigeria
was sadly overwhelmed with numerous unresolved challenges, which shook her to its foundation. These
challenges were apparently rooted in the regional and ethnic interest as discussed above. A major challenge
at this period was the census controversies among the Regions in 1962 and 1963. It was so controversial
because of allegations of manipulation of figures by different regions. This was done in consideration of
dominance and control of government at the centre.

The 1964-1965 election crisis was another challenge. The parliamentary elections were held between
December 1963 and March 1964. However, it was marred by violence, intimidation and alleged
manipulation of figures to favour the NPC. The NPC Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was re-elected Prime
Minister. The crises that ensued were so challenging to Nigeria as the existing mistrust and hostility among
various regions and ethnic groups intensified. A major effect of this was the January, 1966 military coup led
by Chukwuemeka Kaduna Nzeogu and Emmanuel Ifeajuna. This claimed the lives of many prominent
politicians, army officers and their wives in the North and West. Some of them were the Prime Minister
(Tafawa Balewa) Premiers of the North and West (Ahmadu Bello and Samuel Akintola) and the Finance
Minister (Okotie Eboh). The whole event was seen in some quarters as an Igbo conspiracy, especially when
Aguiyi Ironsi was appointed to head the military government and there were cases of promotion of several
Igbo military officers from the rank of Major to Lieutenant Colonel. On July 28 1966, General Murtala
Muhammed led a group of military officers dominated by the North to stage a counter coup or what was
referred to as ‘July Rematch’. Some of the officers included T.Y. Danjuma, Ibrahim Babangida, Shitu Alao,
Muhammadu Buhari, Sani Abacha, B. S. Dimka, Mamman Vatsa and Muhammed G. Nasko. Head of the
military government in the January coup, Ironsi was killed in the process. In addition, many Igbo people
living in northern Nigeria were killed. Yakubu Gowon was appointed to head the government after the
counter coup.

In addition to the above crises threatening the unity of Nigeria, Isaac J. A. Boro led a movement that
declared the Niger Delta Republic in February, 1966. Their major grievance with the Nigerian government
was that they did not enjoy adequate share of the proceeds of the oil wealth that was derived from their land.
Using an Ijaw dominated armed militia formation, the Niger Delta Volunteer Force, Boro fought the Federal
forces for more than a week before being defeated and jailed for treason. However, a twist of event saw the
release of Boro, enlistment into the Nigerian army and fighting on the side of the Nigerian army during the
Civil War in 1967.

Meanwhile, citing cases of ethno religious violence, political instability and killing of Igbo people in
Northern Nigeria, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojuwku, the Military Governor of the Eastern Region asked
all Igbo people to return home. He then declared the Republic of Biafra in May 1967. The Federal

3
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

Government declared war on the state of Biafra immediately. This war did not end until the flight of
Ojukwu to the neighbouring Ivory Coast and the surrender of Biafran forces on 15th January, 1970. This was
after a heavy military casualty of about 100 thousand, starvation-related death of about 2 million, strained
health care, loss of property and displacement.

The implication of the foregoing discussion is that the political and social systems of Nigeria were largely
founded on regional, ethnic and religious, rather than national interest. The political fusion of diverse ethnic
groups, numbering between 250 to 300 in a single state was therefore, problematic. This manifested in the
ethnic and religious colouration given to almost everything, including census, politics and administration,
resource allocation, as well as appointments. Despite efforts made by the Federal Government to surmount
these challenges, they still continue to manifest in the current Nigerian polity. This has overtime created
instability, insurgency and insecurity in different parts of Nigeria. In the South East for example, the
agitation for Biafra was rekindled in 1999 through a separatist group, Movement for the Actualisation of the
Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB). This group under the leadership of Ralph Uwazuruike had a flag,
security network, currency and international passport other than that of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. In
2012, there was yet another transition from MASSOB to Independent People of Biafra IPoB under the
leadership of Mazi Nnamdi Kanu. It is believed that IPoB is committed to the cause of the defunct Republic
of Biafra. A similar separatist group also existed in the South West with the intention of creating the
Oduduwa Republic. In the North East, similar agitations existed since 2009 through activities of the Jamā’at
Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da’wah wa’l-Jihād’ (The Group of the People of Sunnah for Preaching and Struggle) and
recently as Wilāyat Gharb Ifrīqīyyah (The Islamic State’s West Africa Province). Their common name is
Boko Haram, meaning “Western education is forbidden.” Their major aim is to carve out an Islamic State
out of Nigeria. However, apart from a separate flag, their major threat to the Nigerian state lies in violent
attacks on government institutions and individuals. Their activities are often linked to ethno-religious
ideology.

In view of the above grievances against the Nigerian state, there is the need to redefine the terms of the
Federation, to identify the difference between national and ethnic/regional interests and to emphasize more
on issues of unity rather than those of division. Worthy of mention in this context are reinvigoration of the
following state policies:

a. The National Youth Service Corps scheme established in 1974 to ensure national unity, common
national identity and integration
b. Federal Character system to ensure equitable and balanced appointment into public offices as
enshrined in Section 14 of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria
c. States and local government creation to bring government closer and to address the needs of
minority ethnic groups
d. Resource control to ensure equitable distribution of commonwealth in such a way that no region is
too poor and no region is too rich

These, to a large extent have ensured a sense of belonging, unity, harmony, tolerance and common
national interests among the diverse ethnic groups, and thus, ensured proper planning and overall
development of the country.

4
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

ETHNIC GROUPS IN NIGERIA

Evolution of the Nigerian state as discussed above involved fusion of diverse independent empires and
kingdoms such as the Borno Empire, the Sokoto Caliphate, the Benin Kingdom, Oyo Empire and the Igbo
segmentary societies, just to mention a few. There are about 300 ethnic groups speaking over 500 languages
across the country. The Northern Nigeria, dominated by the Hausa/Fulani comprises other ethnic groups
such as the Kanuri, Tiv, Nupe, Jukun, Igala, Ngas, Kutep, Karekare, Kakanda, Tarok, Chamba, Kilba,
Tangale, Buh, Gbagi, Zuru and Mumuye. They are further grouped into north east, north-west and north
central. The Southern Nigeria on the other hand, is dominated by the Yoruba and the Igbo ethnic groups.
Other ethnic groups in this region include the Bini, Ishekiri, Ijaw, Ndoki, Ibibio, Ikwere, Ogoni and Urhobo.
They are also grouped into south-east, south-south, and south-west. While the south-east and the south-west
are dominated by the Igbo and the Yoruba respectively, the south-south comprises numerous minority
ethnic groups.
While the list of ethnic groups in these regions is a long one, Nigeria has three official major ethnic groups,
namely the Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and the Igbo. It is important to state that the complexity in Nigeria’s
ethnic configuration could be seen when one looks at the state formation process of these groups. For
instance, it was a union of various groups such as the Egba, Ijebu, Ilaje and a host of others that formed
what we now know as the Yoruba. In the same vein, it was a union of various Hausa states such as Zazzau,
Rano, Gobir and a host of others that formed the Hausa/Fulani ethnic group. It is believed that the Igbo has
the least internal diversity. However, the Onitsha dialect has been acclaimed to be a central one. The
cosmopolitan nature of Onitsha was believed to have started in the mid 19th century. Nevertheless, the
majority ethnic groups constitute the following percentage of Nigeria’s population; Hausa (29%), Yoruba
(21%) and Igbo (18%).

We shall now discuss selected ethnic groups from the above list; Hausa/Fulani, the Yoruba, Igbo and few
from the minority groups. Accordingly, our discussion shall highlight their traditions of origin, economic
and political organisation. It is important to state that the traditions of origin of these groups are largely
shrouded in oral tradition, ethnic consciousness and myths or legends. To this end, certain characteristics are
common to them; stories of creation, migration from important places and political ambition of their leaders.

THE HAUSA

Hausa is a language that is widely spoken in Africa, next to Swahili. It also refers to the people. It is the
largest ethnic group in northern Nigeria, comprising the present 19 northern states and the Federal Capital
Territory. This status was established after the 1804 Usman Dan Fodio jihad. The jihad led to conquest and
assimilation of erstwhile independent Hausa states of Rano, Zamfara, Katsina, Zazzau, Gobir and Kebbi.
Before the jihad, these states were noted for unhealthy rivalry, internal conflicts individualism and struggle
for supremacy and control of the Trans-Saharan Trade. In addition, there were cases of corruption,
economic exploitation, slavery and pagan practices, especially talisman and divination. These and a serious
leadership gap provided Usman Dan Fodio an opportunity to launch his jihad, with the following objectives;

a. Establishment of a theocratic state built upon a purer form of Islam

5
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

b. Addressing the oppression of the masses or talakawa

c. Emphasis on knowledge, scholarship or learning
d. Migration or hijra in situations of helplessness
e. Collective war against oppressors

Execution of the jihad in line with the above objectives produced the following effects;

a. Adoption of Hausa as lingua franca and language of administration

b. Emergence of Hausa-Fulani solidarity and collectivism
c. Spread of Islam up to the Benue Valley and Yorubaland
d. Emergence of Fulani aristocracy in place of Hausa aristocracy

Traditions of Origin of the Hausa

The dominant and most acceptable oral tradition that attempts to explain the origin of the Hausa is the
Bayajida legend. Bayajida also known as Abu Yazid in some traditions was believed to be a Prince who fled
from Baghdad in the Middle East to Kanem Borno. He later married Magira, a daughter of the King (Mai), a
marriage that produced a child. Bayajida later abandoned his family and fled to Daura where he killed a
sacred snake that prevented the people from accessing water from a well except on Fridays. The Queen of
Daura was highly impressed and offered to marry the hero. The marriage produced a son, Bawo and five
other children who, along with the first child from Magira, formed the seven states of Biram, Daura,
Katsina, Kano, Rano, Zazzau and Gobir otherwise known as the Hausa Bokwai. Other seven states that later
emerged were Kebbi, Zamfara, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin and Kwararafa, and are referred to as Banza
Bokwai.

Economy
The economy of the Hausa state was built on;
a. Agriculture –crops such as millet, maize, guinea corn and beans were produced abundantly
b. Industry –leather works, weaving and dyeing of cloths
c. Trade, especially long distance trade

Political Organisation

The political institution in the Hausa state was operated on the basis of Islam and the Sharia. Apart from
influence of the jihadists, the area had been exposed to Islamic religion since the 14th and 15th centuries. At
the apex of the political system was the Sarkin kasa. He was the chief executive who performed political
and religious functions. He was also head of the Judiciary. As the Sharia system gradually gained
prominence, other offices were established. For example, office of the judicial head, Qadi or alkali and
other royal officials who assisted in the royal functions; the Galadima (senior councillor), Madawaki
(palace administrator), Magaji (overseer) and Dogari (guard). The government was funded through zakat
(alms), jangali (cattle tax) and tributes.

6
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

THE FULANI

The Fulani, also known as Fellata, Fula or Fulbe are often discussed side by side with the Hausa, especially
since the jihadist movement. Their origin is not clear and they do not have a particular territory. However,
they are widely believed to have originated from the Upper Senegal and Futajalon highlands and later
moved to northern Nigeria. Yet, their lineage is often traced to an Arab named Uqba bin Nafi. There are two
categories of Fulani;

a. The nomadic Fulani, also known as Fulanin daji or Fulanin bororo. They move from one place to
another in search of pasture or grazing land for their livestock. Ownership of cows is part of their
culture and a definition of their wealth.
b. The sedentary Fulani, also known as Fulanin gida. They settle in towns and villages and engage in
economic activities such as farming, teaching and trading.

Using their bravery in administration, military and agriculture, and in alliance with their kinsman, Usman
Dan Fodio, they were able to alter to their favour the political equation in Hausaland, colonial and post-
colonial Nigeria and West Africa at large. They have produced, among other positions, a good number of
heads of government in Nigeria, Senegal, Gambia and Guinea Bissau. In Nigeria, as a result of a merger,
most discussions on the Fulani are now done side by side with those of the Hausa.

THE YORUBA

The Yoruba ethnic group is believed to have been in existence since the period between 2000 to 1000 BC.
They have the following areas as their traditional homeland; Ile-Ife, Oyo and Iwo-Eleru (near Akure and
Owo). Presently, they are found in the following states; Lagos, Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Ekiti, Osun, and parts of
Kogi and Kwara. They are also found in eastern Benin (formerly Dahomey), northern Ghana, Togo and
Brazil.

Traditions of Origin

There are two versions on the origin of the Yoruba; Ife and Oyo versions.

1. According to the Ife version, Olodumare or Olorun (the Most High God) sent sixteen Oye
(immortals) from heaven to come and create the earth and human beings out of water. The sixteen-
member delegation, led by Obatala included Oduduwa, Obawinrin and Obamerin. On their way,
Obatala was intoxicated after drinking palm wine. Oduduwa then seized the symbols of authority –
five pieces of iron, a cockerel and a lump of earth tied to a white piece of cloth and led them to the
world. They descended at Oke Oramfe in Ile-Ife where Oduduwa set down the five pieces of iron,
placed the lump of earth on them and made the cockerel to spread them. The earth was thus, formed
in this process including other Yoruba towns and villages and Oduduwa became the ruler. Ile-Ife is
therefore, believed to be the centre from which the world was created. However, another version

7
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

suggested that Oduduwa was an aggressor who used force to take over power from Obatala who had
established himself earlier. This is seen as the basis for unending rivalries between their parties,
especially during festivals.
2. The second version on the origin of the Yoruba is the Oyo Tradition or Rev. Samuel Johnson
version. According to this version, the Yoruba migrated from Mecca, passed through Yemen and
Egypt to their present location. The migration was inspired by outbreak of a civil war following the
rise of Islam in Mecca. Prominent among these migrants were Oduduwa, Gogobiri and Kukawa,
children of a Meccan King called Lamurudu. While Oduduwa and his children settled at Ile-Ife,
Gogobiri and Kukawa formed two Hausa tribes. A similar account was recorded by Muhammed
Bello, the son Uthman dan Fodio

Economy:

The economy of the Yoruba was built primarily on agriculture. Other important aspects of the economy
were trading, blacksmithing, carving and sculpturing. Some of these formed the foundation and growth of
the Yoruba arts and culture.

Political Organisation:

The Yoruba society was cosmopolitan right from the earliest period. Thus, they had early organised and
effective political system that clustered around Ile-Ife. Ile-Ife developed a strong economic system,
centralized political system, as well as complex cultural and spiritual practices that later became a model for
other Yoruba communities. While Ile-Ife continued to be the spiritual headquarters of Yorubaland, Oyo
soon developed a more complex political and military system. The renowned kingdom of Oyo was founded
by Oramiyan a son of Oduduwa in the 15th century. The kingdom’s influence later dominated other Yoruba
towns and up to Dahomey. This dominance was as a result of its military and economic strength as well as
political stability.

At the head of the political system was the Alaafin who was regarded as “the lord of many lands and
companion of the gods.” The Oyomesi (council of seven), headed by the Bashorun (prime minister), was
there to regulate or checkmate the power of the Alaafin. The council had the power to hire or fire an Alaafin
according to the tradition. When an Alaafin is removed, he is expected to commit suicide. There was also
another important component of the political system, the Ogboni cult. Made up of prominent members of
the society, the Oyomesi and representatives of the Alaafin, the Ogboni cult served as a counter force and a
mediator in any conflict between the Alaafin and the Oyomesi. The Army or Are-Ona-Kankanfo was
another important unit of the traditional political system of the Yoruba including 70 war chiefs. It was the
military arm of the government charged with the responsibility of maintaining stability, security and
expansion. A breakdown of these checks and balances was witnessed in the 18th century when Bashorun
Gaha assumed so much power. Gaha was known to have raised five Alaafin and destroyed four of them.
This breakdown was also at the root of the Yoruba internecine war that lasted for almost a century.

8
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE
www.fukashere.edu.ng
GST 2201: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

THE IGBO

The traditional homeland of the Igbo are south eastern Nigerian states of Imo, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi,
Abia and parts of Delta and Rivers.

Traditions of Origin

There are three versions on the origin of the Igbo.

1. The first version says the Igbo migrated from the Middle East to their present location. This
version suggests that they are of Egyptian, Hebrew or Israeli origin.
2. The second version says they have been in their present location in eastern Nigeria from the
beginning. This version claims that the Igbo societies such as Nri, Awka and Orlu have been in
existence since around 2,500 BC. It was from these places that they later spread to other areas.
3. The third version says they descended from the sky.

Economy

The basic components of the traditional economic system of the Igbo were agriculture, trade and industry. In
agriculture, cultivation of root crops such as yam was well known. Items such as palm oil and slaves
dominated trade. On the other hand, industrial activities included blacksmithing especially in Awka area.
The entrepreneurial culture of the Igbo is however, dominated by trade and industry.

Political Organization

The Igbo traditional political system was segmentary or autonomous characterized by a hierarchy of power
from the family to the age group and to special title holders. This is in spite of emergence of a paramount
ruler (Obi) for centralized communities such as Onitsha. The village group assembly, made up of lineages,
was the basic unit of political organization. Each lineage was headed by Okpara (the oldest son) a
representative of the ancestors. His symbol of authority and justice was the Ofo. Powers were also held
among the following: Ozo, Ichie, Mazi, Ozioko, Nze, Diokpa, Isi and Ezeji. Similarly, the priests, elders,
diviners, medicine men, the Okpara, members of secret society and age grades also possessed important
powers within the Igbo political set up. It is important to note the all-inclusive or democratic nature of Igbo
political system. This has often led to claims in some quarters that the Igbo possessed one of the most
democratic institutions in the pre-colonial history of Nigeria.