20 Climatic potential in Central Chile Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 18, 20–28, 2012

Climatic potential for viticulture in Central Chile _165 20..28

C. MONTES1*, J.F. PEREZ-QUEZADA1, A. PEÑA-NEIRA1 and J. TONIETTO2

1
Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Casilla 1004, Santiago, Chile
2
Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Uva e Vinho, Caixa Postal
130-95700-000, Bento Gonçalves, Brazil
* Present address: Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Aridas (CEAZA), Casilla 599, La Serena, Chile.
Corresponding author: Mr Carlo Montes, fax +56 51 204378, email carlo.montes@ceaza.cl

Abstract
Background and Aims: Central Chile represents a large area of viticultural potential for high-quality wine
production. Although climate has been commonly accepted as one of the main drivers of Chilean viticultural success,
its main features have not been described from a viticultural perspective. Our work focused on analysing the spatial
climatic structure in this area with respect to the potential for grapevine production.
Methods and Results: Climatic indices were used to estimate heat accumulation during the growing season, thermal
regime during ripening and the potential water balance at the end of the growth cycle. These indices were calculated
for 54 weather stations and clustered using hierarchical classification. The spatial variability in climatic potential was
well explained by differences in heat accumulation and by March thermal amplitude.
Conclusions: General patterns showed that the ripening of grapes was associated with low night-time temperatures.
Proximity to the sea had a strong influence, and there was a dominant north–south orientation of the climatic groups.
Significance of the Study: This study described the differences and relative importance of major climatic factors in
Central Chile, providing an increase in knowledge about the climate of Chilean wine-producing regions.

Abbreviations
CI Cool Night Index; DI Dryness Index; HI Heliothermal Index; MCC multicriteria climatic classification;
MTA March thermal amplitude

Keywords: climate variability, climatic classification, climatic index, viticultural zoning

Introduction east and the Coastal range to the west characterise the regional
Environmental variables are considered the most influential topography, with the viticultural areas located mainly at the
factors on grapevine production and berry composition. The bottom of the valleys. The climate is controlled by the climato-
existing components of the physical environment (e.g. climate, logical persistence of the subtropical high-pressure system of the
soil properties, topography and geology) can lead to character- southeastern Pacific, which shows a strengthening and south-
istic expression in different grapevine cultivars, resulting in ward displacement in summer, thus regulating synoptic scale
temporal and spatial variations in wine quality and typicity variability in Central Chile (Garreaud and Aceituno 2007).
(Winkler et al. 1974, Gladstones 1992). The interaction among During wintertime and after the high-pressure system weaken-
these environmental factors is often defined as the viticultural ing, the increasing eastward passage of midlatitude cold-frontal
terroir (Falcetti 1994, Vaudour 2003). The influence of climate systems through the region influences provides the maximum
on wine quality is well known, through the effect of both yearly rainfall amounts in those months, with a declining fre-
regional and local-scale climatic conditions during the growing quency of precipitation events northward that generates a
season, and by its interannual variability, which generates varia- north–south rainfall gradient and a very distinct precipitation
tions in grapevine growth and then in berry composition annual cycle (Falvey and Garreaud 2007). These general large-
(Coombe 1987, Gladstones 1992, Jones and Davis 2000, Jones scale features determine the dominant Mediterranean type of
et al. 2005, Soar et al. 2008). Among climate variables, air tem- climate under which Chilean viticulture is carried out.
perature is recognised as having the greatest effect on physi- Worldwide, a large number of studies examining the cli-
ological behaviour of the grapevine and on chemical changes in matic features have provided the description of different terroirs
the berry occurring during its formation and maturity (Jackson and the identification of winemaking regions using different
2000, Carbonneau et al. 2007), affecting plant vigour, ripening methodologies (e.g. Tonietto 1999, Asselin et al. 2001, Bonnar-
rate and harvest date (Jackson and Lombard 1993). Tempera- dot et al. 2002, Tonietto and Carbonneau 2004). Despite the
ture is also known to determine the concentration of aromatic importance of Chile as a wine-producing country, and the
and colour compounds in certain cultivars under specific night- relevance of climate in providing a wide range of grapevine
time temperatures (Kliewer and Torres 1972, Kliewer 1973, growing possibilities, there have been few studies that have
Fregoni and Pezzutto 2000). documented the climatic characteristics and suitability. In this
Central Chile is the main wine-producing area of the context, the aim of this study was to provide increase knowl-
country (Figure 1). In this zone, the Andes Mountains to the edge of climate conditions for viticulture in Central Chile,

doi: 10.1111/j.1755-0238.2011.00165.x
© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Montes et al. Climatic potential in Central Chile 21

Figure 1. (a) Location of the

study area in Central Chile
(black lines are administrative
divisions); (b) spatial
distribution of the weather
stations (black circles) and the
included viticultural valleys
(grey polygons). The darker
polygon in the Maipo valley
shows the city of Santiago.

describing the variability in climatic potential for grapevine pro- Climatic indices and classification
duction using climatic indices and classifying this variability into The classification methodology was based on the multicriteria
distinguishable groups. climatic classification (MCC) system proposed by Tonietto and
Carbonneau (2004), which consists of the joint use of three
climatic indices: the heliothermal index (HI), cool night index
Materials and methods (CI) and dryness index (DI). Several studies have used this
Study area and climatic data climatic classification approach worldwide (e.g. Hormazábal
Seven (from a total of 14) Chilean viticultural valleys (Acon- et al. 2002, Blanco-Ward et al. 2007, Ferrer et al. 2007, Jones
cagua, Casablanca, Maipo, Cachapoal, Colchagua, Curicó and et al. 2009), but no study has been performed for Chilean viti-
Maule) were included in this study, which were delimited cultural regions, which would also contribute to the validation
according to the Appellation of Origin System of Chilean Wines of the classification system at the global scale.
(Figure 1). These seven valleys represent a cultivated area of Developed by Huglin (1978), the HI relates the air tempera-
about 95 000 ha, equivalent to 85% of the Chilean viticultural ture during the active period of vegetative growth (October–
area (Wines of Chile 2011), and the main cultivars grown are March in the Southern Hemisphere) and a coefficient of day
Cabernet Sauvignon (32.9% of surface), Merlot (12.2%), Char- length that varies according to the latitude. The HI provides
donnay (11.7%), Sauvignon Blanc (9.7%), Carménère (5.2%), information about the local heat summation considering the
Pinot Noir (2.6%), Syrah (1.2%), among others such as Caber- average and maximum temperatures, weighting the accu-
net Franc, Riesling, Carignan and Gewurztraminer (SAG, 2010). mulated temperatures to the daytime period (Tonietto and
This region is characterised by a typical Mediterranean type of Carbonneau 2004):
climate with maximum temperatures ranging between 25 and
35°C during the growing season (September–March), and a
31− mar
[(Tm − 10) + (Tx − 10)]
total annual precipitation varying from 300 to 900 mm, concen-
HI = ∑ 2
d, (1)
01− oct
trated in the cold season (June–August). Vineyards are typically
grown under irrigated conditions and trained mainly in vertical where Tm is the average air temperature (°C), Tx is the mean
shoot-positioning system. maximum air temperature (°C), and d is the day length coeffi-
Monthly mean data of temperature (mean, maximum cient applied between 40 and 50° latitude (Huglin 1978, Toni-
and minimum), rainfall and pan evaporation (Class A) over etto and Carbonneau 2004). In the present study, this latitude
the period 1990–2005 for a set of 54 weather stations were correction factor was applied for all the weather stations located
used. These weather stations were located within the above- at latitudes ⱖ33.3°S, as was performed previously by Hall and
mentioned viticultural valleys (Figure 1b), from 32°13 to Jones (2010) for Australian viticultural regions and by Jones
36°05’S, and from 70°29 to 72°33’W, representing a transect of et al. (2010) for the western USA. According to these authors, a
440 and 220 km approximately in latitude and longitude, respec- time-integrated day-length factor for a given latitude and day
tively. This climatic database provided information not only of the year, calculated taking into account some astronomical
about the currently cultivated zones but also about zones close to parameters using the equations from Glarner (2006), can be
the viticultural valleys that could have viticultural potential. obtained as a linear function of the accumulated day lengths

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

22 Climatic potential in Central Chile Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 18, 20–28, 2012

from 1 October to 31 March, using the upper and lower values In addition to the above-described climatic indices, we used
of d originally proposed by Huglin and Schneider (1998) for the mean thermal amplitude (MTA) of March as a complemen-
European regions (see Hall and Jones 2010 for calculation tary index (i.e. the difference between maximum and minimum
details). The calculated day lengths for the growing season (a temperatures of March). March was chosen using the same
potential daily sunshine length) in the Southern Hemisphere criteria as for the CI. This thermal parameter has been consid-
between 30 and 50°S of latitude, and the corresponding correc- ered an important factor influencing grape composition (e.g.
tion factor (d) are shown in Figure S1 (Online Supporting Infor- Mullins et al. 1992, Ramos et al. 2008). For each time series of
mation). It is clear that the latitude and time affect the day n elements, this index was calculated as:
length, and that at latitudes ⱖ33.3°S, the d values are higher
than 1.0 (latitudes at which this factor was applied, as done by 1 n
Hall and Jones 2010). Huglin and Schneider (1998) proposed a MTA = ∑ (Txm − Tnm ),
n 1
(5)
lower limit for grapevine cultivation fixed at HI = 1400 to reach
an adequate ripening process for different grapevine cultivars where Txm and Tnm are the mean maximum and minimum tem-
(required to reach a certain sugar concentration). perature in March (°C), respectively.
The CI takes into account the minimum temperatures of
March in the Southern Hemisphere, a period in which the
ripening process usually occurs or finishes. This climatic factor is Statistical procedure
known as one of the important features for the synthesis of the Multivariate statistical analyses have been used as an integrated
compounds responsible for colour and aroma in grapes (Kliewer approach to estimate the individual effects of climatic variables
and Torres 1972, Kliewer 1973). Combining CI with other cli- on climatic variability in agricultural conditions (e.g. Blanco-
matic indices can give a better assessment of the qualitative Ward et al. 2007, Evrendilek and Berberoglu 2008). To obtain
potential for grapevine-growing regions (Tonietto and Carbon- a multicriteria climatic grouping, a hierarchical classification
neau 2004). The calculation corresponds to the average (cluster analysis) with the four selected climatic indices was
minimum air temperature of March (°C) (Tonietto 1999). used. The standardised Euclidean distance was used as the mea-
The DI describes the hydric component of climate, indicating sure of similarity, which according to Wilks (2006), is defined
the presence or the absence of drought condition and its for points xi and xj in the K-dimensional space of the respective
intensity. The DI takes into account the vineyard evaporative vectors as:
demand, the bare soil evaporation and the precipitation, indi- 1
⎡ K ( x i ,k − x j ,k ) ⎤ 2
2
cating the soil potential water availability, and the level of
regional dryness (Tonietto and Carbonneau 2004). DI is cal- Di , j = ⎢∑ ⎥ , (6)
⎣ k =1 σ k2 ⎦
culated over the same 6-month period as HI according to the
following formula:
where σ k2 is the variance of the xk samples. This data standardi-
DI = W0 + P + TV + ES , (2) sation avoids the effect of scales and units of variables on the
group discrimination. After calculating the Euclidean distance,
Ward’s (1963) hierarchical minimum variance method was used
where DI (mm) is the estimated soil water content at the end of as the clustering algorithm. According to Wilks (2006), Ward’s
the growing season, W0 is the initial soil water content, P is the method merges the pairs of clusters that will result in the
precipitation (mm), TV is the potential vineyard transpiration minimum sum of squared distances between the points and the
(mm) and ES is the direct soil evaporation (mm). TV and ES are centroids of their respective group, summed over the resulting
calculated as follows: groups. Between all the possible two-group combinations, the
pair selected to be merged is the one that minimises the sum of
TV = ETP ∗ k , (3) squared distance between the points and the centroids of their
respective group, summed over the resulting groups. The total
ETP
ES = (1 − k ) JPm, (4) within-group error sum of squares in one step (Si), with K groups,
N J variables and M elements in each group, is defined as:
where ETP is the potential evapotranspiration, and k is a coef- K J M
St ( K ) = ∑ ∑ ∑ ( x mjk − x jk ( m )) ,
2
ficient of radiation absorption by the vineyard. For ETP calcu- (7)
lation, the MCC system is defined using the Penman (1948) k =1 j =1 m =1
method, but because we did not have all the necessary data for
its estimation, for the present study, we used the pan evapora- where xmjk is the value of the jth variable, from mth observations in
tion. In equation 4, N is the number of days of the month, and kth groups, and x jk ( m ) is the mean value of the group (Wilks
JPm is the number of days with effective soil evaporation (cal- 2006). Once the different groups were defined, a multiple dis-
culated dividing P by 5 mm), which should be equal to or lower criminant analysis (MDA) was performed to find the sources of
than N. For the Southern Hemisphere, the k values used are 0.1 discrimination between the resulting groups and to describe the
in October, 0.3 in November and 0.5 from December to March. existing differences between groups based on the values of the
To perform a qualitative description of climate in a viticul- four climatic indices (Dillon and Goldstein 1984).
tural sense, and after performing a global classification of the
climatic indices, Tonietto and Carbonneau (2004) proposed dif-
ferent climate classes for viticulture. Classification according to Results and discussion
the ranges of the three indices distinguishes climates ranging General climatic features
from very cool (HI ⱕ 1500) to very warm (HI > 3000); climates The distribution of HI, CI, DI and MTA for Central Chile weather
from very cool nights (CI ⱕ 12°C) to warm nights (CI > 18°C); and stations is presented in Figure 2. The average values found for
climates ranging from very dry (DI ⱕ -100 mm) to humid each index were HI = 2075 (temperate), CI = 9.4°C (very cool
(DI > 150 mm). nights), DI = -174 mm (very dry) and MTA=16.2°C. For HI, the

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

Montes et al. Climatic potential in Central Chile 23

Figure 2. Frequency
histograms for HI, CI, DI and
MTA.

values range from 1089 to 2664; for CI, the values range from condition has been described for some winegrowing regions of
7.3 to 11.2°C; for DI, the values range from -372 to -13 mm; Germany (Baden and Mosel), France (Bourgogne and Cham-
and for MTA, the values range from 8.7 to 21.6°C. pagne), Spain (Miño Valley) and Australia (Mount Gambier and
For HI, the observed distribution reveals a wide range of Nuriootpa) (Tonietto and Carbonneau 2004, Blanco-Ward et al.
viticultural classes according to the MCC system, including 5 of 2007, Jones et al. 2009). However, this feature can be regarded
the 6 climatic groups originally defined worldwide (from very as a climate characteristic of Central Chile, as no similar spatially
cool to warm); some weather stations showed values below uniform low-temperature condition has been reported for other
1400 for HI, therefore, an heliothermal potential unsuitable grape-producing regions, according to the MCC system.
for grapevine cultivation (Figure 2a) according to Huglin and Consistent with the dominant Mediterranean type of
Schneider (1998). Most of the weather stations (59%) were climate in Central Chile, characterised by the prevailing dry
classified as having temperate warm and warm climates according conditions in the warm season, only negative values were found
to their HI value, which is thermally suitable for the ripening of for DI (moderately dry and very dry). Nevertheless, the DI ampli-
the main cultivated varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon or tude reveals variations in climatic water demand and potential
Merlot. However, some physiological problems could occur in hydric balance at the end of the growing season (Figure 2c).
zones with high heat accumulation, which could affect the From a viticultural perspective, this negative hydric balance can
aromatic potential of grapes in the earliest cultivars, such as be favourable because it implies almost no rainfall events during
Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Similar ranges of climate the grape-growing and fruit-ripening period. This could, for
classes for HI were described for other viticultural regions, such example, reduce the development of some diseases or reduce
as the Miño River Valley in Spain (Blanco-Ward et al. 2007) and the vigour of the vines (e.g. Willocquet and Clerjeau 1998). This
Australia (Hall and Jones 2010). Because the period and proce- climatic feature has been described for other winegrowing
dure of calculation (i.e. monthly or daily data) can be different regions with a Mediterranean-type climate, including Spain (La
for other works, these comparative values should be considered Mancha, Rioja and Tarragona), Portugal (Porto, Évora and
only as a reference of values found in the literature. Lisbon), France (Montpellier, Perpignan and Toulon), the USA
For CI, a relatively narrow range of minimum temperatures (Fresno, Portland and Sacramento) and Australia (Mildura,
and a bimodal distribution was found, with a maximum fre- Mount Gambier and Nuriootpa) (Tonietto and Carbonneau
quency at 8.5 and 10°C (Figure 2b). A lower variability was 2004, Jones et al. 2009). Given the almost total absence of
observed for CI compared with that described for other viticul- rainfall during the growing season, this dryness condition
tural regions, which in general, have higher values and ranges determines that irrigation is required in vineyards of Central
of night-time temperatures, such as Bordeaux in France Chile. Therefore, comparisons of DI with other winegrape
(12.9°C, cool nights class), Sacramento and Fresno in the USA growing regions must be considered as a reference of a mean
(13.2 and 14.9°C, cool nights and temperate nights classes, respec- climatic water demand.
tively), Napier in New Zealand (12.6°C, cool nights class), or Cape A wide temperature range was found for the MTA (from 8.7
Town in South Africa (14.2°C, temperate nights class) (Tonietto to 21.6°C), with the highest frequency of values of around 16°C
1999, Tonietto and Carbonneau 2004, Jones et al. 2009). More- (Figure 2d). This relatively large thermal amplitude may involve
over, all the weather stations recorded a minimum temperature favourable aspects for grape properties and quality of wines
for March below 12°C, i.e. showed very cool nights conditions for produced under such thermal conditions, as found by Ramos
ripening of grapes (Figure 2b). This relatively cold nocturnal et al. (2008) in the Priorat region of Spain (with an average

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

24 Climatic potential in Central Chile Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 18, 20–28, 2012

August–September thermal amplitude of 10.1°C), where a circulation and land/sea breezes (e.g. Bonnardot et al. 2005,
higher diurnal temperature range during ripening period Bonnardot and Cautenet 2009). Also, a significant negative
resulted in higher quality of red wines. correlation between HI and DI was found, showing that the
The linear relationship between climatic indices and geo- warmer zones have the most negative potential water balance.
graphical variables is shown in Table 1. A low but significant Figure 3 shows a scatter plot relating the four climatic
positive correlation between HI and elevation was found. A indices (see also Table 1). A wide range of values was found for
higher correlation between HI and distance to the ocean reveals most combinations of climatic indices. Although low, yet statis-
a decrease of heliothermal potential closer to the sea. The tically significant, the negative correlation coefficient between
increase of HI in higher elevations is the opposite of what would DI and HI (Figure 3b) shows a trend of higher heliothermal
be expected and could be explained by the fact that the stations potential for zones with a higher water deficit by the end of the
located at lower elevations are also those closer to the ocean, season, contrasting coastal with inland zones. In the same way,
consequently a combined effect of both geographical factors is and with a relatively high dispersion, the relationship between
revealed at this regional scale. An effect associated with the CI and MTA (Figure 3d) indicates a reduction in thermal ampli-
degree of continentality is reflected in a reduction in heat sum- tude (MTA) in those zones with higher night-time temperatures
mation (HI) and thermal amplitude (MTA) closer to the ocean, (CI). In contrast to the previous case, a clear linear relationship
which generates no variation in minimum temperatures (CI). was found between HI and MTA (Figure 3c), where the zones
This mesoscale phenomena should be addressed in future works with higher heliothermal potential are more likely to experience
considering factors such as topography-conditioned surface wider thermal amplitudes in March. Therefore, those zones
with higher suitability related to the heliothermal potential
could benefit from wider thermal amplitudes during the ripen-
Table 1. Correlation matrix between climatic indices and ing period, allowing higher potential of sugar concentration in
geographical variables. berries with an adequate synthesis of aromatic and colour com-
pounds for well-adapted varieties (Kliewer 1973). Nevertheless,
HI CI DI MTA in zones with high HI values, the concentration of organic acids
might be affected (mainly malic and tartaric acid, which would
HI 1.00 — — — be reduced by cell respiration), as well as some aromatic com-
CI -0.09 1.00 — — pounds (Coombe 1987).
DI -0.41 0.06 1.00 —
MTA 0.91 -0.43 -0.39 1.00 Climatic groups in Central Chile
Distance to the ocean 0.66 -0.08 -0.11 0.64 The results of the hierarchical classification done using the four
climatic indices are shown in Figure 4 and displayed as a den-
Latitude 0.13 0.24 -0.18 0.12
drogram (Figure 4a) and the distance between clusters as a
Elevation 0.28 -0.28 -0.15 0.34 function of the analysis stage (Figure 4b). When similar clusters
are compared at the first stages, the distance between them is
Coefficients in bold are significant at level P < 0.05. low, and it increases at the next stages of the analysis (Wilks

Figure 3. Scatter plots for the relationships position between HI, CI, DI and MTA.

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

Montes et al. Climatic potential in Central Chile 25

Table 2. Correlation between climatic indices and DFs,

and significance statistics of the MDA (Wilks’ lambda).

Variable DF1 DF2 DF3 Wilks’

lambda
(%)

HI -0.539 -0.711 -0.294 2.8

DI 0.689 -0.673 -0.149 4.3
CI 0.157 0.323 -0.925 4.1
MTA -0.847 -0.496 -0.189 3.2
Eigenvalue 5.331 3.092 0.412 —
Cumulative 0.603 0.953 0.999 —
proportion

Final model: Wilks’ lambda = 2%; F = 27.2; P < 0.001.

the total variance explained by each DF, with values of 60.3%

for DF1, 35% for DF2 and 4.6% for DF3. The high discriminat-
ing capacity of DF1 is related to its negative correlation with
MTA and HI, and its positive correlation with DI and CI, with
a higher contribution from MTA. For DF2, the heliothermal
potential appears to be the most contributing characteristic,
followed by a similar correlation with DI. In DF3, the CI has the
higher contribution.
The position of climatic groups with respect to the DF is
displayed in Figure 5. As was said, the DF1 explains the highest
proportion of the variance, and a comparison of DF1 and DF2
shows a clear discrimination for the groups 3, 4 and 5, with an
overlap for groups 1 and 2. Given the negative correlation with
MTA and HI for DF1, group 5 appears as the one with the lower
thermal amplitudes and heat accumulation, and conversely for
groups on the negative side of the axis. Due to its positive
correlation with DF1, along the DI axis, the groups are separated
in an inverse way to MTA and HI. Comparing DF2 and DF3
Figure 4. (a) Dendrogram of the hierarchical classification of the 54 shows how they discriminate groups 1, 2 and 3 from groups 4
weather stations and (b) the distance between clusters as a function and 5, in which HI and DI have the highest correlation showing
of the stage of analysis. a combined discrimination for the zones with more negative
water balance and higher heliothermal potential. Given the
similar correlations between climatic indices and the first two
2006). It can be observed that around stage 47, there is a DF, a similar group separation for each index can be seen, except
significant increase in distance between clusters, determining an for the night-time thermal condition represented by CI, which
adequate number of five clusters or climatic groups to be con- displays a low discrimination capacity.
sidered. Although a number of 5–7 clusters could be retained, Five groups with significant climatic characteristics and dif-
we chose the lowest option to facilitate the interpretation and ferences in their climatic potential for grapevine cultivation
discussion of each group. were identified. The descriptive statistics of the climatic indices
The statistical results of the MDA are presented in Table 2. for each group are shown in Table 3, including the statistical
The Wilks’ lambda indicates the discrimination capacity of the significance of differences between means after a Tukey’s test.
MDA (0 for perfect discrimination capacity and 1 for null), show- Also, the distance to the sea and elevation of each climatic group
ing for the final model a high proportion of the total variance are shown in Table 4. The spatial distribution of the weather
(98%, lambda = 2%) is explained by differences among the stations of each climatic group is shown in Figure 6, and its
groups in the discriminant functions (DF), with a highly signifi- characteristics are discussed below.
cant difference between the centroid of each group (P < 0.001) Group 1 is the most frequent, formed by 16 weather stations
after a chi-square test. As can be seen through the small increase located mainly in the central part of the valleys from Aconcagua
of the Wilks’ lambda resulting when each index is removed to the north and Maule to the south. This climatic group has
(Wilks’ lambda for each index), the four climatic indices have a high heliothermal potential (mean HI = 2259, climate class
a similar statistical contribution to the discriminant capacity. warm), offering suitable climatic conditions cultivation of the
However, the close statistical relationship between HI and MTA main varieties (e.g. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Carménère
described previously can result in a smaller increase in the discri- and Syrah). It has the highest nocturnal temperature during the
mination capacity, given the similar contribution by both indices. ripening period (CI = 10.3°C), a relatively high MTA (16.5°C)
Three DF were considered as a means to characterise the five and the driest condition (DI = -165 mm) with groups 4 and 5. A
groups. Correlations between variables (climatic indices) and DF similar combination of values of the MCC system indices was
are shown in Table 2 along with the cumulative proportion of described previously in the Australian viticultural region of

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

26 Climatic potential in Central Chile Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 18, 20–28, 2012

Figure 5. Position of the climatic groups in the first three discriminant functions. The combination of DF1/DF3 is not shown because it added
little information. G1, group 1; G2, group 2; G3, group 3; G4, group 4; and G5, group 5.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of climatic indices of the five climatic groups.

Heliothermal Index Cool Night Index (°C)

Mean Median SD Min. Max. Mean Median SD Min. Max.

Group 1 2259‡ 2240 126 2089 2459 10.3† 10.1 0.5 9.5 11.2
Group 2 2225‡ 2251 220 2016 2373 9.6‡ 9.6 0.3 9.2 10.2
Group 3 2441† 2460 156 2194 2664 8.6§ 8.6 0.3 8.2 9.0
Group 4 1988§ 2095 264 1281 2297 8.2¶ 8.2 0.4 7.3 8.8
Group 5 1440¶ 1477 215 1089 1781 10.1† 10.1 0.7 8.7 10.9
Dryness Index (mm) March Thermal Amplitude (°C)
Mean Median SD Min. Max. Mean Median SD Min. Max.

Group 1 -165† -161 47 -275 -102 16.5‡ 16.4 0.8 15.6 17.9
Group 2 -250‡ -238 37 -327 -218 17.2‡ 17.0 0.9 16.1 18.4
Group 3 -264‡ -268 65 -372 -173 19.9† 19.9 1.0 18.4 21.6
Group 4 -121† -188 70 -219 -13 16.8‡ 16.9 1.8 12.3 19.5
Group 5 -133† -104 90 -287 -27 10.6§ 10.2 1.7 8.7 13.4

Different symbols in the same column indicate significant differences according to Tukey’s test (P < 0.05). Max., maximum; Min., minimum; SD, standard deviation.

Nuriootpa and Medford in the USA (Tonietto and Carbonneau Table 4. Distance to the sea and elevation of the five
2004). Other viticultural regions have been reported to have climatic groups.
similar values, such as Valle de Uco in Argentina (HI = 2287,
CI = 11.2°C, DI = -75 mm; the latter being significantly different Distance to the sea (km) Elevation (masl)
from group 1) and Cape Town in South Africa (HI = 2174, a
higher CI = 14.2°C, DI = -270 mm) (Tonietto 1999). Min. Mean Max. Min. Mean Max.
Group 2 consists of seven weather stations, located in
the Aconcagua, Maipo, Cachapoal and Maule Valleys. The Group 1 27.8 103.5 134.9 97 320 870
values of HI and MTA are statistically equal to group 1. Differ- Group 2 24.4 62.0 133.2 140 281 500
ences with group 1 lie in DI and CI values. This group has a Group 3 72.2 86.6 107.7 123 508 762
slightly colder night-time temperatures (CI = 9.6°C) and a drier Group 4 1.1 101.5 149.8 60 377 1310
condition (DI = -250, very dry class), and given the irrigation
Group 5 0.5 15.3 38.6 7 158 360
practices, these features could give this group the possibility

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

Montes et al. Climatic potential in Central Chile 27

temperatures during the ripening period (CI = 8.2°C) and rela-

tively high MTA (16.8°C), which may also promote the expres-
sion of the well-adapted varieties (e.g. Pinot Noir or Sauvignon
Blanc). Similar climatic features have been found in Valladolid
in Spain (HI = 2020, CI = 10.9°C, DI = -20 mm), Barolo in Italy
(HI = 1960, CI = 14.6°C, DI = 90 m) and Bordeaux in France
(HI = 1995, CI = 12.9°C, DI = 147 mm), showing these Euro-
pean regions higher values for DI and CI (Tonietto 1999, Jones
et al. 2009).
Nine weather stations located near the coastal zones of
Central Chile compose group 5. This group had the lowest
thermal accumulation (HI = 1440, class very cool) and therefore
the lower potential for grape maturity. Due to the proximity to
the sea, the weather stations of this group experience the mod-
erating influence of the Pacific Ocean, thus some stations record
low temperatures resulting in a HI value lower than the theo-
retical limit of 1400 proposed by Huglin and Schneider (1998) for
grapevine cultivation. As expected, this group has also the lowest
MTA (10.6°C), as a direct influence of proximity to the sea. Along
with group 1, this group shows the highest mean value for CI
(10.1°C). However, CI remains under 12°C, which demonstrates
the low discrimination capacity of CI for viticultural regions in
Central Chile. Except for drier condition, similar cool condition
for viticulture were found in regions such as Argentina
(Río Negro; HI = 1435, CI = 5.5°C, DI = 31 mm), Germany
(Würzburg; HI = 1472, CI = 9.7°C, DI = 200 mm), or France
(Champagne; HI = 1492, CI = 9.9°C, DI = 106 mm) (Tonietto
1999, Jones et al. 2009).

Figure 6. Spatial distribution of the weather stations for the five Conclusions
climatic groups.
A statistically based climate classification and description was
performed, extending over a large portion of Chilean viticul-
to obtain similar berry and wine qualities than group 1 for red tural area. Using four climatic indices (HI, CI, DI and MTA),
grapevine varieties. important differences in climatic potential and suitability for
Group 3 is composed of eight weather stations located grapevine cultivation were identified. A wide range of potential
mainly in the northern portion of the study area in the to reach maturity was observed using the HI, from cold zones
Aconcagua, Maipo and Cachapoal Valleys, and also in surround- with a very low thermal suitability to others theoretically
ing zones. This is the group with the highest heat accumulation not restrictive for any variety. The MTA showed a close spatial
(HI = 2441, climate class warm), a value that indicates a suitable relationship and discriminatory capacity with HI. Despite the
condition for later ripening varieties such as Carménère or wide range of DI values, results showed a generalised dryness
Syrah. For cool-climate varieties of importance in Central potential condition at the end of the growing season. This con-
Chile, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc, this dition corresponds to a distinctive climatic feature of Central
thermal condition might be unfavourable given the probability Chile as compared with other wine-producing regions of the
of reduction in grape quality by loss of organic acids and aro- world. However, these last results should be considered as a
matic compounds (e.g. Jackson and Lombard 1993). The low climatic feature and not as an indicator of vineyard hydric
night-time temperatures (CI = 8.6°C) and high MTA (19.9°C) status because irrigation in Central Chile is a widespread prac-
for this climate group are important climatic features that tice, making difficult a comparison between viticultural zones
can potentially generate an increase in quality-associated com- using this index. As for night-time temperature conditions, and
pounds for appropriate varieties such as Syrah. Similar climatic according to the MCC system, the values found for CI indicate
features as group 3 have been described to occur in terms general very cool conditions in relation to other viticultural
of HI in regions such as Montpellier in France (HI = 2336, regions of the world. Results show also that CI was not an
CI = 15.2°C, DI = -50 mm) and Ciudad Real in Spain (HI = appropriate climate descriptor, given its lack of discrimination
2522, CI = 13.3°C, DI = -86 mm) (Tonietto 1999), with differ- capacity. However, MTA appears as a very useful tool to char-
ences for CI and DI according the MCC system. acterise the thermal regime during grape-ripening period in
Group 4 is the second largest group, formed by 14 weather Central Chile.
stations located near the coast, such as the Casablanca Valley, Cluster analysis facilitated the description of five climatic
and mainly near the eastern edge of the Maipo, Cachapoal and groups with different viticultural characteristics. The trend to
Maule Valleys, which are the highest zones near the Andes. north–south orientation of these groups reveals the importance
Their position likely explains this group’s lower mean heliother- of geographic factors on the spatial structure at a macroclimatic
mal potential (HI = 1988, temperate class), which may limit the scale, such as the proximity to the sea, the elevation and the
potential cultivation of red wine varieties with higher thermal degree of continentality. This spatial arrangement is in accor-
requirements, such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Carménère. These dance to the recently approved system of viticulture appella-
locations could be suitable for early-ripening varieties, such as tions of origin (SAG 2010), partially replacing the former system
Pinot Noir or Riesling. This group has the lowest nocturnal that was based only on areas that followed the orientation of the

© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.

28 Climatic potential in Central Chile Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 18, 20–28, 2012

watersheds (east–west). We think that the classification pre- Jackson, D.I. and Lombard, P.B. (1993) Environmental and management
sented here will help to a better understanding of the climatic practices affecting grape composition and wine quality: a review. Ameri-
can Journal of Enology and Viticulture 4, 409–430.
characteristics and potential for growing grapes within the area Jackson, R.S. (2000) Wine science. Principles, practice, perception, 2nd edn
of Central Chile and also could represent a good basis for future (Academic Press: San Diego, CA).
works at finer spatial and temporal scales. Jones, G. and Davis, R. (2000) Climate influences on grapevine phenology,
grape composition, and wine production and quality for Bordeaux,
France. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 51, 249–261.
Acknowledgements Jones, G.V., Duff, A.D., Hall, A. and Myers, J.W. (2010) Spatial analysis of
This work was supported by the CYTED project ‘Zoning Meth- climate in winegrape growing regions in the western United States.
odologies and Applications in the Viticultural Regions of Ibero- American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 61, 313–326.
Jones, G., Moriondo, M., Bois, B., Hall, A. and Duff, A. (2009) Analysis of
America’. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Dirección the spatial climate structure in viticulture regions worldwide. Le Bulletin
Meteorológica de Chile for providing the climate data, and the de l’Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin 82, 507–518.
contributions of Dr Richard E. Plant for the constructive com- Jones, G.V., White, M.A., Cooper, O.R. and Storchmann, K. (2005)
ments and suggestions to the original manuscript. Climate change and global wine quality. Climatic Change 73, 319–343.
Kliewer, W.M. (1973) Berry composition of Vitis vinifera cultivars as influ-
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© 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.