Behavior modification

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Behavior modification refers to behavior-change procedures that were employed during the 1970s
and early 1980s. Based on methodological behaviorism,[1] overt behavior was modified with
presumed consequences, including artificial positive and negative reinforcement contingencies to
increase desirable behavior, or administering positive and negative punishment and/or extinction to
reduce problematic behavior.[2][3][4] For the treatment of phobias, habituation and punishment were the
basic principles used in flooding, a subcategory of desensitization.
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)—the application of behavior analysis—is based on radical
behaviorism, which refers to B. F. Skinner's viewpoint that cognition and emotions are covert
behavior that are to be subjected to the same conditions as overt behavior.

Description[edit]
The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911.
His article Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term
"modifying behavior".[5] Through early research in the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used
by Joseph Wolpe's research group.[6] The experimental tradition in clinical psychology used it to refer
to psycho-therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research.[7] It has since come to refer mainly
to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive
behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former).
In recent years, the concept of punishment has had many critics, though these criticisms tend not to
apply to negative punishment (time-outs) and usually apply to the addition of some aversive event.
The use of positive punishment by board certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme
circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and when the behavior to be modified is
a danger to the person or to others (see professional practice of behavior analysis). In clinical
settings positive punishment is usually restricted to using a spray bottle filled with water as an
aversive event. When misused, more aversive punishment can lead to affective (emotional)
disorders, as well as to the receiver of the punishment increasingly trying to avoid the punishment
(i.e., "not get caught").
Behavior modification relies on the following:

 Reinforcement (positive and negative)

 Punishment (positive and negative)
 Extinction
 Shaping
 Fading
 Chaining

Some areas of effectiveness[edit]

Functional behavior assessment forms the core of applied behavior analysis. Many techniques in
this therapy are specific techniques aimed at specific issues. Interventions based on behavior
analytic principles have been extremely effective in developing evidence-based treatments.[8]
In addition to the above, a growing list of research-based interventions from the behavioral paradigm
exist. With children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one study showed that over
a several year period, children in the behavior modification group had half the number of felony
arrests as children in the medication group.[9][10] These findings have yet to be replicated, but are
considered encouraging for the use of behavior modification for children with ADHD. There is strong
and consistent evidence that behavioral treatments are effective for treating ADHD. A recent meta-
analysis found that the use of behavior modification for ADHD resulted in effect sizes in between
group studies (.83), pre-post studies (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single subject studies
(3.78) indicating behavioral treatments are highly effective.[11]
Behavior modification programs form the core of many residential treatment facility programs. They
have shown success in reducing recidivism for adolescents with conduct problems and adult
offenders. One particular program that is of interest is teaching-family homes (see Teaching Family
Model), which is based on a social learning model that emerged from radical behaviorism. These
particular homes use a family style approach to residential treatment, which has been carefully
replicated over 700 times.[12] Recent efforts have seen a push for the inclusion of more behavior
modification programs in residential re-entry programs in the U.S. to aid prisoners in re-adjusting
after release.
One area that has repeatedly shown effectiveness has been the work of behaviorists working in the
area of community reinforcement for addictions.[13] Another area of research that has been strongly
supported has been behavioral activation for depression.[14]
One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in providing compliments,
approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for every one complaint is
generally seen as being effective in altering behavior in a desired manner[15] and even in producing
stable marriages.[16]
Of notable interest is that the right behavioral intervention can have profound system effects. For
example, Forgatch and DeGarmo (2007) found that with mothers who were recently divorced, a
standard round of parent management training (programs based on social learning principles that
teaches rewarding good behavior and ignoring bad behavior combined with communication skills)
could help elevate the divorced mother out of poverty.[17] In addition, parent management training
programs, sometimes referred to as behavioral parent training programs, have shown relative cost
effectiveness for their efforts[18] for the treatment of conduct disorder. Thus, such intervention can
have profound effects on socializing the child in a relatively cost effective fashion and help get the
parent out of poverty. This level of effect is often looked for and valued by those who
practice behavioral engineering and results of this type have caused the Association for Behavior
Analysis International to take a position that those receiving treatment have a right to effective
treatment[19] and a right to effective education.[20]

In job performance[edit]
Based on the conceptual premises of classical behaviorism and reinforcement theory, the
Organizational Behavior Modification Model (aka O.B. Mod) represents a behavioral approach to the
management of human resources in organizational settings.[21] The application of reinforcement
theory to modification of behavior as it relates to job performance first requires analysis of necessary
antecedents (e.g., job design, training) of the desired behavior.[21] After it has been determined that
the necessary antecedents are present, managers must first identify the behaviors to change. These
behaviors must be observable, measurable, task-related, and critical to the task at hand. Next, a
baseline measure of the behavior must be assessed and functional consequences analyzed.[21] Now
that the link between the antecedent, behavior, and contingent consequences has been established,
an intervention to change the behavior can be introduced. If the intervention is successful in
modifying the behavior, it must be maintained using schedules of reinforcement and must be
evaluated for performance improvement.[21] The O.B. Mod has been found to have a significant
positive effect on task performance globally,[21][22] with performance on average increasing 17%.[23]
A study that examined the differential effects of incentive motivators administered with the O.B. Mod
on job performance found that using money as a reinforcer with O.B. Mod was more successful at
increasing performance compared to routine pay for performance (i.e., money administered on
performance not using O.B. Mod).[24] The authors also found that using money administered through
the O.B. Mod produced stronger effects (37% performance increase), compared to social recognition
(24% performance increase) and performance feedback (20% performance increase).[24]

Criticism[edit]
See also: Cognitive behavioral therapy § Criticisms, and Psychotherapy § General critiques
Behavior modification is critiqued in person-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such
as Rogerian Counseling and Re-evaluation Counseling,[25] which involve "connecting with the human
qualities of the person to promote healing", while behaviorism is "denigrating to the human spirit".
[26]
 B.F. Skinner argues in Beyond Freedom and Dignity that unrestricted reinforcement is what led to
the "feeling of freedom", thus removal of aversive events allows people to "feel freer".[27] Further
criticism extends to the presumption that behavior increases only when it is reinforced. This premise
is at odds with research conducted by Albert Bandura at Stanford University. His findings indicate
that violent behavior is imitated, without being reinforced, in studies conducted with children
watching films showing various individuals "beating the daylights out of Bobo". Bandura believes that
human personality and learning is the result of the interaction between environment, behavior and
psychological process. There is evidence, however, that imitation is a class of behavior that can be
learned just like anything else. Children have been shown to imitate behavior that they have never
displayed before and are never reinforced for, after being taught to imitate in general.[28]
Several people have criticized the level of training required to perform behavior modification
procedures, especially those that are restrictive or use aversives, aversion therapy,
or punishment protocols. Some desire to limit such restrictive procedures only to licensed
psychologists or licensed counselors. Once licensed for this group, post-licensed certification in
behavior modification is sought to show scope of competence in the area through groups like the
World Association for Behavior Analysis.[29] Still others desire to create an independent practice of
behavior analysis through licensure to offer consumers choices between proven techniques and
unproven ones (see Professional practice of behavior analysis). Level of training and consumer
protection remain of critical importance in applied behavior analysis and behavior modification.

References[edit]
1. ^ Mahoney, M. J., Kazdin, A. E., & Lesswing, N. J.; Franks, C. M., Wilson, G. T. (1974).
"Behavior modification: delusion or deliverance?".  Annual Review of Behavior Therapy: Theory and
Practice. 2. Brunner/Mazel. pp. 11–40.
2. ^ Mace, F. C. (1994). "The significance and future of functional analysis
methodologies".  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.  27  (2): 385–92.  doi:10.1901/jaba.1994.27-
385.  PMC 1297814. PMID 16795830.
3. ^ Pelios, L., Morren, J., Tesch, D., and Axelrod, S. (1999). "The impact of functional analysis
methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior".  Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis. 32 (2): 185–95. doi:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185. PMC  1284177.  PMID  10396771.
4. ^ Mace, F. C., and Critchfield, T. S. (2010).  "Translational research in behavior analysis:
Historical traditions and imperative for the future". J Exp Anal Behav. 93 (3): 293–
312.  doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293.  PMC 2861871. PMID 21119847.
5. ^ Thorndike, E.L. (1911). "Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning". Animal
Intelligence. New York: The Macmillan Company.
6. ^ Wolpe, J. (1968). "Psychotheraphy by Reciprocal Inhibition". Conditional Reflex. 3  (4):
234–240. doi:10.1007/BF03000093 (inactive 2019-08-20).
7. ^ In Bachrach, A. J., ed. (1962). Experimental Foundations of Clinical Psychology. New York:
Basic Books. pp. 3–25.
8. ^ O'Donohue, W.; Ferguson, K. E. (2006). "Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology and
Behavior Analysis".  The Behavior Analyst Today. 7  (3): 335–52.  doi:10.1037/h0100155.
9. ^ Satterfield, J. H.; Satterfield, B. T.; Schell, A. M. (1987). "Therapeutic interventions to
prevent delinquency in hyperactive boys".  Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry. 26 (1): 56–64. doi:10.1097/00004583-198701000-00012.
10. ^ Satterfield, J. H.; Schell, A. (1997). "A prospective study of hyperactive boys with conduct
problems and normal boys: Adolescent and adult criminality". Journal of the American Academy of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.  36  (12): 1726–35. doi:10.1097/00004583-199712000-
00021. PMID 9401334.
11. ^ Fabiano, G. A.; Pelham Jr., W. E.; Coles, E. K.; Gnagy, E. M.; Chronis-Tuscano, A.;
O'Connor, B. C. (2008). "A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder". Clinical Psychology Review. 29 (2): 129–
40.  doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001. PMID 19131150.
12. ^ Dean L. Fixsen, Karen A. Blasé, Gary D. Timbers and Montrose M. Wolf (2007) In Search of
Program Implementation: 792 Replications of the Teaching-Family Model. Behavior Analyst
Today Volume 8, No. 1, pp. 96–106 Behavior Analyst Online
13. ^ Milford, J.L.; Austin, J.L.; Smith, J.E. (2007). Community Reinforcement and the
Dissemination of Evidence-based Practice: Implications for Public Policy. IJBCT, 3(1), pp. 77–87 [1])
14. ^ Spates, R.C.; Pagoto, S.; Kalata, A. (2006). "A Qualitative and Quantitative Review of
Behavioral Activation Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder". The Behavior Analyst Today.  7 (4):
508–17. doi:10.1037/h0100089.
15. ^ Kirkhart, Robert; Kirkhart, Evelyn (1972). "The Bruised Self: Mending in the Early Years". In
Yamamoto, Kaoru (ed.).  The Child and His Image: Self Concept in the Early Years. New York:
Houghton Mifflin.  ISBN  978-0-395-12571-7.
16. ^ Gottman, J.M.; Levenson, R.W. (1999). "What predicts change in marital interaction over
time? A study of alternative models".  Family Process.  38  (2): 143–58.  doi:10.1111/j.1545-
5300.1999.00143.x.  PMID  10407716.
17. ^ Forgatch, M.; DeGarmo (2007). "Accelerating recovery from poverty: Prevention effects for
recently separated mothers". Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention. 4  (4): 681–
72.  doi:10.1037/h0100400.  PMC 2587348. PMID 19043620.
18. ^ Olchowski, A.E.; Foster, E.M.; Webster-Stratton, C.H. (2007). Implementing Behavioral
Intervention Components in a Cost-Effective Manner: Analysis of the Incredible Years
Program. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, Vol. 3(4) and Vol. 4(1), Combined
Edition, pp. 284–304.
19. ^ ABA:I Archived November 19, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
20. ^ "ABA:I". Archived from the original  on 2008-11-19. Retrieved  2007-12-27.
21. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1997). "A meta-analysis of the effects of
organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975-1995". Academy of
Management.  40  (5): 1122–1149. doi:10.2307/256929.  JSTOR  256929.
22. ^ Luthans, F., Stajkovic, A. D., Luthans, B. C., & Lutherans, K. W. (1998). "Applying
Behavioral Management in Eastern Europe".  European Management Journal.  16: 446–475.
23. ^ Luthans, F., & Stajkovic, A. D. (1999). "Reinforce for performance: The need to go beyond
pay and even rewards".  Academy of Management Executive.  13  (2): 49–
57.  doi:10.5465/ame.1999.1899548.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (2001). "Differential effects of incentive motivators
on work performance".  Academy of Management Journal. 4  (3): 580–
590.  doi:10.2307/3069372.  JSTOR  3069372.[dead link]
25. ^ "Re-evaluation Counseling".
26. ^ Holland, J.L. (1976). "A new synthesis for an old method and a new analysis of some old
phenomena".  The Counseling Psychologist.  6 (3): 12–15. doi:10.1177/001100007600600303.
 27. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1974).  Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
28. ^ D. Baer, R.F.; Peterson, J.A. Sherman Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories,
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29. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from  the original on 2011-01-10. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Behavior modification refers to the techniques used to try and decrease or increase a particular
type of behavior or reaction. This might sound very technical, but it's used very frequently by all of
us. Parents use this to teach their children right from wrong. Therapists use it to promote healthy
behaviors in their patients. Animal trainers use it to develop obedience between a pet and its owner.
We even use it in our relationships with friends and significant others. Our responses to them teach
them what we like and what we don't.

Origin of the Theory

Behavior modification relies on the concept of conditioning. Conditioning is a form of learning.
There are two major types of conditioning; classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning relies on a particular stimulus or signal. An example of this would be if a
family member came to the kitchen every time you baked cookies because of the delicious smell.
The second type is known as operant conditioning, which involves using a system of rewards
and/or punishments. Dog trainers use this technique all the time when they reward a dog with a
special treat after they obey a command.
Behavior modification was developed from these theories because they supported the idea that just
as behaviors can be learned, they also can be unlearned. As a result, many different techniques
were developed to either assist in eliciting a behavior or stopping it. This is how behavior
modification was formed.

Techniques
The purpose behind behavior modification is not to understand why or how a particular behavior
started. Instead, it only focuses on changing the behavior, and there are various different methods
used to accomplish it. This includes:

 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Flooding
 Systematic desensitization
 Aversion therapy
 Extinction

Positive reinforcement is pairing a positive stimulus to a behavior. A good example of this is when
teachers reward their students for getting a good grade with stickers. Positive reinforcement is also
often used in training dogs. Pairing a click with a good behavior, then rewarding with a treat, is
positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is the opposite and is the pairing of a behavior to the removal of a negative
stimulus. A child that throws a tantrum because he or she doesn't want to eat vegetables and has his
or her vegetables taken away would be a good example.
Punishment is designed to weaken behaviors by pairing an unpleasant stimulus to a behavior.
Receiving a detention for bad behavior is a good example of a punishment.
Flooding involves exposing people to fear-invoking objects or situations intensely and rapidly.
Forcing someone with a fear of snakes to hold one for 10 minutes would be an example of flooding.
Systematic desensitization is also used to treat phobias and involves teaching a client to remain
calm while focusing on these fears. For example, someone with an intense fear of bridges might
start by looking at a photo of a bridge, then thinking about standing on a bridge, and eventually
walking over a real bridge.
Aversion therapy is the pairing of an unpleasant stimulus to an unwanted behavior in order to
eliminate that behavior. Some people bite their finger nails, and in order to stop this behavior, there's
a clear substance you can paint on your finger nails that makes them taste awful. Painting your nails
with it helps stop the behavior of biting nails.
Extinction is the removal of all reinforcement that might be associated with a behavior. This is a
powerful tool and works well, especially with young children.
 

Behavior Modification
Since the only thing worth measuring in behavioral theory is behavior, it is only logical that
the one thing behaviorists focus on changing is also behavior.  Behavior modification is the
generic term given any process derived from learning theory where the goal is to change a
person’s behavior or the way he or she interacts with the world.

To understand behavior modification, you have to understand the two main concepts that it
is based on: Classical and Operant Conditioning.  Classical conditioning refers to the pairing
of naturally occurring stimulus-response chains with other stimuli in order to produce a
similar response.  Operant conditioning started as an experiment in learning and developed
into the Law of Effect and our knowledge of reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Shaping
In behavior modification, we apply these same techniques in order to effect change on the
way a person acts or responds to the environment.  Changing complex behaviors, hence,
requires complex behavioral modification.  The concept of shaping comes into play here. 
Shaping refers to the reinforcement of behaviors that approximate or come close to the
desired new behavior.  The steps involved are often called successive approximations
because they successively approximate or get closer and closer to the desired behavior.
Research has found that this technique works well for phobias and anxiety related
disorders.  Take arachnophobia for instance, the fear of spiders.  To be diagnosed with a
phobia you must have both an irrational fear that is not justified by current outcome and
significant distress or negative consequences because of this irrational fear.  To modify this
fear or the behavior of avoiding or running away from spiders, behaviorists would apply the
concept of shaping.
The process of shaping involves the creation of a hierarchy ranging from the least feared
situation (such as a stuffed animal that looks like a spider) to the most feared situation (a
real tarantula, for example). We would then fill in the space between the two with situations
that progressively produce higher levels of fear.  The following is an example of such a
hierarchy:

We would then start at the bottom of the hierarchy and reinforce the person for engaging in
this behavior, or for our example, touching or handling the stuffed animal.  Once they
master this level, we would then move to the next level and repeat the same process. 
Ultimately, through shaping and behavior modification, the person will be cured of their
irrational fear of spiders.  This technique, and others based on the same principles, have
been found to be quite successful for specific disorders.

Systematic Desensitization
A concept described by Joseph Wolpe uses a hierarchy like the example above but instead
of applying reinforcement, the client is taught to relax.  Some behaviors are incongruent
with each other and we have found that being tense, anxious and afraid is not possible
when a person is relaxed.  The theory argues that if we can teach a person to relax in the
presence of a feared object or situation, then we can alleviate the associated fear.
In systematic desensitization, an hierarchy is created, typically by the client alone or with
the assistance of the behavioral therapist.  Often the hierarchy includes imagination such as
imaging a spider crawling toward you or imaging a spider on your hand as intermediate
steps.  The goal of this treatment is the same as shaping and reinforcement; to eliminate
the fear associated with the object or situation.
This techniques has also received much research that suggests it is an effective and viable
treatment for phobias, anxiety related disorders, and even sexual dysfunctions.  The
performance anxiety associated with impotence in males is often reduced significantly with
systematic desensitization.
While shaping uses the theory of operant conditioning and reinforcement, systematic
desensitization was derived from classical conditioning.  The object (UCS), originally paired
with fear (UCR) is altered so that the object (CS) becomes paired with relaxation (CR) and
hence a relearning of a conditioned response.  Overall, both treatments have been applied
to many different symptoms related to anxiety and fear with very positive outcomes

Behavior Modification
Techniques in the
Classroom
By Susan Ward







Behavior modification techniques include a series of teacher-implemented

activities and actions aimed at improving classroom behavior. Encouraged
behaviors might include staying seated, requesting permission to talk,
remaining on task, proper care of classroom books and tools, and treating
other students with respect. Discouraged behaviors might include loud or
disruptive behavior, wandering around the classroom and not completing
assignments. Melissa Standridge from the University of Georgia reminds
teachers that behavioral modification works because students work for
positive response and for approval from individuals they admire.
(Image: Digital Vision./DigitalVision/Getty Images)

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Preventative Strategies
Consider seating an easily distracted child closer to the teacher to help her
stay on track. Give a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
opportunities before class starts to move books or re-arrange desks in order
to help expend excess energy. Standridge calls this, "Development of a
positive, nurturing environment (by removing negative stimuli from the
learning environment)."

Teaching Strategies
Provide students with guidance and information to teach them the correct
behavior required. Use stories and role-playing to teach actions such as
asking permission to leave a seat, forming a line, walking to the lunchroom,
sitting quietly and keeping hands to one's self. Both regular students and
those with disabilities might need more than oral directions in order to
understand how you expect them to behave in your classroom. An article in
LD Online, a website dedicated to learning disabilities, titled Behavior
Modification in the Classroom, includes values clarification activities, active
listening, and communication training for students and teachers, as part of the
formula for teaching behavior modification techniques.

Positive Reinforcement Strategies

When you catch students following directions and doing things correctly,
compliment them. Examples of positive reinforcement, as suggested in
"Behavior Modification in the Classroom" by N. Mather and Sam Goldstein,
include a hug or extra playtime for kindergartners, help with handing out
papers or early departure for lunch for middle school students or extra
computer time or self-creation of a class quiz for senior high students. Mather
and Goldstein say more than one form of positive reinforcement might be
required for a single child. For example, a child might need one compliment to
remain seated in his chair and another to encourage working while seated.

Negative Reinforcement Strategies

When a student acts the same after deploying preventative, teaching and
positive reinforcement strategies, negative reinforcement strategies might be
required. Examples of negative reinforcement strategies include a time out,
seating away from the rest of the class, removal of playtime privileges, referral
to the principal, a note home to parents or an oral reprimand.