FUNDAMENTALS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Behavior modification is nothing more than the practical application of concepts and
principles of behavior, with the aim of predicting and changing people's behavior
in the natural environment. It can be said that behavior modification is an approach to
psychological and social intervention that systematically applies the methods and principles of the
experimental psychology, and in particular, of the research on learning, in the solution of
socially significant problems, individual or group. The behavior modifier deals with
of treatment, rehabilitation, education, and behavioral guidance. The modification of
conduct is certainly the application of a science: the science of conduct.

The place of behavior modification in scientific psychology.

Behavior modification assumes behaviorism as its basic philosophy, that is, the
philosophy of psychology as the objective science of behavior (Bueno, 1993; Skinner, 1974; Ribes,
1990). It also uses the principles and experimental laws discovered by this science. By assuming
Conductism as a philosophical starting point, behavior modification deviates from the
traditional concept of behavior, by rejecting any type of internal determinant as a cause
of behavior. Rather, the behavioral modifier assumes that 'behavior' is indeed the
interaction of the individual with the objects and events that occur in their environment or in themselves
activity. Such interaction is the product or result of successive interactions or contacts of the
same individual with their environment occurrences throughout their life (Kantor, 1959). Therefore, it becomes
emphasis on the environmental, biological, situational, and social determinants that exert influence
about behavior. Behavior modification considers most behaviors as
susceptible to being learned or altered through learning procedures. The approach is
It is about behaviors that have been learned or need to be learned. Attempts are made.
explicit to teach behaviors, rather than altering aspects in the person which, according to the
medical or intrapsychic model, supposedly underlie behavior.
By assuming the principles and laws of behavior, behavior modification uses the
knowledge gained through scientific research of learning and, to a lesser extent, others
concepts of experimental psychology. This means that the procedures used for
teaching behaviors are based on the principles and laws of learning, discovered in the
laboratory. Behavior modification basically uses the principles of conditioning
classical, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
In fact, each of the learning pathways has been widely used for the
treatment of a variety of problems traditionally seen in clinical contexts. Without
embargo, in the applied contexts where groups receive treatment or training
In patients, operant conditioning procedures have dominated. However, the three
Types of learning are essential. Respondent conditioning and modeling (based on the
Observational learning) is valuable as behavioral change techniques. Furthermore, the
operant procedures, as they are ordinarily practiced, include aspects of other types of
learning. For example, an operant program in a classroom context can
increase the desirable studious behavior in a student (for example, doing homework) by giving them
subsequently a consequence or favorable event (for example, a compliment made by the
teacher). In this case, the operating component is the following: praise is a reinforcer, which upon
being applied contingent each time the young person does the homework increases the frequency of it
conduct (later we will review in detail several learning principles used in the
behavior modification). However, in addition to operant conditioning, the
classical conditioning and observational learning can also be operational in this
situation. The students, except for the one who was praised, can increase the desirable behavior.
due to the influences of modeling, that is, other students observe the behavior
desirable of the partner and the reinforcement of that behavior, and this fact influences behavior
of the observers. Classical conditioning can also include the control of the
behavior. To continue with examples from the classroom, let's consider the case of a teacher who
shout (unconditioned stimulus) at a student, causing a startle reaction (response
unconditional). The presence of the teacher close to the child (conditioned stimulus) can, through
From the repeated association with screams, provoke anxiety with the tempo (conditioned response).
Of course, if the teacher's proximity to the child causes anxiety, this may decrease the
properties of teacher reinforcement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

We have noted that behavior modification is an approach in psychology as a field.

of application, which is characterized by using the methods and concepts of psychology
experimental. This orientation allows behavior modification to be differentiated from others.
psychological intervention approaches in various aspects, which we will discuss next.

The evaluation of behavior

Regarding the evaluation of behavior, behavior modification is distinguished.

radically from traditional diagnostic evaluation (Fernández Ballesteros, 1994). The emphasis is
in the behaviors that will be altered, more than in the underlying personality considered as
cause of behavior. Although a problem can be described in vague or general terms (for
example, hyperactivity), the behavior modifier seeks to clarify these terms by means of the
observation of the behavior that needs change and the events that precede and follow the behavior.
For example, if an educator claims that an internally delayed child has a 'bad temper', the modifier
of conduct will wish to measure the behaviors that led the educator to make such a statement, the
frequency of these behaviors and the antecedent and consequent events that are associated with
any tantrum. The evaluation of factors associated with behavior can be useful to alter the
behavior that requires treatment.
The observed behaviors are of direct interest for their own value, rather than as reflections.
of underlying psychological problems. The behavioral assessment aims to allow
carry out a change of behavior serving, in addition, as a guarantee for the modification of behavior.
That is, behavioral evaluation has the fundamental task of selecting and taking measurements of
the behaviors and intervention strategies that will be used within a certain
treatment design, as well as the verification of to what extent the applied techniques have had
the desired effects (after treatment and in follow-up). The objective of behavioral measurement
It is not just about establishing the conditions in which the client is at the moment of
start the intervention, but also determine if the techniques or procedures implemented

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to modify a behavior-objective that has or does not have effects on that behavior. Therefore, the
Behavioral measurement is carried out before, during, and after the application of the respective technique.
In summary, behavioral assessment, unlike psychometrically oriented assessment,
it involves the direct measurement of behavior. What is of interest is to specifically establish what it is
what requires treatment and in what direction it is required (increase, maintenance, or decrease). For
Consequently, in the behavioral model, evaluation is not a process that can be done
regardless of the intervention itself, it is part of it and is directly
relevant to the treatment.

Behavioral treatment

Behavior modifiers place great emphasis on environmental events that

they can be used to alter behavior. The emphasis on open behaviors and on the determinants
external situational factors, allow the behavioral modifier to easily alter determinants
specific factors that influence behaviors. The behaviors exhibited by a number of individuals in
treatment, rehabilitation and in educational contexts, can result from internal factors
such as psychological deficiencies or anatomical anomalies. However, adaptive behaviors
They can be learned and the limitations imposed by physical defects can be minimized.
existing. Even if it is believed that a person's behavior has an organic basis, the principles of
learning can achieve dramatic changes in behavior, as demonstrated with patients
psychotic, mentally delayed, and autistic or hyperactive children with organic problems
known. Most of the behaviors for which treatment and rehabilitation are sought can
can be altered through direct manipulation of environmental events.
Behavior modifiers are interested in isolating the events that maintain the
“abnormal” behaviors or those that help develop adaptive behaviors where there are deficiencies.
Up to this point, the behavioral approach is concerned with those events that determine or cause
behavior. However, the sought determinants are not intrapsychic factors or motives.
underlying. Furthermore, instead of considering early childhood events as responsible
From current behavior, behavioral modifiers focus on environmental events.
ordinary factors that affect and maintain behavior.
Behavioral modifiers do not adhere to the notion of symptom substitution, for the
there is little empirical support. They do not consider behaviors as symptoms of various problems
but rather the problem itself. In this way, it is not considered likely that the alteration of a
problematic behavior results in the substitution of another problematic behavior, basically because
drivers do not consider that such behavior reflects supposed internal impulses that
search for expression. In fact, the drivers predict that once a problem behavior
particular sea altered for an individual, other aspects of their life and behavior may also
The beneficial effects of the treatment of a behavior can extend or generalize.
towards other behaviors. For example, if the behavior of a "hyperactive" child is altered in such a way that
may be able to sit in class and pay attention to lessons, it is likely that other behaviors
(such as academic performance) can be improved, since the child can now learn their
lessons. In addition, the socially desirable behavior in a wayward student increases the
probability that his peers will develop a greater interest in him and thus promote the
social coexistence. Likewise, if a stutterer is taught to speak fluently, it is expected
that result in additional positive changes. He or she may become more 'confident'.
"extroverted" and less "shy" in their daily life. The change of a problem can initiate
a series of changes in personal life.
Of course, it is possible that a person whose behavior has been altered continues
having additional problems. However, this is not evidence of symptomatic substitution, but

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rather, of an incomplete treatment. Indeed, it is possible that once a
maladaptive behavior, the person does not have any socially appropriate response in their
repertoire to take its place. However, this deficit can be mitigated through development
of appropriate behaviors while eliminating the inappropriate ones.
An important aspect of behavior modification is that generally, the treatment
it takes place in situations where the behavior requiring change is evident, such as the
home and at school. This is distinguished from traditional treatment in which the hospitalized patient or
All outpatient services provide similar services. Numerous advantages arise from it.
treatment of problems in situations where they arise. First, since behavior
it is specific to the situation; by isolating the individual from the situation in which the problem arose, one can
hide the behavior that needs to change. For example, if a child is described as 'hyperactive'
individual guidance, it is unlikely that the behaviors that are problematic at home or in the
School should be palpable in the orientation situation; it is the behaviors at home and school that are
that require change and not the behaviors in the orientation situation (the modern approaches
"ecological" aspects of the treatment of people with severe deficiencies highlight this aspect, see for
example, Shea and Bauer, 1997). Second, the alteration of a behavior in a situation outside of the
"real world" may not change behavior in the situation where the behavior was a problem.
originally. Even if behavior is altered through the orientation situation, it is not
likely to generalize to other situations. A third advantage of altering behavior in the
natural environment instead of isolating the individual from others, is that the harmful effects of the
Institutionalization will not add to the patient's problems.

Transfer of behavioral technology to the user

Behavior modification requires the use of natural agents that are normally
in contact with patients in daily life. Individuals who have the most contact with the
patients include teachers, relatives, spouses, colleagues, supervisors, and peers. These
individuals play an important role in the alteration of behavior, as they have a great
opportunity to regulate the consequences that control behavior. In addition, individuals in
direct contact with the patient observes behaviors in real situations where they take place
cable and therefore, they are in the best position to focus on behavior as it is happening
currently.
The use of individuals who are in contact with the patient is of special
importance since they often contribute to maladaptive behavior. In fact, the
Often, personal, teachers, and parents contribute to or support those behaviors they
they would like to eliminate. To alter the patient's behavior, it is required that it be altered first the
conduct of the responsible agent. In this way, working with non-professionals is often
the best way to guarantee change in patients.
Professionals play the role of training and advising individuals not
trained professionals to carry out the procedures that have a higher probability
to change behavior. Ideally, the training should include instruction in the identification of
problems, selection of treatment goals and evaluation of the program's effectiveness.

Control and evaluation of the program

An important characteristic of behavior modification is that it includes an evaluation.

careful of the effect of the program that has been designed to change behavior. Emphasis is placed on
the empirical demonstration of the program's effect. Traditional therapy, as it is practiced in the
In the majority of clinical contexts, it is rarely evaluated. When this therapy is evaluated, it is measured the

4
effect at the end of the treatment to determine if there is any change in personality. With the
behavior modification procedures, particularly in applied contexts, the effect of
The program on behavior is generally evaluated during its course, as well as when it is already
it has finished. Data is constantly collected to ensure that the program is
achieving the intended effect. If the program is not working, it can be quickly altered
in response to the patient's behavior. As already mentioned, the evaluation and treatment are
intertwined.

Generation of socially significant behavioral changes

An additional characteristic of behavior modification is the interest in making the

behavior change that is socially significant. The behavior change resulting from
the program must demonstrate a noticeable difference for individuals in the person's environment.
The change must bring the individual significantly closer to the level of performance necessary for their
functioning in society. This does not mean that 'normality' or conformity is a
an objective to which everyone must strive. However, the populations for which it is often
they use behavioral techniques, they deal with behaviors considered aberrant according to
the social parameters that the public maintains. A socially significant change can be
evident when the procedures markedly alter the conduct aimed at in such a way that
aligns with regulatory parameters. For example, in a school situation, a "hyperactive" child
can run around the room 90% of the time, while most students
they adjust that behavior by at least 10% of the time. If a behavioral modification program
it reduced the student's inappropriate behavior by 60%, there should be grounds to not
consider the program as successful or that it has made a socially significant change in the
student behavior. A much greater reduction in the time spent on running is required.
the class to make the child less noticeable among his peers. The example suggests that the
behavior modification often seeks major changes in behavior. It should be
the magnitude of the change was substantial for the improvement within the social environment to be evident
of the person.

AREAS OF APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Behavior modification can be used in any situation or scenario where

human behavior is involved. There is virtually no area of psychology in the
that the behavior modification should not be applied, and even other disciplines, such as education, the
medicine and the management of resources and personnel can beneficially make use of it.
Behavior modification can be used in adults and children; in individual cases or in the
treatment of couples or families; in 'healthy' or not healthy individuals. It is used in clinical settings; the
home; school; higher education institutions; companies and other institutions; in the
sport; in the community, etc.
Behavior modification is obviously used in the field of clinical psychology.
This area may have been the first where successful interventions could be made through the
behavior modification techniques. Currently, the range of application is varied.
Behavior modification has been used to treat anxiety, phobias, depression; disorders
obsessive-compulsive; low self-esteem and interpersonal problems; eating disorders;
treatment of psychotic behaviors and treatment of stress.
In the educational area, behavior modification is used in early stimulation;
treatment of learning problems; language treatment; classroom management; design
systematic instruction and curriculum; teaching motor and intellectual skills;

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development of study habits; development of self-control and self-esteem and in programs of
training for parents and teachers.
We found in the behavior modification widely used in rehabilitation and
re-education of autistic individuals; with mental retardation or with other severe behavioral deficits; in
the treatment of aggression; crime, drug use and alcoholism.
Behavior modification applies to resource management, energy savings,
management and training of personnel.
Some of the most striking applications of behavior modification are found in the
behavioral medicine and health psychology, that is, those disciplines dedicated to, from the
psychological perspective, on the prevention, treatment or rehabilitation of physical illnesses.
Thus, according to Godoy (1991), behavioral applications to health focus on promotion and
health maintenance and disease prevention, through the generation of styles of
healthy living; lifestyle changes to eliminate risk factors and detection
early intervention. It also collaborates in enhancing the action of other professionals in the
health through the improvement of professional-patient relationships; the preparation of patients
for medical treatments and the increase in adherence to treatments. Finally, the
behavior modification covers a wide range of applications in assessment and treatment
specific disorders. In the following areas, behavior modification has been used in one
or other specific disorders: cardiovascular problems; central nervous system disorders;
neuromuscular disorders; gastrointestinal disorders; excretory disorders; disorders
respiratory issues; sexual dysfunctions and deviations; dermatological disorders; problems
ophthalmological and visual; ear disorders; tension headaches; chronic pain management;
arthritis; allergies; obesity; diabetes, cancer, and AIDS.
Behavior modification constitutes an active area of ongoing research. Due to
its objective approach, based on the measurement of behavior and its adherence to procedures and theories
from experimental psychology, behavior modification has been able to extend rapidly
its areas of application and currently the research on behavior modification
both the goal of continuing to expand its areas of application and continuously improving
their evaluation and intervention techniques.

BEHAVIORAL CONCEPTION OF MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR

In this section, we will focus exclusively on frequently debated problems.

in the field of clinical psychology, referring to the evaluation and intervention of individuals
whose behavior is considered 'abnormal'. While there are many exceptions to this rule, for
In general, the behavior modifier avoids pathological conceptions. The modifier of
conduct does not consider abnormal conduct as essentially different from normal conduct.
Abnormal behavior does not represent a dysfunction or disease process that has exceeded the
development of a normal personality. Rather, consider that certain experiences of
learning or failure to receive or take advantage of various learning experiences can
explain behavior. The principles of learning explain how it develops the
behavior, regardless of whether it is classified as abnormal or not.
The classification of behavior as abnormal is based on subjective judgments rather than on
objective criteria. Different people may consider the same given behavior as normal
the abnormal. For example, peers and parents can judge the fights between the
children as an expression of masculinity, while teachers and school counselors
they can be seen as a sign of emotional turmoil. The individual who evaluates the behavior plays
an important role in deciding whether it is normal or aberrant.

6
 The social context is also important to determine whether the given behavior is considered
as aberrant. For example, having a fixed gaze into space is accepted when one is in
bus or when looking through a window, but not when standing at the
corner of a street, this last situation can be considered as abnormal behavior.
Behaviors that seem similar can be interpreted differently depending on the context.
Social behavior is deduced from the degree to which conduct deviates from norms.
social norms. Since social norms vary according to cultures and groups within a culture
Dad, it is difficult to objectively define the criteria of normality. For example, behaviors
Aggressive behaviors classified as antisocial reflect behavioral patterns that are socially
condemned and strongly supported by many groups of people, who commonly accept the
street fights and crime. The classification of behavior as antisocial and indicative of
psychological disturbances are based on value judgments more than on evidence of processes of
psychological disease. The differences in behavior among individuals reflect differences in
a continuum more than differences between illness and health.
Certainly, where there is an objective basis for making a diagnosis, such as cases
of brain damage, organic psychosis, and other physiological abnormalities, there may be clear bases and
qualitative to distinguish between normal and abnormal individuals. But even when individuals
they have organic deterioration, the problem lies in the aberrant behavior more than in the deterioration.
For example, the 'delayed' children are not delayed; it is only their behavior in the environment.
average can be delayed sometimes. Many years ago, Lindsley (1964) remarked that it is rather the
ability of modern science that creates suitable environments for these children, which is
delayed. Currently, much progress has been made in behavior modification to help children.
labeled as 'backward', including the replacement of such a pejorative qualifier. With the
careful design of the environment, these children can be taught to adapt to a variety
of answers (Lovaas, 1990). Individuals considered as "abnormal" are only
those who perform actions that distinguish them from their peers. However, the differences are
in behavior more than in a disease or psychological defect. An objective of the
behavior modification is to provide learning experiences that promote in the
individual adaptable and prosocial behaviors.
The behavior modifier sometimes uses the term 'maladaptive behavior' to
to refer to that pattern of behavior that may require attention. It can be called
"maladaptive behavior" in the fact that an individual presents one or more of the following
conditions:
a. deficits in desirable behaviors (desirable behaviors do not exist).
b. debilitation in desirable behaviors (desirable behaviors occur less frequently)
acceptable frequency
c. excesses in undesirable behaviors (undesirable behaviors occur more frequently)
frequency of the acceptable). Undesirable behaviors that may occur in excess
Configuring maladaptive behavior patterns can be: 1. behaviors that
hinder or make it difficult to acquire socially desirable responses; 2. behaviors
that prevent or hinder the expression of socially desirable behaviors and 3.
behaviors that involve a danger of physical or psychological harm, both to oneself
individual, as for others.

In any of these cases, the individual's performance does not meet the efficiency criteria.
in the social performance valued in a specific culture, for its level of development. For example,
when the individual's behavior prevents them from obtaining a job or staying in one, or makes it difficult
who finds a partner, etc. In these cases, the individual cannot adjust to what is expected or
required from him.

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 OBJECTIVES OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

In most scenarios where behavior modification is conducted, it is set by

to make long-lasting changes in people's behavior, the goal is not a change
transitory. The final goal is that the natural variables found in the social environment,
take control of behavior. Only in this way is it possible to ensure that changes
achieved behaviors will be permanent.
However, in some circumstances, the techniques used may require,
temporarily, from an artificial arrangement of the situation to achieve a change in behavior
systematically. For example, one can reinforce a delayed adult who arrives late to their
I work in a workshop, with privileges and money to be punctual. One could think that the individual
it would become dependent on the reinforcers, however, this concern is hasty. The
The initial objective is to develop behavior so that it occurs consistently, and once it is already
it is well established, it is necessary to use the procedures to ensure its preservation. In
the initial stage of the program is likely that the execution depends on the delivery of reinforcement
or of the castle. If the adult who arrives late to work no longer receives reinforcement for their behavior,
Soon punctuality would become extinct. Nevertheless, the objectives of behavioral modification are
to change behavior and maintain that change after the program has ended, that is,
eliminate the dependency on the contingencies that exist during the program. The general goals
long-term behavioral modification requires a prolonged execution of the
socially accepted behaviors. In the long run, contingencies should no longer be necessary.
"artificial" of the program, and the natural contingencies of the social environment must be sufficient
to maintain the behavior. Thus, the program's achievements will be lasting.
For any individual participating in a therapeutic environment, a main objective is
to achieve the maximum reinforcement (praise, achievement, the esteem of others, the
self-esteem, social coexistence) and the minimum of punishment (the stigma, social censorship, contempt
own, the repeated failures) in his life. For reinforcement to be maximum and the punishment to be minimal
In a social environment, it is necessary for the individual to perform social and personal skills and to
effectively control your environment. To achieve this, it may require a
artificial and temporary programming of the situation for the development of the
basic social and personal skills. An artificially programmed environment tries to
to develop behavior in such a way that the person can later respond to the
natural contingencies of reinforcement and punishment that normally occur in the social environment.
The behavioral modification program that some individuals are exposed to may
not a temporary sea. For example, for patients whose behavioral deficits are so great that
They require institutional care, it is not quickly feasible to develop a behavior for them until the
point at which the contingencies of the natural environment come to take control of their behavior. The
Alternatives for treatment consist of whether or not the environment where they live can be programmed.
individuals to achieve the maximum degree of behavioral change, the acquisition of skills and
the amount of available reinforcement. In any case, in some scenarios the programs
Behavioral modifications can constitute a semi-permanent environment.
A final objective of behavior modification is to provide the individual with the means
so that he himself can control his behavior. Control over the behavior of the
external agents to the individual itself. With many individuals, it is feasible to train them to analyze
their own answers and that consequences be applied to them for their own behavior. The
self-control training is a goal of behavior modification. Of course, with
various populations to which behavioral modification techniques are applied (for example, children)
autistic severe and profoundly delayed patients and psychiatric patients) may not be feasible

8
achieve this objective. In cases where the individual can be trained to control their
own behaviors, some of the objections to behavior modification collapse. For
example, it is not so necessary to worry about the transitory nature of behavioral change if the individual
they have self-control skills. It is supposed that the individual's behavior can achieve or sustain
certain level of execution at any time he or she chooses to make arrangements in the medium
environment to increase or decrease such behavior.

2. BASIC PRINCIPLES
DETERMINING THE ANSWERS-BLANK AND THE OBJECTIVE OF
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION PROGRAM

Importance of the objective description of behavior

The objective description of behavior is the first requirement to undertake a program.

of behavioral modification. It is, therefore, the first skill that one must learn who is
acting as a behavior modifier. In most scenarios, there is a general agreement
among the staff regarding the clients' 'problems', which individuals
they need change and the general objectives that must be achieved. Sometimes, agreements are
they express in the form of complaints about the patients, which suggest that certain areas of
problems require therapeutic intervention. However, the general or global statements
What is commonly found regarding behavioral problems is insufficient for
to actually start a program. For example, it is insufficient to select as a goal the alteration of
aggressiveness, learning deficits, speech, social skills, depression, the
psychotic symptoms, self-esteem and other similar notions. The traits, the global labels and
generalities that summarize certain things and personality characteristics, are too
general principles to be useful to the behavior modifier. The reference to constructs
"inobservables, such as 'deterioration of the self' or 'struggle for virility' are insufficient to describe in
measurable terms the behavior of a person. Such terms lack clarity.
descriptive and do not provide essential information about behavior. For example, saying that Hugo is
distracted and had little motivation in class, it raises some doubt about how he was
distracted and had little motivation: Additionally, the definitions of these labels can vary from
a staff member to another, the parents and the teachers.
Therefore, it is necessary to explicitly and objectively define what behaviors are
we wish to modify, so that they can truly be observed, measured, and recognized by the
individuals who manage the program. We will call the specific action response-white
observed in the individual we wish to modify. Two aspects must be taken into account in the
objective description of the behavior: 1. Determine the topography of the target response; 2.
Determine the strength of the target response.

Topography of blank responses

The first aspect that must be resolved in the objective description of the blank response is
determine the subtopography, that is, its morphic form. Rules:

Description in terms of action:

Incorrect example: "Andrea is a collaborator in the house."
Correct example: "Andrea washes the dishes after every meal at home."

2. Description in concrete terms:

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 Incorrect example: "Federico has an exaggerated self-esteem"
Correct example: 'Throughout the conversation, Federico talks about his travels to'
foreigner
3. Description in affirmative terms:
Incorrect example: 'Alfredo is not affectionate with his wife.'
This example is incorrect, not only because it violates rule 2, but also for violating the rule

Correct example: "When he gets home from work, Alfredo walks past his wife and heads to the...
study, closing the door.

4. Detail of the topography description:

The degree of detail in the description of the target's topography will depend on
the specific objectives of the behavioral modification program. Consider the
following examples:
Patricia throws a tantrum
Example B: 'Patricia throws herself to the ground and screams or cries.'
Example C: "Patricia lies on the ground on her back, waves her arms and legs, and at the
sometimes cries or shouts.

Of the three examples, C is the most detailed. However, a description like that of the
Example B may be sufficiently useful in many cases. In contrast, the description of the
Example A is somewhat imprecise, as it would raise the issue of determining what is meant by
tantrum

The strength of the response-target

The second aspect that must be taken into account in the objective description of the
blank responses consist of presenting them in a quantitative manner. Generally speaking, it...
You can use the concept of strength of the response to refer to the 'amount' in which it is presented.
the response-white. The force is measured through different indicators, known as measures
of response. The behavior modifier must choose the measures that allow quantification of the
blank response, that is, to measure its strength. The main response measures are as follows:
a. The response rate, or the number of times the response is repeated in a unit of
time. It is used when the response is emitted spontaneously, whether to a specific stimulus or not.
Carlos winked his right eye three times per minute.
b. The percentage, or response rate, is used when the response depends on a condition.
it specifies, and is defined as the number of times the response is repeated given that condition.
Veronica obeyed three of the ten orders given to her.
c. The response latency, used when the response is given to a specific stimulus and is
define as the time that elapses between the stimulus and the response. Example: "Raúl took his
toys 20 seconds after being instructed to do so.
d. The duration of the response, which is a useful measure when the response is an activity.
continue and is defined as the total time covered by such behavior. 'Pablo took a shower'
for 120 minutes.
e. The magnitude of the response. A generic term that refers to different
dimensions, which have in common involve the force, energy or physical power involved in the

10
realization of the response-white. For example, how loud a person speaks or how strong it is a
blow struck by an aggressive individual.

DETERMINING THE OBJECTIVE OF A BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION PROGRAM

A behavior modification program is a set of ordered steps intended to

to produce a change in a specific blank response. Every program has an objective, which is
towards where the desired change points. Therefore, the general objective of a program of
behavioral modification will correspond to one of the following outcomes:
a. An increase or decrease in the strength of the target response.
b. The maintenance of the target response, but modifying its occurrence pattern, by
example, changing the conditions or situations in which it occurs.
c. The refinement of behavior, as happens when special skills are developed.

According to these guidelines, a blank response can be one that occurs in excess,
that is, more frequently or forcefully than desirable. Example: "Patricia throws herself to the ground and shouts".
Well, it can be something that never occurs (behavioral deficit) and that, therefore, we want to increase.
Example: 'When Alfredo gets home from work, he gives his wife a kiss on the cheek.' In this
In fact, what is really happening is that Alfredo, upon arriving home, never kisses his wife.
The objective of a behavioral modification program is stated by indicating the following
elements:
The answer-blank.
The strength of the response that we hope to achieve.
3. The specific situation in which the blank response must maintain that force.
Example:
At the end of the program, every time it's mealtime, Arturo must finish his plate.
equivalent to 20 tablespoons, within a period not exceeding 30 minutes, without spilling or throwing the food
out of the plate." In this example, the white response is mentioned (finish the plate), two measures of
its strength (magnitude and duration, where one has been increased and the other has been reduced) and the
specific situation in which such a blank response is expected to occur (whenever it is time for the
food)

BEHAVIORAL MEASUREMENT: BEHAVIOR RECORDS

One of the aspects in which behavioral modification is distinctively characterized by

Other approaches to psychological intervention include the fact that it practices continuous measurement of the
conduct. The behavior modifier is concerned with the strength of the target response.
before, during, and after applying any behavioral modification technique. As we will see
Then, precise measurement allows the behavior modifier to determine if they have achieved the
objective of your program. There are different methods of behavioral measurement, but in this
Opportunity we will focus on a set of techniques aimed at measuring strength.
specific white responses, as we have defined them previously. These techniques are
known as behavior records.
An unrecording of conduct is any procedure that allows the collection of data about
the occurrence of a blank response, through the direct observation of said response, or of
its immediate effects. Behavior records are frequently used in the measurement of
specific blank response, whose topography has been specified. The data that can be obtained from

11
behavior records are expressed as response measures, thus a behavioral record
Can you provide data on the rate, duration, or response percentages?
Behavior records can be automatic and observational. We will dispense with
a description of the automatic registration, since it can only be used in the laboratory. In the
applied environment are extensively used observational records. In these cases, a
The human observer observes the behavior and makes a record of that behavior as it happens.
occurring. Many observational registers can be implemented in applied environments.
like home, the classroom, or the hospital ward. These records are simple and can
to be managed by the professional, or by the teacher, family parent, and even an assistant or
student. The following describes some of the most used types of records
observational.

Continuous record

It is also known as anecdotal record. In this type of record, the observer

Write everything that happens regarding the environment and the subject's behavior. All the events are recorded.
behaviors of the subject as they emit them, that is, several behaviors are recorded. In this
In this case, the behavior to be measured is not specified beforehand.
The advantage of this record is that several behaviors can be measured at the same time. Generally,
serves as a basis for identifying problem behaviors and obtaining the necessary data to establish
the functional analysis of these behaviors. It also serves as a basis to define more carefully
a problem behavior and then be able to carry out observational records in which they are measured
specific behaviors. The disadvantage of this procedure is that it requires a large part of
observer time and in most situations it is not possible to record everything that happens.

Frequency Record

It consists of counting the number of times a specific behavior occurs during a

time interval: during a class period, in a day, during lunch, etc. Registration step
it is appropriate for discrete behaviors, that is, those that have a beginning and an end
clearly defined. For example: number of responses, class attendances, number of
bites, number of times a child gets up from the chair, etc.
Registration can be done by marking on a paper the number of times it occurs.
conduct. The brands can be of any type. One of the advantages of this type of registration is
What is a simple procedure that does not significantly interfere with routine tasks.
the frequency of occurrence of a behavior is presented in numerical form and in some cases, in
percentage terms. The following is a frequency recording format:

FREQUENCY RECORD SHEET

Andrea Observer:
Behavior: Raise your hand to speak 05-05-01
Situation: History class 10:00
10:45
Session number Frequency Total
1 ////////////// 14
2 ////////// 10
3 ////////////////// 18

12
Duration record

A recording sheet is used when it is important to know the duration of a behavior.

in particular. For a certain period of time, the time duration is recorded
specific behavior.
It is advisable to use a stopwatch to carry out this recording, as it allows you to start the
control of the time when the behavior starts and stop the counting when the behavior ceases
emit, to then restart the count when the behavior restarts. In this way, with the use of
stopwatch, it can accumulate the behavior during a long period of time.
For example, a patient who spends a period of 45 minutes talking to themselves.
the observer will begin to count the time when the patient starts to speak and will stop the counting
when I stop talking alone. He/She will continue with this procedure for the next 45 minutes, starting the
It counts when the patient starts to talk alone and stops it when this behavior ceases.
The stopwatch will accumulate the duration of the behavior, that is, it will tell us how much time within
For 45 minutes, the patient was talking alone. If a stopwatch is not available, one can
to use a watch, but in this case, every time the patient speaks alone, the observer will record the
time dedicated to such behavior and then will add the corresponding times. In any case,
The total time dedicated by the patient to the blank response must be obtained as final data.
Although this method of registration is somewhat more labor-intensive than the previous ones, it provides a
double information that is necessary in some cases: the number of times he talks to himself and the
duration of each of these episodes. Example:

DURATION REGISTRATION SHEET

Francisco Observer:
Behavior: Speak only 05-05-01
Situation: Duck ride 13:00
1:45 PM
Session number (or day) Duration Total
1 5' 10' 3' 2' 6' 26
2 4' 3' 3' 6' 8' 24'

Interval registration

This procedure is used to record discrete behaviors. It consists of dividing the

session or observation period at equal time intervals, and record the number of times that
the blank-response occurs in every interval. It is similar to the event logging, except that it provides
another piece of information: how many times the behavior occurs in a time interval, or in time units
smaller. Example:

INTERVAL RECORD SHEET

Fernando Observer:
Behavior: Yawning 10-06-01
Situation: Biology class 11:00
Session No. 01 11:45

10 inches 10 inches 10 inches 10 inches 10 inches 10" 10 inches 10 inches 10"

13
 +++ + ++++ ++ + _ translatedText

In this record, each square corresponds to a 10-second interval, the marks in

Each small square represents the number of responses per interval, the negative signs correspond to the
absence of responses in that interval. In this case, the session has been divided into intervals of 10
seconds (larger intervals can be made).
In case you want to register several blank responses at once, each must be decoded.
one, that is, give it a code: a number or letter corresponding to the initial letter of the name of the
respuesta-blanco. Por ejemplo: Patear: P ó 01; Gritar: G ó 02.
The registration would be done in the following way for each case:

INTERVAL RECORD SHEET

Fernando Observer:
Behaviors: Kick (K)
Shout (G) 10-06-01
Situation: Biology class 11:00
Session No. 01 11:45

10 inches 10" 10 inch 10" 10 inches 10 inches 10 inches 10 inches 10 inches

PPG GPP PG GG PP _ _

Or also:

INTERVAL RECORD SHEET

Fernando Observer:
Behaviors: Kick (1)
Shouting (2) June 10, 2001
Situation: Biology class 11:00
Session No. 01 End time: 11:45

10 inches 10 inches 10 inches 10" 10" 10 inches 10" 10 inches 10"

112 211 12 22 11 _ _ _ _

In the previous records, it is understood that, in the first interval, the kicking behavior (P
Ó 01) was the first to occur and happened twice, while the behavior of shouting (G ó 02) was
the last to happen happened once. The advantage of this procedure is that it can be recorded
various blank responses at the same time. The disadvantage is that it requires complete attention from
observer. The score of this record is made in numerical terms, adding the number of
times that the behavior occurs per interval.

14
TIME SAMPLING REGISTER

This record is similar to the intervals, here the session or period is also divided
observation at equal time intervals and the target response is recorded at each interval, but
There is variation in the procedure according to the recording protocol. There are three recording times.
sampling of time

Total time sampling

It consists of recording whether the blank response occurs or not during the entire interval. It is used
when we are interested in the duration of the response-target, if it occurs throughout the entire interval
without interruption. The blank response itself is defined not only by its topography but also by
its duration. For example, a blank response can be to fix one's gaze on the reading book.
for 10 seconds. Therefore, the session must be divided into equal intervals whose duration is equal
to the blank response. To measure the blank response, which consists of fixing the gaze on the book.
For reading for 10 seconds, the session should then be divided into equal intervals of 10.
seconds and the response is only recorded if it lasts 10 seconds. In this case, if the
the behavior lasts 30 seconds, it will be recorded in three consecutive intervals. If the behavior lasts less than
10 seconds, it will not be recorded in that interval (a minus sign is put). Example:

TOTAL TIME SAMPLING RECORD SHEET

Gisella Observer:
Behavior: Fixing the gaze on the reading book
for 10 seconds 10-06-01
Situation: Reading class 08:30
Session No. 01 09:15

10 inches
10" 10 inches
10” 10 inches
10" 10 inches
10 inches
10 inches
10” 10” 10"

+ + + _ + _ _ + + _

Duration of the behavior in 120 seconds (2 minutes) = 60 seconds.

Duration percentage = 50 %.
In this example, only the record corresponding to 2 minutes has been shown, for reasons
of space. Positive signs indicate that the behavior was present for 10 seconds. By
For example, the positive sign in the first little box indicates that the behavior was present throughout that.
interval. Some prefer to place the duration of the behavior in cases where it is shorter.
that the stipulated duration, this can be done in order to observe how behavior progresses
during the intervention.
The advantage of this type of record is that it provides the total duration, without interruption, of
the answer is blank, but the disadvantage is that continuous observation of behavior is needed and
Only one type of behavior can be measured at a time.

Partial time sampling

15
 It is used for the registration of variable duration blank responses that are not
clearly discrete, meaning it is not that easy to determine its beginning and end. Recording stage
consists of recording the occurrence or non-occurrence of the blank response at equal intervals of
time, regardless of the number of times it occurs and the duration of the behavior. It
observe the subject and it is recorded only once for each interval, regardless of the moment
in which the behavior occurs within the interval.
For example, the behavior of staying seated in your seat. The period is divided into
observation at equal time intervals is started to be recorded. At any moment of
The first interval observes the subject and notes whether or not the behavior is fulfilled. Then we wait for the
next interval to observe and record whether the behavior occurs or does not occur. Example:

PART-TIME SAMPLING RECORD SHEET

Veronica Observer:
Behavior: Remain seated in your seat 10-04-01
Situation: Math class 10:00
Session No. 01 10:15

20” 20 inches
20 inches
20 inches
20" 20" 20 inches
20 inches
20 inches
20 inches
20 inches
20 inches

+ + + + + translatedText
_ + _ + +

Occurrence of the behavior: In 8 intervals (8 out of 12)

Occurrence percentage: 66.66%
It should be noted that in this record, unlike the previous one, the result of the
Observation is not given in seconds, but in the number of intervals in which the behavior occurred.
In this case, it was observed that the target response occurred in 8 of the 12 intervals considered.
The reason for this is that in this recording stage, it is observed and recorded only if the blank response occurs.
at the moment of observing the subject, regardless of the duration.
The advantage of this record is that it does not require continuous observation, so it can
to be used by teachers, supervisors, parents, etc., as they can perform the
observation and recording without significantly distracting from their tasks. Multiple entries can be recorded
behaviors using the coding procedure already described. The disadvantage is that not
provide the duration of the blank response and that it can disappear or appear later
from the moment of observation. However, it should be remembered that the purpose of this atmosphere
Registering is observing the occurrence or non-occurrence of behavior through sampling.

PERMANENT PRODUCT REGISTER

Permanent products are referred to as the effects or observable products of a

white-response, effects that are tangible and permanent and therefore can be counted.
Examples of permanent products are the blocks placed on top of each other by a pre-
school, solved exercises in the notebook by a student; documents produced by a
office worker; metal pieces cut by an operator, etc. When behavior generates products
permanents, the frequency of such behavior can be measured by counting those
permanent products. Thus, the behavior of correctly solving math exercises
It can be measured by counting the math exercises that are in the notebook.

16
 The direct measurement of permanent products has several advantages. They are records.
precise; they can usually be translated into numerical terms and, in addition, the products
Permanent products are often the results of academically important behaviors.

TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASE

ON CONDUCT

1. Positive reinforcement. A procedure that involves making the target behavior be followed by
an event or stimulus given. It is expected to increase the strength of this behavior. It is called a reinforcer.
that event or object that follows the behavior and increases its strength. It is also called reinforcers.
primaries to those events, objects, or situations that are reinforcing by themselves. These
Reinforcers can be consumable, social, or activity-based. The reinforcers called secondary
they are those that are only reinforcing while they are associated with some primary reinforcer (by
For example, a token is an effective secondary reinforcer, only as long as it is allowed to exchange tokens.
through primary reinforcers). Positive reinforcement works effectively when two conditions are met
basic conditions: first, reinforcement must be contingent, that is, it must be given only
when the behavior that is desired to be reinforced occurs, and second, it must be given immediately to the
occurrence of the white behavior, as the delay of reinforcement decreases its effectiveness.

2. Negative reinforcement. It consists of presenting an aversive event until it occurs.

response, and immediately after retracting said aversive event. This consequence increases the
force of the response. The subject repeats the response to escape the aversive event or to prevent it from returning.
to present oneself.

3. Shaping. Positive reinforcement, to be used, requires that the response to

to increase occurs at least once, in order to be followed by the reinforcer. When the response
white occurs with a zero force (that is, the response does not exist in the subject's repertoire), it is
it is necessary to first shape it. Shaping involves two principles: differential reinforcement and
successive approximations. To carry it out, a response is first chosen (called response
initial) that has some relationship or similarity with the answer white. This answer is reinforced and
Subsequently, reinforcement will be provided only when that response is repeated with greater consistency.
similarity to the white response (differential reinforcement). Additionally, as the reinforcements
they will be granted only when each repetition of the answer resembles each time to the
white response (successive approximations).

4. Provocative stimuli. They are stimuli that promote, induce, or provoke the response.
white, so that it may occur and then be reinforced. They can be orders, suggestions, and even the
physical restraint.

5. Instructional control. The subject is trained in the behavior of following instructions, and
in the behaviors appropriate to certain specific instructions. Simply giving instructions
Precise measures can also be effective in promoting appropriate behaviors.

6. Modeling. The subject is allowed to witness an episode in which another individual is observed.
receiving the reinforcement or punishment of the target behavior. It is expected that by observing the scene of
reinforcement or punishment, the effect of increase or decrease occurs in the observer.
white behavior.

17
7. Behavioral rehearsal and reinforced practice. Behavioral rehearsal is a representation that is...
make the situation in which the problem behavior occurs in order to correct the aspects
inadequate of this and allow the increase of the positive aspects that are lacking in the performance of
subject. The reinforced practice consists of the performance by the subject and under the guidance of the modifier of
behavior, from the behavior to be acquired, which is immediately reinforced by the therapist.

8. Behavioral contract. Two or more parties agree on rights and responsibilities in two
basic aspects. First, each party commits to doing or refraining from doing towards the other party.
specific behaviors. Second, the parties agree on the reinforcements or punishments to which
each of them becomes entitled, by their compliance or non-compliance with the first point.

9. Economy of tokens. Tokens can be concrete objects or points noted on a sheet.

that are granted or withheld contingently upon the execution or non-execution of some conduct
Dad. Giving the tokens is a positive reinforcement, while taking them away is a punishment. In a
specific moment (for example, at the end of the class or on the weekend), the accumulated points
they are exchanged for primary reinforcers. All behavior and all primary reinforcers included in the
They have a rating system in cards or points. The performance of desirable behaviors allows
to earn a certain number of points, which can vary from one behavior to another; the performance of
undesirable behaviors result in the loss of a certain number of points, which can also vary from a
conduct to another. The reinforcers most appreciated by the subject generally have a valuation in
highest points.

MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES
ABOUTCONDUCT

The maintenance of behavior refers to either of these two aspects: 1. to achieve

that the increase or reduction of the target behavior achieved in the treatment is maintained in the long term
Deadline, or else 2. Do not alter the behavior quantitatively, but do modify its conditions of
occurrence, for example, not making behavior decrease or increase, but simply achieving that
it occurs under certain appropriate circumstances and not in others. Some maintenance techniques
They are the following:

1. Intermittent reinforcement. It consists of presenting a reinforcer following the behavior.

white (contingent and immediate), but only some of the times it occurs. The
intermittent reinforcement has two major advantages: first, it allows the behavior to be maintained
without the need to employ a large number of reinforcements. Second, the behavior becomes more
resistant to extinction, that is, it can remain for long periods when it is not given
reinforcement. It is necessary to gradually shift from reinforcing each repetition of the behavior to
intermittent reinforcement.

2. Control of the stimulus. It refers to the control of behavior by the stimuli that precede it.
occurrence. According to the type of control exerted, the antecedent stimuli can be
neutral, discriminative, or delta. Neutral stimuli have no effect on the target behavior.
Discriminative stimuli induce the occurrence of the response, as they are stimuli to which the
which said response was reinforced. Delta stimuli induce the non-occurrence of the response already
what are stimuli to which that response was not reinforced. The maladaptive behavior
It often involves a sufficient control of stimuli. It may happen that the response does not occur.
when it should occur (the appropriate stimuli are present), or that the response occurs when
it should not occur (the appropriate stimuli are not present). There are two procedures for

18
ensure control of adaptive stimuli: training in discrimination and training
In generalization. Discrimination consists of reinforcing the response only to the stimulus.
appropriate, and not to reinforce it in front of other stimuli. Generalization requires that the response be
reinforced in the presence of various different stimuli, when it is desirable for the behavior to occur
in the face of all those stimuli.

3. Fading. It involves gradually withdrawing the stimuli (discriminative, deltas or

reinforcers used in a behavior modification program, in order for the behavior
that has been established to be controlled by more natural conditions of the normal environment
of the subject. The program reinforcers (tokens, primary reinforcers, etc.) fade away
presenting them with decreasing frequency and replacing them with natural reinforcers (by
example, praise, congratulations, affection, etc.) The antecedent stimuli fade away.
presenting them each time with less intensity, gradually increasing, at the same time, the intensity of
The natural antecedent stimuli that must ultimately take control of behavior.

4. Conditioned reinforcement. There are many events or situations in the natural environment that
they do not constitute primary reinforcers, but are social stimuli, although they normally act
as powerful reinforcers (example: the attention of others; a demonstration of affection; a
praise, etc.) For many reasons, some individuals are not sensitive to this type of reinforcers.
social. If any intervention is necessary with them, it would require the use of reinforcers.
primary or artificial reinforcers, such as tokens. For social stimuli to become
reinforcers for these people, it is necessary to present them in association with the reinforcers
primary or artificial. Gradually, primary or artificial reinforcers are given increasingly with
less frequency, making much more use of social reinforcers.

5. The chaining. Through this procedure, a complex sequence is established.

behaviors. A behavioral chain is a sequence in which a behavior constitutes or produces the
Stimuli for another behavior. The execution of one component of the chain allows moving to the next.
and so on, until the last component is executed and the respective one is obtained.
reinforcer. To train a behavioral chain, it is necessary first to determine what the
components of that chain. The training itself begins with the reinforcement of the last
response of the chain. Once such a response has been strengthened, reinforcement continues.
from the penultimate response of the chain. The reinforcement of this component is given by the
opportunity to move on to the next component, which, in turn, concludes with the final reinforcement.
Then the antepenultimate component is reinforced and so on.

6. Self-control. The ultimate goal of behavioral modification is that the control of behavior,
that during the treatment process depends on the programmed environmental contingencies, is
gradually transferred to the individual itself. This does not mean that environmental contingencies
They will no longer control behavior, but it will now be the individual who programs and executes them.
For example, the individual learns to self-reinforce or to self-punish, as required. Additionally,
administers the environmental conditions in such a way that maximizes the possibility of carrying out
appropriate behaviors and reduce the opportunity for inappropriate behaviors.

USE OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

IN BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Some populations in treatment, education, and rehabilitation scenarios often

to identify oneself for special intervention due to their deficits or lack of appropriate skills.

19
For example, children with autism and mental retardation often lack a variety of
personal, social, and intellectual skills. Other individuals are identified as in need.
of intervention due to disorganized or deviant behaviors, but they may also not possess
such skills. For example, offenders may engage in aggressive behaviors that
elimination will not ensure the performance of socially appropriate behaviors since such
behaviors need to be developed. Even other individuals whose behavior is identified as
These problems may have suitable skills but perform them under conditions different from
those that should take place in everyday life. For example, a "hyperactive" child
can "know" how to sit but can rarely do it in the classroom. In society in its
set, the increases can be desirable in a certain number of adaptive behaviors
how to ingest nutritious foods, avoid illness and harm, manage safely and work
productively in employment. These are not problem behaviors of specific populations but rather
behaviors whose increase can improve the individual's life.
In the previously mentioned cases, low-frequency behaviors must be increased.
new behaviors must be established or developed in new situations. Because these
goals cause the development or increase of behavior, reinforcement techniques are effective
appropriate. On the other hand, even in cases where the main intention is to eliminate behaviors not
Desirable behaviors, reinforcement can play an important role and develop socially acceptable behaviors.
suitable ones that replace those that are undesirable. The present section considers the reinforcement
positive and negative, giving more attention to the positive because it plays a central role in
all behavioral interventions in application scenarios.

Positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement refers to the increase in the frequency of a response.

subsequent to the presentation of a positive reinforcer. That a particular event is a
A positive reinforcer is defined by its effects on behavior; if the frequency of the response increases...
It increases when followed by an event, therefore it is a positive reinforcer. Define a reinforcer.
its effects on behavior seems to be circular. However, the effectiveness of a reinforcer
does not need to be limited to a particular behavior in a unique situation. An effective reinforcer for
changing a response in a situation can also be a way to modify other behaviors in
other situations. We will also see that the Premack Principle, which will be analyzed
subsequently, provide a way to evaluate if an event is an independent reinforcer
of the effects on behavior. The reinforcing consequences are the behaviors in the repertoire of
a person who has a relatively high probability.
There are different types of reinforcers, selecting one or more of them represents a
initial consideration. The different types of reinforcers vary in their effects on behavior and the
ease of management in application scenarios. The following will analyze three positions
important reinforcers: food and other consumables, social reinforcers and the
high probability behaviors.

Food and other consumables

Food is a primary reinforcer since the reinforcing value is not learned, because
Supposedly, food preferences are learned, which makes some foods more reinforcing than others.
others and some foods not fortified at all unless the individual has been deprived of
food. Because food is a primary reinforcer, it is very powerful. The studies have
employee food as an occasional reinforcer, including cereal, candies, pastries,

20
cookies, soft drinks, and ice cream, the consumables that are not eaten (for example, gum)
mascar) have also been used as enhancers.
Since food is a primary reinforcer, its effects should be widely applied.
among different customer populations. However, food is not used too much
frequency in application scenarios, the main reason is that it is usually not present,
or as part of the everyday situations in which behavioral interventions are applied.
Introducing food into the situation is not necessary to modify behavior, given the availability.
effectiveness and ease of delivering other reinforcers, we refer to this because
represents an important (primary) reinforcer and why it sensitizes towards states
relevant (deprivation, satiation) for the delivery of the reinforcer.
Sometimes, food can be used in certain application scenarios, in particular
the institutional public services for individuals with disabilities, where the snacks and the
Food can be used in specific training sessions to train behaviors.
specific (like speaking). For example, an interesting use of food was presented like
reinforcer with physically disabled children and in hospitalization situations, whose ages
were between 1 and 3 years 6 months (Riordan, Iwata, Finney, Wohl, and Stanly, 1984). These children also
they suffered from food rejection or high selectivity, they didn't eat enough, they spat out what they
they were given or ate a limited variety of foods that contained enough vitamins and
minerals. During lunchtime, several foods were given to the children (presenting a
a piece at a time) to identify which ones they consumed and preferred. The preferred foods were used
as a reinforcer for eating a bite of other foods, for example, one of the children
I preferred dry cereal and wheat flour cookies, these were used as boosters.
when the child ate a piece of some other food (fruit, meat or starch), and surrendered to
immediately the favorite food. At first, the favorite food was presented with the white food.
for a few bites. After several trials, the preferred food (reinforcer) is
administered only intermittently, the use of preferred food increased consumption
of a broader variety of balanced food.

Important considerations about consumable reinforcers

The effectiveness of food and other consumables largely depends on the state of
deprivation of the individual, he is not at least partially deprived, food can
to result in a weak reinforcer. Sometimes researchers use this reinforcement before the
meal time or during it, a difficulty to consider is that its reinforcing value may
decline quite quickly. Even if the individual is hungry before training
As this progresses on a given day, hunger and the reinforcing value of food may
decline
The effectiveness of this reinforcement depends on the type of food used as well.
The specificity of the food used in a program may be non-reinforcing for certain individuals.
For example, although ice cream can serve as a reinforcer for most children, the flavor
It can influence its reinforcing properties for many individuals. When one has to adhere to
a single food or consumable, there is a possibility that the event is not effective with certain
number of people. On the other hand, the preferences of a specific individual change from
time in time, so that a food or other consumable can have properties
short-duration boosters.
There are potential problems in the administration of food reinforcers, the delivery and
consumption after a response sometimes interrupts the ongoing behavior, for example,
if a special education teacher distributes candies to her students while they work

21
attentively in an assignment, it can momentarily distract them from the task. Also the
The use of the reinforcer can temporarily distract students.
Moreover, it is difficult to provide food and other consumables immediately due to
to bring or deliver. The scenario in which it is used dictates the ease with which
A particular food can be provided. Parents at home and staff in some
Institutions may be able to provide food, depending on the type and the...
ease of carrying a supply (for example, small candies). However, in daily life, the
parents, teachers, classmates, employers, and other people cannot bring food and others
consumables easily all the time to use them as reinforcers.
A related problem is that food is not easily provided to several individuals.
in a group after the behavior has occurred. Because the administration to
Several individuals take some time (for example, to select the amount of food or to spend a
piece to each individual), the food is not particularly suitable in group situations in
which all people receive reinforcers. Many programs that use food have
carried out on an individual basis rather than in groups.
Finally, ethical and legal considerations restrict the use of consumable items and
of food. These reinforcers are more effective when customers are in a state of
deprivation, although it is objectionable from an ethical standpoint, such a situation also violates the
customer rights. Therefore, the deprivation of food is not a viable alternative.
treatment. When food is used as a reinforcer, clients should not and cannot be
deprived of the food they would normally receive. Thus, food and consumables are usually given
more and better than the articles that clients generally have on hand. Because the
clients normally have access to food, the extra food used as a reinforcer
It may be less powerful than it would be if they were deprived of it.
In a related manner, people often object to the use of food, adding this reinforcer.
in a setting where it wouldn't otherwise be used, for example, in the classroom or in the
play duck, has potential health consequences (such as the increase in the
sugar intake (if sweetener is used) raises concerns for both those who
consumers (for example, parents or teachers) the behavioral modification programs. In light of
Ethical, legal, and preference considerations regarding food are not frequently employed.
Likewise, many of the applied research studies are conducted in community settings.
business and industry and in everyday social communication, managing a bite of this or that
it is neither feasible nor desirable.
Food and other consumables are used in situations where other events such as the
approval is not effective, for example, in institutions for serious individuals and those with disabilities
mental, reinforcement with food is used to develop behaviors such as eating alone or
use words, sounds or gestures to communicate. In these applications, other reinforcers
They are usually not available. Perhaps food is useful to establish the reinforcing properties of
other events like praise, feedback, attention, smiles, and physical contact. The programs
they use food and other consumables always pairing the delivery of the reinforcer with praise and
other social events, so that the latter can be used to modify behavior.

Social reinforcers

Social reinforcers such as verbal praise, attention, physical contact (including the
touches of affection or approval, pats on the back and handshakes), and facial expressions (that
they encompass smiles, eye contact, nods of approval, and winks,
conditioned reinforcers. Numerous studies have shown that attention or praise from the
Parents, teachers or classmates exert considerable control over behavior.

22
 For example, in a program, praise was used to alter the behavior of a 13-year-old child.
years old named Tom, in a first-year secondary classroom (Kirby and Shields, 1972).
Tom had average intelligence but performed poorly in his class subjects, in
Specifically in mathematics, he rarely paid attention to the lesson and had to be reminded.
constantly that he would work. Praise was used to improve his performance in the subjects of
mathematics, every day in the classroom, after I completed the mathematics class, I was
he praised for his correct answers on his subject worksheet. Initially, he
he praised each pair of answers, and then the required number of correct problems for
Praising it gradually increased. The praise simply consists of saying, 'Good job.'
Excellent work and similar things.
Some other researchers have shown that reinforcing academic performance not only
it improves specific target behaviors, but also increases attention in classes and reduces
disorganizing behavior (Rugles and LeBlanc, 1982). In most classroom studies,
the teacher's attention consists mainly of verbal praise supplemented with expressions
facial expressions and physical contact. However, the teacher's non-verbal attention (consisting of smiles,
contact of sico and head nods approving contingent on appropriate behavior
it also improves behavior in class (Kazdin and Klock, 1973)

Important considerations about social reinforcers

The social consequences have a variety of advantages as reinforcers: first they

they manage easily in daily life and in a large number of situations; provide praise
take your time, so there is no delay in praising a certain number of individuals of
immediate manner. Undoubtedly, praise can be given to a group as a whole, as in a
classroom. Secondly, praise does not need to disrupt the behavior that is being reinforced, it can
to praise a person or receive a pat on the back while remaining involved in the
appropriate behavior. Third, praise is a generalized conditioned reinforcer because it has been
paired with many reinforcing events. Conditioned reinforcers may be less
subjects to satiety that food and other consumable items. Fourth, attention and praise are
they are presented "naturally" as reinforcers in everyday life. Some reinforcers (such as
Food and other consumables) usually do not lead to desirable behaviors such as paying attention.
in class, interact socially with others, or work at the job. In contrast, the reinforcers
social interactions such as the attention of other people or credit for a job well done occasionally
They follow adaptive social behaviors. Finally, because social reinforcers in the
Everyday life can continue to proceed with those behaviors developed with reinforcers.
social in a treatment or training program, they can be maintained with greater
ease outside the stage of the program of behaviors developed with other reinforcers.
In general, social reinforcers are not objectionable and are consistent with what many
people in daily life consider acceptable as reinforcers. Furthermore, even when they are used.
social reinforcers are not delivered frequently; during the course of a day, few of us
we receive or give praise contingent on behavior, this state of quasi-deprivation can increase
the effectiveness of social reinforcement when used to modify behavior (Vollmer and Iwata,
1991).
Before embarking on a program using social reinforcement, it is important to have
keep in mind some considerations: praise, approval, and physical contact are not elements
reinforcers for all people, even for some individuals can be aversive (Walker,
Hops and Greenwood, 1981), due to social events (praise, approval, and physical contact)
they are used in everyday life, it is important to establish them as reinforcers, pairing them with
events that already are.

23
High probability behaviors: Premack principle

When people are given the opportunity to engage in various behaviors,

certain activities will be selected with a frequency higher than others. The Premack Principle
affirms that the selected activities with a higher frequency can serve as
reinforcers for selected activities with a lower frequency. As a practical guide,
Allowing people to participate in preferred activities and earn various privileges can reinforce
behavior. Laboratory research has tried to identify probability behaviors
elevated by observing performance or depriving animals of certain types of activities, and by
so, making them more likely in the future. In clinical applications, behaviors of
higher probability is often inferred from the verbally expressed preferences of the
client or seeing what this one does in his free time.
High-probability behaviors are often effectively employed in various
application programs, for example: Allen and Iwata (1980) increased the degree to which adults
with intellectual disabilities participated in daily exercise as part of their rehabilitation program.
During the baseline, signals and opportunities were provided to drive these clients.
toward exercise (for example, doing knee bends, squats) and playing games that
involve physical activities (such as different ball games). Playing, the most frequent activity, is
was used to reinforce the exercise, a group contingency was implemented in which everyone had
that completes (a number of exercises before starting to play. The exercise (low behavior
probability) increased in frequency when participation in games (behavior of
(high probability) became contingent on this behavior.

Important considerations about high-probability behavior-based reinforcement

High-probability behaviors offer various advantages as reinforcers, in the

In most scenarios, activities are privileges that are easily available.
example, in the home access to the television, to the companions or to the family car is
finds perhaps associated with high probability behaviors, depending on the age of the
person. At school, access to recess, free time, games, and reading materials
entertainment can have a similar function. In public hospital services and of
rehabilitation, participating in special recreational events or access to means of livelihood
more desirable can also be used as reinforcers. In summary, the activities and
privileges that can be contingent upon performance are usually at hand in
any scenario. Therefore, additional reinforcers (for example, money or sweets) do not
they need to be introduced to the stage.
There are limitations in the use of high-probability behaviors as events.
reinforcers: first, access to an activity may not always be able to proceed immediately to
low probability behavior, for example, in a classroom setting, access to
recess or games cannot be easily used to reinforce behavior immediately. It can
to see what kind of access took time, so that the reinforcing activity (for example, games)
do not interrupt the task (for example, writing a story). After it has been established the
low probability behavior, access to high probability behavior generally
it can take until a more convenient moment without loss of behavior. Also, the
intermediate rewards like praise or a token (exchangeable for the activity) can
to bridge the gap between behavior and reinforcing activity, so that it
provide some reinforcement immediately. Thus, a parent can tell the child that,
due to a specific behavior (playing cooperatively with his brother) he was "great"

24
(praise) and that they can stay awake 15 extra minutes in relation to bedtime.
The praise was delivered immediately, and this is an important condition for an effective delivery.
of reinforcement, in fact, praise can be sufficient to develop behavior to a
high rate. However, the privilege of staying longer may well be added to the
effectiveness introducing some important reinforcements.
Second, providing an activity is sometimes an all-or-nothing endeavor, so that
it can be earned or not earned, this can limit flexibility in management of the
reinforcer. For example, in institutions for psychiatric patients or criminals, access to
one-night stays and trips to the nearby village are sometimes used as activities
reinforcements, these cannot be sectioned in such a way that 'proportions' of them are gained, they have
to fully give oneself or not to give oneself. Sometimes, a client's behavior comes close but does not meet the
criterion for reinforcement and a decision must be made. One solution is to shape the behavior.
establishing low criteria at the beginning to win the activity, others is to incorporate many
privileges and activities within the contingency system. Different behaviors or degrees
variables of a determined behavior can then be reinforced with different privileges or with
a choice between them.
Third, sticking to one or two activities as reinforcers runs the risk of
some individuals do not find them reinforcing, given that preferences for activities
they can be idiosyncratic, it is necessary that different activities are available, one
alternative is to provide free time as a reinforcer, so that individuals can
choose from a variety of activities.
A final consideration about the use of activities and privileges is that in many
institutions the activities must be available freely for customers. Those that
they could be contingent on the execution, delivered regardless of the conduct of the
client. For example, it is required that many activities (such as opportunities to exercise,
socializing) are provided in a non-contingent manner to ensure that people
institutionalized as psychiatric patients, criminals, children and adults with disabilities
mental should not be deprived of basic human rights. Therefore, the person who
develop a behavioral modification program that provides more and better
special activities that are offered as part of the routine care.

The feedback
As positive reinforcement

Providing information about how a person has performed can act as

reinforcer, such feedback is a conditioned reinforcer because it is usually
associates with the delivery of other reinforcing events. Feedback is implicit in the
delivery of any reinforcer because it indicates which responses are considered appropriate or desirable
the person. Thus, when reinforcement is provided such as food, praise, activities, or points, the
the client receives feedback on how well they perform. However, the
feedback can be used regardless of explicit approval or others
reinforcers can inform individuals about their behavior or the extent to which it has
changed. Feedback refers to the knowledge of the results of one's own performance and
it does not always include additional events that could be reinforcing on their own merit.
In a project, feedback was used to control the speed of the
drivers on a road that were entering a residential area (Van Houten, Nau and Marini,
In 1980, the speed excess was measured with a radar unit disguised in a garbage truck.
close to the road. After the pre-treatment LB observations, it was provided
feedback in the form of an outstanding signal from the path indicating the percentage of

25
drivers who had not exceeded the speed the previous day and the best percentage record
obtained until that date, the speed limit was 50 kilometers (31 miles) per hour. Without
however, the police considered that 66 kilometers (41 miles) per hour was still safe, so that
this speed was used to determine if someone exceeded said limit. The results indicated that
achieved the reduction of speeding whenever the system was in effect
feedback. During a follow-up period of 26 weeks, while using the
feedback system on a weekly basis rather than daily (a random day was chosen each
week), the effects of the program were maintained. Significantly, it was also observed that
during the feedback phase, accidents were reduced by 57%, compared to a period
two years prior to the feedback being carried out.
An important area that involves feedback is biofeedback. This
it consists of providing information to people about various physiological processes such as:
blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, and brainwaves. It
provides immediate information to help customers learn to control various
body processes.
Due to the ease with which feedback can be applied, it has been used in
various customer populations and in a variety of scenarios. Feedback can
to be easily employed when there is an explicit performance criterion, such as academic achievement or
labor productivity. In other situations, various criteria can be established, such as the
cigarettes smoked, calories consumed or days of exercise. Daily feedback can
transmit how well the client performs in relation to the established criteria. Specify
A criterion for performance is essential so that the desired level of execution is clear.
One extremely important consideration when using feedback is that its effects
they are often misconceptions, for example, the feedback that controls the speed while driving and the
automobile accidents, as observed in the previous example, are not always effective (Roque and
Roberts, 1989). In other contexts, feedback has been effective but its effects are
Moderates, in general, feedback is less effective alone than in combination with others.
reinforcers, such as praise or tokens that can be used to obtain reinforcers
tangible substitutes. Therefore, feedback is not one of the most powerful methods to
modify behavior. The moderate effects of feedback are not an argument against
its use, in most scenarios, there is no feedback on performance and
when granted, the program is intermittent (for example, periodic job evaluations,
end of course qualifications, adherence to workplace safety rules). In such cases, it is
likely that the use of feedback will lead to reliable and significant changes in
the behavior.
Feedback-based programs are often easier to implement than others.
reinforcement programs, such as token economies. Likewise, the people who execute a
The feedback program must be better positioned to provide feedback.
that provides extrinsic reinforcers. For these reasons, it may be useful to start with a
program based on feedback perhaps paired with praise, and then, if the goals are not
they have managed to move towards a more powerful source of reinforcement and a more
complex.

Economy of chips

Tokens are conditioned reinforcers like coins, poker chips, tickets,

stars, points, or check marks; they are generalized reinforcers since they can
exchange for various reinforcing events known as substitute reinforcers.

26
 A token-based reinforcement system is called a token economy, and these
function in the same way as money in national economic systems. The tokens
livestock are used to buy substitute reinforcers, which include various goods and services, therefore
general these include food and other consumables, activities and privileges. The rate at which the
Cards can be exchanged for replaceable substitutes, which must be specified in a way that is clear.
How many tokens are needed to buy the various boosters. The blank responses are made.
explicit, as in most programs, along with the number of cards that are managed
for its execution.
The tokens need to be established as conditioned reinforcers because they lack
of reinforcing properties by right, for some populations, it is enough to explain
that the tokens can be exchanged for various goods, after this explanation the tokens
they acquire a value that is maintained through exchange with other reinforcers. For individuals whose
behavior is not controlled by instructions about the value of the tokens, they can
provide oneself in a non-contingent manner a few times. Immediately after that,
they have been delivered, they can be exchanged or negotiated for a substitute reinforcer.
The use of cards has a history that precedes behavioral modification in
institutional settings such as schools, hospitals, and prisons (Kazdin, 1978), although the
Current applications reflect a greater understanding of how reinforcement operates and what
way behavioral changes are achieved and maintained. The original work has had a great
influence on current applications and its origins can be traced back to a psychiatric hospital in
the beginnings of the 1960s (see Ayllon and Azrin, 1968b). Psychiatric patients
they received tokens (coins) for a variety of work and tasks in the pavilion, such as helping with
meals, perform chores, guide other patients in activities and self-care. The cards
they could be exchanged for some privileges (for example, opportunities to interact
socially with the staff, watching movies, making trips to the nearby town, improvements in the
room services and purchase items in a store in the pavilion. The initial program
established the feasibility of a reward system that included several individuals, behaviors and
substitute reinforcers, this program showed to improve the patient's behavior and stimulate the
development of other programs.
Another program that has had a significant influence is a token economy.
employed to rehabilitate pre-delinquent children who had committed several offenses (for example,
thefts, fights, unjustified absence from school, academic failure) (Fixsen, Phillips, Phillips and
Wolf, 1976). The program took place in a setting of cozy cabin-style accommodations called
"Achievement Place" was managed by two tutors. The children could earn points for behaviors such as
watch the news, read newspapers, stay tidy and organized, carry out chores of the
house, and receiving good grades in school. They could lose points for having low
calificaciones, hablar de modo agresivo (amenazar), desobedecer las reglas, mentr, robar, llegar
afternoon, fighting and other disorganizing behaviors. Points were used to buy privileges.
how to stay awake late, go to the center, watch television, use tools,
to ride a bicycle and receive a permit. Significantly, the children participated in a way
act in the program supervising the work of their peers, recording their own behavior,
as well as developing and enforcing rules among their peers. The program demonstrated
important changes in various behaviors (For example, social interaction, completion of
a school assignment, chores) at home. The young people who participated in the program committed
few criminal offenses in the community and had less contact with the police than the
offenders located conditionally or in other scenarios where this program does not
was in effect (Kirigin, Braukmann, Atwater, and Wolf, 1982; Kirigin, Wolf, Braukmann, Fixsen and
Phillips, 1979). However, long-term evaluations indicated that the benefits did not
they maintained.

27
 The economy of tokens has been extensively used in psychiatric hospitals, for
For example, in one of the programs evaluated with the greatest care, the patients received cards (after
colored plastics) for behaviors such as attending pavilion activities, group meetings and
therapeutic sessions, and for grooming, making their own bed, bathing, behaving
adequately at mealtimes, and interact socially (Paul and Lentz, 1977). The
tokens could be exchanged for a variety of substitute events such as buying cosmetics,
candies, cigarettes, and clothing; rent a chair or headboard for one's own room; arrange items of a
mail order catalog; use the piano, the recorder, or the radio; pastime in a lounge
socialize; watch television; and have a private room and sleep until late. As the patients
they improved in the pavilion, advancing to higher levels within the program, in which they
more reinforcers were available and higher criteria were established for execution. The
patients could "give money" to get rid of something in the system by performing well, and each one
he carried a 'credit card' that allowed him free access to all available reinforcers
as long as their personal performance was above standards. The program was
very successful in reducing extravagant behaviors, improving social interaction and skills
communication, and develop participation in activities. The benefits were reflected in the
number of patients discharged and in their adaptation to the community from one and a half to five years
after the termination of the program.
Token economies have been used as part of the treatment for a wide
variety of groups of individuals in diverse settings. As an example, a system was used to
economy of vouchers to treat patients referred for substance dependence (Budney, Higgins,
Delaney, Kent and Bickel, 1991). Two adult males (Phil, 28 years old; Mike, 35) had
were attended to separately due to their cocaine addiction, both also used
marijuana, what the authors reported is the case for 40 to 60% of people addicted to it.
cocaine. The evaluation of marijuana and cocaine use was achieved through urine analysis that
they detected the use during the previous 72 hours, the evaluation was carried out four times by
week to provide opportunities to earn chips, the fact that there was no sign
the use of cocaine was rewarded with points. Bonus points were given for periods
wide without signs of drug use. The points could be exchanged for small amounts of
money or goods and services, such as movie tickets, sporting events, tickets for the
cable car, food certificates, and others. The purpose of using these substitute reinforcers is not
it was not only about instilling value in the points, but also involving individuals in activities
prosocial behaviors were expected to develop a reinforcing and drug-free lifestyle. After 12
weeks ago, a maintenance phase began to reduce the frequency of inspections, in the phase
Finally, the reduction of marijuana use was added to the program. To earn tickets, the tests
they had to show that the individual had not used cocaine or marijuana. The data showed that
when reinforcement for cocaine abstinence was given, the tests for it were negative.
Marijuana continued to be used until the final phase, in which abstinence was reinforced.
cocaine like marijuana. The sequence of interventions between two individuals seen in the clinic
and through two drugs, it follows the criteria of a multiple baseline design. The pattern suggests
that the reinforcement program with cards was responsible for the change, the evaluation of
follow-up, including reports from others (the girlfriend, the roommate) and from the clients
They indicated that there was no longer any use of cocaine, but there was occasional use of marijuana.
Token economies have been used with a variety of different populations.
illustrated here, including people with mental disabilities, prisoners, geriatric residents or from
asylums, alcoholics and drug-dependent individuals, and outpatient patients, children and adults (see Glynn,
1990; Kazdin, 1982d). Similarly, the various scenarios in which economics has been applied
cards include at home, schools, institutions, outpatient consultation centers, nursing homes, businesses

28
and industry. In short, the applications of reinforcement techniques to social problems with
They have relied on the economy of tokens to modify behavior in daily life.

Important considerations

Tokens offer superior advantages to reinforcers; first, tokens are

powerful reinforcers and can often develop behaviors at a higher level than
those developed through other conditioned reinforcers such as praise, approval and
feedback. Thus, it is often useful to start with a reinforcement program with
sheets to achieve high levels of performance. After the performance is
consistently high, can be maintained with praise, which is administered more easily.
Second, the cards tend to create a bridge for the delay between the white response and the reinforcement.
primary: yes, for example, a reinforcer different from the tokens (like an activity) cannot
to surrender immediately after the white response has been made, they can
to turn in the tokens in their place and use them to acquire a substitute reinforcer. Third, due to
that the chips are backed by a variety of reinforcers, they are less subject to the
satiation to other reinforcers, if a client is no longer interested in 1 or 2 reinforcers
substitutes, generally there are many other reinforcers that are valuable to him. Fourth, the
Cards can be easily managed without interrupting the blank response, they do not need.
consume itself (as is the case with reinforcers like food) or engage in behaviors that can
interrupt the white response (for example, participate in a special activity). Fifth, the
tokens allow the administration of unique reinforcers (tokens) to individuals who typically
they have different preferences for reinforcers, these can be exercised in the exchange of
substitute reinforcers. Therefore, with the tokens, there is less likelihood that the reinforcers
valuable only to a few individuals on the scene. Lastly, the chips differ
of other types of reinforcers (such as activities) that have to be earned completely,
while the tokens can be obtained with a view to acquiring a large or valuable reinforcer
primary.
There are potential disadvantages in the use of cards. In some programs, the
Strange substitute reinforcers can be involved, for example, in a program of
classroom the tickets can be exchanged for food. A potential problem is to eliminate the
system of fichas after behavioral benefits have been obtained and transferred
behavior control over events that occur naturally, such as privileges and ...
activities. Usually, no food is presented in class and eventually needs to be eliminated.
Supposedly, in a token economy, it is not necessary to introduce reinforcers that generally do not
They are available on the stage.
The tokens can be used to acquire access to privileges, activities, and other events.
common. The introduction of cards may prove disadvantageous since, except for those
like money and qualifications, constitute a reinforcing event not available in most of the
scenarios. Because the delivery of tickets is clearly associated with the
reinforcement of desirable behavior, they can exert control over stimuli regarding behavior. The
clients learn that the presence of the tokens indicates that the desired behavior will be reinforced; the
The absence of tokens indicates that the desired behavior will not be reinforced or will occur less frequently.
and with less powerful reinforcers (for example, intermittent praise) and consequently, the
Desirable behavior may decline. However, procedures are available.
specific to portray the reinforcement programs with tickets without losing the benefits
behavioral.
Another possible disadvantage of tokens is that individuals in token economies can
obtain them in unauthorized ways, for example, customers can steal tokens from each other and

29
They can be obtained without carrying out the blank responses, in which case, their effect on behavior
it will decrease. To combat chip theft, they can be encoded individually in a way
that they are different for each subject.

Conclusion: effectiveness of different types of positive reinforcers

The variety of reinforcers provides great flexibility for planning the programs
reinforcement. Minimally, praise, activities, and privileges can be used for
practical way in any scenario, but, as we have already seen, the use of consumables can
be limited by its restrictions. Even when the tokens are usually the positive reinforcer
more powerful in application scenarios, they may not be needed in most of them and the
praise, privileges, and feedback can be very effective. A token economy
it is in some way more difficult to carry out than other reinforcement programs (for example,
It is required to deliver the records along with the substitute reinforcers and to maintain a record of the earnings.
of sheets), and as we have seen, it introduces some problems. Therefore, in some applications, the
Sheets can only be introduced if they have not proven to be more easily accomplished effective reinforcers.
On the other hand, card programs are used from the beginning in many cases because
they provide a clear means of specifying the relationships between various target behaviors and different
types of reinforcers.
The analysis of reinforcement loss points should not imply that several of them are used for
independent manner. A program that incorporates a variety of reinforcers, such as the
the economy of chips, it is likely to be more effective than one that only uses a few, it should
to employ more than one type of reinforcer for an additional reason: the programs that use
activities, feedback, consumables or forms should pair these events with praise and the
Attention. Developing responsiveness to social reinforcers is important because ...
Social consequences are likely to be the main source of reinforcement once
the client works outside the treatment setting.

Basic requirements for an effective application

of positive reinforcement
In the development of a reinforcement program, the main concern is usually the type.
of employed reinforcement. It is evident that the reinforcer is important and some of them (for
example, the cards), tend to be more effective than others (for example, feedback),
Although the effectiveness of the program depends on a variety of factors, among these, it turns out
prominent how the reinforcer is delivered.

Contingent application of the consequences

The essential condition for the effective application of a reinforcer is that it is

contingent on the behavior; this means that the reinforcement is given only if the behavior is performed
desired, if the reinforcer is not provided contingently, the behavior is unlikely to
I changed. Technically; the non-contingent application of the reinforcer will not constitute reinforcement.
The contingent applications of reinforcers are not necessarily a question of all or nothing.
nothing, for example, when describing the reinforcement to parents, teachers, and other people who
they wish to implement behavioral programs, often stating that they have employed
reinforcement with little or no success. However, reinforcement has often been used
in everyday situations randomly, surrendering contingently in some
on some occasions and in a non-contingent manner on others.

30
 The differences between contingent and non-contingent reinforcement are dramatic and clear.
the first generally leads to a notable behavioral change; the second leads to little or
no changes; and the reinforcement applied contingently on some occasions, but not in
others lead to a performance that is somewhat intermediate (Baer and Wolf 1970; Kazdin, 1973; Redd and
Bimbrauer, 1969). One might ask how non-contingent reinforcement can lead to
towards some change in behavior, the reason is that the non-contingent reinforcement continues from
accidental way to the desired behavior on some occasions, and therefore, constitutes a
weak and intermittent reinforcement for behavior. However, when the goal is to modify the
Conduct, non-contingent reinforcement should be avoided.

Delay of the reinforcement

The effectiveness of reinforcement depends on the delay between the behavior and the delivery of the
reinforcing consequences (food, praise or points). Responses close to reinforcement are
they learn better than those that are far from it. Thus, to maximize the effect of the
reinforcement, a reinforcer must be delivered immediately after the target behavior, if
this is not done, it can lead to behavior different from the white response during the
interim period. If this happens, the intervening response will be strengthened immediately, while
that the white response will be reinforced after a delay. For example, it is often praised to the
children (or scold them) for a behavior long after it occurred, if a child puts in
tidy your room, a father would do well to provide praise immediately, if the praise is
postpone, a variety of intervening behaviors may present themselves (including, perhaps,
mess up the room). Similarly, in classroom scenarios, it is said with
frequency to the children the "good" ones that they are when they are on the verge of becoming restless or
disorganizing. The teacher may say that the class behaved well yesterday and that she hopes that today
if you continue behaving this way, such praise will be minimally effective due to the delay in
provide it.
Immediate reinforcement is especially important when developing behavior.
white, after a response has been executed consistently, the amount of
the time between the response and the reinforcement can be increased without a decrease in the
performance. For example, in classroom scenarios, students sometimes receive points or
privileges daily while maintaining high levels of academic conduct, after
Such behavior has stabilized, reinforcers can be given every other day, or each ...
certain days without a harmful effect on performance. If a program starts with
delayed reinforcement, behavior may not change at all or change to a lesser degree
speed that one would do if the reinforcement were immediate. After a behavior has been
developed appropriately, it is desirable to change from immediate or delayed reinforcement,
so that behavior does not become dependent on immediate consequences. A great
The number of consequences in daily life (achievements, salaries, qualifications, and fame) continues.
much later after a series of answers has been completed.

Magnitude of reinforcer

The amount of reinforcement provided for a response also determines the degree
the more the response will perform, the greater the amount of reinforcement delivered by
the more responses, the greater the response frequency. The amount of the reinforcer commonly
it can be specified in terms such as the amount of food, the number of points or the sum
of money.

31
 Even when the magnitude of the reinforcement is directly related to the
Execution, there are limits to this relationship, an unlimited amount of reinforcement does not maintain.
a high rate of performance is necessarily required, in fact, a reinforcer loses its effect when
it is delivered in excessive quantities, this phenomenon is called satiation. Therefore, the
the effect of increasing reinforcement is limited by the point at which the individual is
satisfaction, such a situation is evident with primary reinforcers like food, water, and sexuality. In
Excessive quantities of each of these reinforcers quickly lose their properties.
reinforcers and can even become aversive. Of course, the satiation of primary reinforcers
It is temporary and once again they acquire their reinforcing value as deprivation increases. The
secondary or conditioned reinforcers, such as attention, praise, and tokens, are also present.
subject to satiety, but to a lesser degree than primary reinforcers.
The effect of the amount of reinforcement on behavior depends on the states of
satiation and deprivation of the individual with respect to the reinforcer, an event (for example, money) does not
It is likely to be very effective as a reinforcer if an individual has unlimited access to it. If
a subject is partially deprived of an event, a smaller amount is needed
reinforcer to modify behavior. In most everyday situations, people do not
has unlimited access to reinforcing events (such as free time in a situation of
classroom or hang out with friends for kids), and so, in general, they go through various
mild deprivation forms. This means that a variety of events can be effective as
reinforcers without introducing deprivation.

Quality of the preferred reinforcer

The quality of the reinforcer, unlike its quantity, is commonly not specific.
in physical terms, instead, quality is generally determined by the
customer preference, this has been tested by asking them which of two or more reinforcers
They prefer and then subjecting the value of the reinforcer to the performance test (see Green,
Reid, Canipe and Gardner, 1991, Neff, Mace, Shea and Shade, 1992). In general, the reinforcers that are
highly preferred ones lead to a greater performance than the less preferred ones. For a customer
determined, it is often not difficult to specify the activities that are preferred to a greater degree, and
her behavior can indicate to us what the highly preferred reinforcers are. However, the
Preference for a particular reinforcer can change over time, although certain types of
reinforcers tend to result in higher performance compared to others and
this better determines the degree to which behavior is modified. For example, reinforcement with
Chips are often more effective than praise for altering behavior, and both are generally more
effective than feedback.

REINFORCEMENT PROGRAMS

The reinforcement program refers to the rule that denotes how many or which responses
specifics will be reinforced. The reinforcers are administered according to some program, and even in
the simplest, an answer must be reinforced every time it is presented. This program is
it is called continuous reinforcement, for example, in training a child to follow
Instructions can be given reinforcement every time they respond appropriately. On the other hand
On the other hand, reinforcement can only be given after some appropriate responses. This is received
the name of intermittent reinforcement.
There are important differences between continuous and intermittent reinforcement while
behaviors are reinforced and after the reinforcement has been removed. During the phase of
acquisition or reinforcement, a behavior developed with continuous reinforcement is carried out

32
at a higher rate than the behavior developed with intermittent reinforcement. Thus, as long as
Behavior is developed through the use of a continuous or 'generous' reinforcement program. Without
However, the advantage of continuous reinforcement is offset after the reinforcement ceases.
In extinction, behaviors that were continuously reinforced decrease at a faster rate.
faster than those that were intermittently reinforced.
The advantage of continuous reinforcement is that execution occurs at a higher level.
elevated while behavior is reinforced, the advantage of intermittent reinforcement is that its
resistance to extinction is better when reinforcement is discontinued. Both advantages can
obtained by developing behavior with continuous reinforcement until a rate is established
high conduct and then, to induce the maintenance of the response, change the
intermittent reinforcement program and it is done more and more this way.
The difference between responses developed with continuous reinforcement and the
Developed with intermittent reinforcement is evident in examples from daily experience,
a familiar response presented is to deposit coins in a slot machine and
press the lever or the button; unless there is a mechanical failure, the response is followed by the reinforcer
(for example, soda, candy) most of the time. Once it is no longer present
reinforcement, this response (depositing coins) follows a pattern identical to that of reinforcement
continuing, as soon as the reinforcer (that is, the product) is not delivered, the extinction is almost
immediate. If a slot machine does not deliver the reinforcement, few individuals will put
coins in a repeated manner in it, unless there is evidence that it has been repaired.
For behaviors previously developed with continuous reinforcement, extinction is rapid.
A similar response - putting coins in a machine and pulling a lever - can
to maintain oneself through intermittent reinforcement, as is the case with gaming machines.
Sometimes it is reinforced to put coins into a gaming machine (with money);
many others no, if the money is not delivered (extension), the response would continue to be made to
a high rate before extinction occurs. It is difficult to discern when extinction begins in a
highly intermittent reinforcement program, the resistance to extinction of a response
it depends on how intermittent or sparse the reinforcement schedule is. The resistance to the
The extension is greater if some responses are reinforced than if many are reinforced.
Another advantage of intermittent reinforcement is its efficient use of reinforcers.
available, as it allows the delivery of few reinforcers for a large number of responses.
Additionally, if the reinforcers are administered only a few times, it is less likely that they will
present the satiation, for example, with intermittent reinforcement of food, it is unlikely that
the client fills up quickly, and therefore, on some occasions will not respond to the food. A
An additional advantage of intermittent reinforcement is that it requires less time to administer.
reinforcers than continuous reinforcement.
Reinforcement can be scheduled in many ways, of which only a few will be considered.
Here are a few. Simple types of programs can be distinguished. One type is the
reason programs, which specify the ratio of the total number of responses to that
that is reinforced. Reinforcement can also be contingent on the amount of time that
the white response lasts longer and is called an interval program. With an interval program of
reason, the amount of time that passes before the subject executes the response is irrelevant, the
The behavior controls the frequency of reinforcement. With an interval schedule, the number of
The response made is irrelevant as long as a response is given after it has
the amount of time prescribed has passed. The frequency of reinforcement is found
partially determined by the clock.
In both reinforcement programs, ratio and interval, the requirement for
reinforcement can be set so that it is the same requirement every time. On the other hand, the
Requirement can be variable, so that it is different from time to time. Four will be analyzed.

33
simple reinforcement programs: fixed ratio (FR), variable ratio (VR), fixed interval (FI) and
variable interval (VI).
A fixed ratio program requires a constant number of responses to be made.
Before a response is reinforced, the number following RF specifies which response it is.
will reinforce. For example, RF:1 specifies that only one response is required for it to be delivered.
reinforcer. (RF:1 is also called continuous reinforcement, because it reinforces every
RF:10 indicates that every tenth response will be reinforced.
The performance under fixed-rate programs differs to some extent depending on whether the
Reasons are small or large, typically there is a temporary pause to respond.
after the reinforcement is delivered, and then a rapid increase in the response rate
until the reason is completed and the reinforcement is delivered again. The pause after the
the response depends on the reason, with major reasons (when few responses are reinforced) it
they produce longer pauses. Once responses are resumed, reinforcement is maximized.
executing all responses as quickly as possible. Examples of an RF program
include any instance in which the reinforcer is delivered for a certain number of
responses. For example, the behavior of factory workers who are paid according to
its level of productivity is reinforced in an RF program (generally referred to as work
on piecework). If several responses are needed for reinforcement, there may be a temporary pause.
(there is no production) immediately after reinforcement.
A variable ratio program specifies that reinforcement will be presented after
a certain number of responses, that number varies unpredictably from one occasion to another. In
on average, a certain number of responses are carried out before it is delivered
reinforcement, the number that follows RV specifies the average number of responses required
to obtain reinforcement. For example, RV:5 indicates that, on average, five will be carried out.
responses before the reinforcer is provided. In some cases, reinforcement can be given the
second answer, while in others, the eighth will be reinforced, a different number will be required.
answers every time. However, through all occasions, the reinforcement is delivered in
average of the specified number (for example, five in the RV:5 program). Of course, the
number one cannot be used in an RV program because using that number would equate to
reinforce each response, which is continuous reinforcement or program RF:1.
The performance under VR programs is quite high, the pauses after responding
In RF programs, they can be almost completely eliminated with an RV program unless the
average reason may be very long. Immediately after a response is reinforced, the
the subject begins to respond because the next reinforcer may follow after only
a few answers. The execution continues at a high rate until it is delivered the
reinforcer, and immediately after it recovers again. The behavior that was previously maintained
Under a VR program, extinction occurs more slowly than behavior maintained under an FR program.
particularly if the variable program requires many responses for reinforcement to occur. The
performance proves to be relatively persistent and consistent following an RV program. Thus, the
RV programs are suitable for preventing extinction. Before the reinforcement is removed, the
reason can become very scarce gradually through the increase in the number of
required responses for reinforcement.
Examples of RV programs are abundant in everyday experience: the behavior of a
the fisherman is partially controlled by reinforcement RV, a fish (reinforcer) is not caught every
every time the fishing line is cast into the water (response). The response is reinforced only some of the times, and the
The variable nature of the program ensures that extinction will not occur rapidly. The
gaming machines, mentioned earlier, represent a dramatic application of the
VR programs, considering that any response can be reinforced, the person who plays in

34
one of these machines usually performs at a consistently high rate and is not
likely that its execution will be extended over long periods.
A fixed interval program requires a time interval (usually expressed
in minutes) elapse before the reinforcer becomes available, in such a program, for
Supposedly, the interval does not vary. For example, in an IF:1 program, the first response is reinforced.
that it appears after one minute has passed, an interval program needs that it
only provide that response after the prescribed interval has elapsed. Although this
efficiency in responding occurs rarely, the characteristics of the responses to the IF programs are
distant, after the reinforcement, there is usually a pronounced pause, in which
They make responses. This does not interfere with receiving reinforcement because responding earlier
that the appropriate time passes, it is never reinforced. Only if the pause is greater than the interval
fixed, the subject will postpone the reinforcement. IF programs lead to lower response rates
consistent than RF programs because they do not respond after reinforcement during
An FI program does not postpone reinforcement, as happens with an RF program.
An example of an IF response pattern is the daily experience of finding out if it has arrived.
For most individuals, the delivery of correspondence is a
once a day, with (moderately) fixed time periods (24 hours) before the deliveries,
response (search for correspondence in the mailbox) is reinforced (by finding correspondence) to
diary. Immediately after the reinforcement, there is no longer a response. A person does not return to
search for correspondence until the next day, when the 24-hour interval is almost complete.
Then the search for matching increases until reinforcement is obtained, and in that
The moment of the pause after the reinforcement becomes evident again.
A variable interval program specifies the average length of the intervals that are
they require for reinforcement, for example, a program IV:10 denotes that, on average, they must
ten minutes should pass before the response is reinforced; on a certain occasion, the
the interval can be more or less than 10 minutes, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response
after the interval has elapsed. The study behavior of the students follows a
characteristic pattern of a program IV if the instructor asks 'surprise questions', the interval
among the questions is unpredictable and varies from one question to the next, so the study
tends to be relatively stable under such a program. In general, responding tends to be higher.
under programs IV than under programs IF.
As previously mentioned, it is desirable to continuously reinforce at the beginning of the program.
behavior modification. In practice, it may be impossible to closely observe the behavior to
ensure that the target behavior is reinforced, however, in almost all programs
continuous or generous can be used initially before switching to programs
increasingly intermittent.
When selecting an intermittent program, both the response pattern must be considered.
characteristic of the program, such as practical demands. Although fixed programs can
convenient to manage, the characteristic response pattern under such programs
includes pauses or gaps in the execution of the reinforced behavior. For example, in a classroom
from primary school, the teacher who wishes to increase the attention behavior of the students
You can decide to increase the reinforcement frequency. The teacher can give praise every 30.
minutes to the children who pay attention (program IF:30), the selection of 30 minutes can
make it easier to track them in the classroom clock; at the end of the time, the teacher can praise and mention
By name all students who are behaving appropriately. Given the program.
of fixed interval, it is very likely that the desired performance (such as sitting, working quietly)
be louder near the end interval with pauses (lapses in appropriate behavior) immediately
after the reinforcement. The teacher might conclude that praise "works" but in reality
it only has a temporary effect, as the program promotes inconsistent performance. A

35
better procedure would be to switch to an IV program, this can be achieved by using a
kitchen timer (like the one used for cooking) that rings when the
button rises. The teacher can turn the disk to different periods some short (for example, 3
some short (around 5 minutes), some long (for example, 60 minutes), and some intermediate. When the
the stopwatch sounds in the intermittent program, the teacher would praise the attentive students and the
behavior would be much more consistent over time throughout the day. In general, the programs
variables can reduce inconsistencies in performance. Interval programs tend to be
easy to manage, but client execution is generally higher under programs of
reason, in these, high response rates accelerate the delivery of reinforcement.
It is important not to exaggerate the case of intermittent reinforcement. When the goal is
develop a behavior of interest, this is generally the initial purpose when developing a
behavior modification program, the continuous reinforcement is the program to select, if not
Is continuous reinforcement feasible (for example, in a classroom with a teacher, or at home,
with the father at work), the program that provides the most frequent reinforcement of the
The behavior of interest is the one that is preferred. Intermittent reinforcement is useful for maintaining the
behavior once elevated levels have been achieved.

CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS

Reinforcement contingencies are often designed in the form of behavioral contracts.

among the individuals who wish for behavior to change (parents, teachers, hospital assistants)
and the clients whose behavior will change (students, children, patients). A contract is signed
real for both parties indicating that they agree on the terms, the contingency contract
specifies the relationship between behaviors and their consequences. Specifically, the contract specifies
the reinforcers that the client wants and the desired behavior of the individual who wants the change
behavioral, so any of the reinforcers analyzed previously, as well as
idiosyncratic rewards can be specified in the contract.
Ideally, contingency contracts contain five elements (Stuart, 1971).
First, they detail what each of the parties expects to obtain. For example, it is possible that the
Parents wish for a child to complete their work or attend school regularly. The child can
wishing to have free time with their friends, additional permissions, and other reinforcers. Second, the
customer behaviors can be easily observed. If parents cannot determine whether
A responsibility has been fulfilled, they cannot grant a privilege. In this way, some
behaviors cannot easily be incorporated within contingency. For example, often the
Parents cannot monitor if a teenager visits certain friends, so it would not result in
It is advisable to include a stipulation regarding such visits in the contract. Thirdly, the
contingency contracts provide penalties for failure to achieve their terms.
The aversive consequences of failing to comply with contracts are systematic and are planned by
agreed in advance (by all parties), not in an arbitrary manner and after the facts.
Fourth, the contingency contracts include a bonus clause that reinforces obedience.
consistent with its terms. The bonds (additional privileges, activities, or extensions of the limit
curfew) can be used to consistently reinforce performance throughout
over a broad period. For someone whose behavior developed recently, the bonuses for
consistent performance can be particularly important. Fifth, contingency contracts
they provide a means to monitor the rate of positive reinforcement given and received. The
records inform each party when the reinforcer will be presented and provide
constant feedback. In addition, records can guide individuals to make
favorable comments about the desirable behavior when the attainment of is about to take place
substitute reinforcer.

36
 Contingency contracts do not need to be elaborate or complex.
Contingency contracts have been successfully used to modify
diversity of problems, such as overeating, drug and alcohol abuse, smoking, behaviors
problem of delinquents, disorganizing behavior of elementary school children and students
university students. Several authors have described procedures for developing contracts of
contingencies that can be applied to a wide variety of problems and have exemplified
additional applications (see DeRisi and Butz, 1975; O’Banion and Whaley, 1981).

Advantages of using contingency contracts

Contingency contracts have several advantages. First, the performance of clients.

it can improve if they are allowed to have some involvement in the design or its implementation,
instead of simply imposing them. Even if the program is not very effective, it is likely that
the active participation of clients makes it more acceptable for them (Kazdin, 1980a). Second, the
contingencies specified in a contract are less likely to be rejected by the
client. He can negotiate the consequences and the requirements for reinforcement. If the system does not
it is very aversive, it is less likely that the client will try to escape from the containment or from whom
the administrators. Third, generally contingency contracts are flexible in such a way that
Participants can renegotiate their terms. The reinforcers can be adjusted.
They deliver particular answers, the response requirements may increase, and thus
successively. Fourth, the contract makes the contingencies explicit. The specification of these
acts as regulations or instructions for the client on how to behave and defines the
Consequences that will follow the behavior. Even when the explicit instructions alone
they may not produce lasting changes in performance, often increasing the effectiveness of
reinforcement. Fifth, contingency contracts are particularly useful for
structure the relationship between people whose interactions may be maladaptive. For example,
when compared to families of 'normal' children, families of delinquent children and with
behavioral problems are involved in a lower rate of positive social exchanges
and inadequately reinforce socially appropriate behavior (see Pateson, Reid and
Dishion, 1992). Contingency contracts make explicit the requirements for them to
they provide positive consequences and increase the probability of reinforcement for the
desired behaviors manifest in reality. Putting the contingencies in writing makes it easier to monitor if
are carried out as required.
Although contingency contracts are frequently used, they have not yet been completed.
a more extensive investigation that leads to a large part of the specific details that make
much more effective or acceptable contracts for clients. Nevertheless, the use of contracts that
structure reinforcement programs that make the requirements explicit to the parties
involved, and promote negotiation between them, should be strongly encouraged.

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT TECHNIQUES

TO REDUCE UNWANTED RESPONSES

In many situations, the main goal of the reinforcement program is to reduce the
undesirable behavior. Since reinforcement is a technique to increase behavior, the
People tend to believe that it is inappropriate to decrease it. Therefore, punishment and extinction, which
They are analyzed in the following chapters, they are used because they decrease the response frequency of
direct manner. However, unwanted blank responses can be reduced or eliminated.
through reinforcement. Without a doubt, the reinforcement techniques to suppress behavior are
exploitable and effective (La Vigna and Donnellan, 1986, O’Brien and Repp, in press).

37
Reinforcement of another behavior

One way to decrease undesirable behavior is to provide reinforcement when

the client participates in any other behavior that is not the white response. The reinforcement
differential of another behavior (RDO) consists of providing reinforcing consequences to all
the answers except for the undesirable behavior of interest. The effect of this program is
decrease the target behavior. For example, an RDO program was used to reduce the behavior.
self-harm (hitting the face, biting the hands) in a 16-year-old male with intellectual disability
called Donald (Iwata, Pace, Kalsher, Cowdery, and Cataldo, 1990). A reinforcer was used.
edible (soda straws) to reinforce non-harmful behavior. At the end of intervals of a
Minute in which self-punitive behavior will not be present, Donald was taking a sip of soda. This is.
a contingency RDO because any conduct that occurred, different from self-punitive,
He obtained the reinforcer. The amount of time necessary without punishing himself to obtain the
refreshment increased gradually (2, 4, 15 minutes). Self-harm decreased
approximately 20% in the baseline intervals to 0% during the RDO phase.
In another application, RDO was used with an adult psychiatric patient experiencing activity outbursts.
(Burgio and Tice, 1985). The purpose was to evaluate whether the attacks could be controlled by
behavioral intervention instead of the anticonvulsant medication that is used more
common. A program was devised in which the patient could win a trip outside the hospital with a
staff member after a period of 24 hours without attacks. An ABAB design (see p.
64) showed that attacks decreased systematically when provided
reinforcement for another behavior (without attack).
An RDO program provides reinforcement for not engaging in a behavior. The reinforcer
it is delivered as long as the client is not engaging in the undesired behavior. Thus, when it occurs
reinforcement, the person can be doing practically anything except the behavior
white. For example, an RDO program to prevent a child from hitting their peers.
It would provide reinforcement for periods of non-aggression. The child can obtain the reinforcer.
even when sitting, alone and not interacting. It could be useful to provide reinforcement to
positive behaviors, such as playing cooperatively with others, instead of just not
participate in the unwanted response.

Reinforcement of incompatible behavior

The reinforcement of the non-occurrence of a response or any other behavior (RDO)

it is useful when there are very high rates of undesirable behavior and one wants to provide
reinforcement on any occasion when the response is not evident. For example, if children
Autists are hitting themselves at high rates, reinforcement can be delivered.
as long as that behavior does not manifest. In most situations, it is useful to identify
specific positive behaviors that are reinforced. These behaviors are selected because they
interfere directly or indirectly with the execution of the undesired behavior. For
In general, positive behaviors can be identified in the scenario (for example, working in
the very desk at school or completing a chore at home) that the change agent
behavioral wishes to develop. Two differential reinforcement programs are appropriate for
this purpose.
In one of these programs, reinforcement will be provided for behaviors.
directly incompatible with the undesired response. An incompatible behavior is any
that interferes directly and cannot be carried out alongside the unwanted response. The
incompatible behavior is usually the direct opposite of undesirable behavior. By increasing the

38
the frequency of an incompatible behavior decreases the undesired behavior. This procedure,
sometimes referred to as differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI), it
focuses on reinforcing behaviors that are incompatible or compete with the undesired response.
Generally, it is very easy to select an incompatible answer that can be reinforced.
For example, if a child fights with their siblings at home, reinforcement can be given to those
behaviors such as cooperative games. If an institutionalized patient has violent outbursts and
tantrums, reinforcement can be provided through activities such as playing and sitting
calmly or through any calm interaction with their peers, which are
incompatible with unwanted responses.
The effects of reinforcing an incompatible behavior to eliminate the undesired one are
they demonstrated through a program that was developed to reduce pica in three adults
hospitalized with intellectual disability (Donnelly and Olczak, 1990). Pica consists of eating non-food objects.
foodstuffs and non-nutritive which can cause harm, illness, and death. Individuals
subjects of this program ate cigarette butts; a form of pica that is
particularly annoyed due to the toxicity and addictive properties of nicotine.
the intervention took place in a room where a fake cigarette butt made of bread was
I placed it in an ashtray and it reshaped itself every time it was retrained. The fake cigarette butt was used for
allow careful evaluation without endangering the health of individuals. Each was treated to
adult separately and was invited to enter a room where the butt was available
cigarette. The amount of time (latency) until the butt was ingested was the measure to evaluate
the RDI program, in which the behavior of chewing gum was considered incompatible with
eat. The chewing gum was given to the individual and the periods of repression were reinforced with
sweetened and decaffeinated coffee straws. Initially, brief periods were reinforced.
participation in incompatible behavior, then longer periods were proceeded with.
The data from this case showed that the individual consumed cigarette butts.
As soon as I entered the room, I continued to do so as long as they were subdued.
these cigarette butts. With the RDI program, the behavior was notably modified. In the final phase, the
the program was extended to the pavilion by staff members. The improvements were maintained, although
not at the level of the special sessions in which the behavior was carefully recorded and evaluated.

Reinforcement of alternative behavior

It is not always possible or necessary to identify behavior that is effective.

incompatible with an unwanted response that is to be decreased. They can be reinforced a
countless positive behaviors that serve as alternatives to the undesired behavior. These
Alternatives are behaviors whose execution decreases the probability of occurrence.
undesired behavior, whether or not they are incompatible with it. This procedure is called
differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA).
Due to the many alternatives available, in a way, the examples of RDA are more
easier to identify than those of RDI. To eliminate fights between siblings, as observed
First, it is possible to enhance the game in a cooperative manner, as this activity is incompatible with
fight and build an RDI. Other alternative behaviors such as watching television could be reinforced.
completing some chores together. None of these behaviors is necessarily incompatible.
with fighting, although it is likely that its reinforcement will decrease the frequency of fighting.
identify many alternative behaviors instead of only those that are physically
incompatible with the unwanted response, many opportunities become available for
positive reinforcement
As an illustration, in a program a teenage student with intellectual disability
spoke excessively in class (Deitz, Repp, and Deitz, 1976). An RDI program that reinforced

39
an incompatible response (to remain silent) could have been used here. However,
simply being silent did not mean that the student was developing the behaviors that
are important in a classroom setting. Due to the goal of the setting, a
RDA program in which reinforcement was provided for working on academic tasks. This
the response is not incompatible with speaking since the person can do both. Although,
If one is working on a task, there are opportunities that one is not talking.
This program, reinforcement for working on a task, decreased talking.
As may be evident, RDI and RDA are closely related. In fact, RDA
it refers to reinforcing any alternative response that could decrease the probability of
that undesirable behavior will take place. The RDI is a subtype of RDA in which the behavior
alternative is incompatible with the unwanted response. In practice and when working with parents,
teachers and other individuals, for example, it is useful to develop an RDA program where
identify a few alternative responses as blank response. In the author's work
with parents, for example, they are told that whenever there is a behavior they want to suppress or
eliminate must think of a positive opposite. This is behavior that is an alternative to
that unwanted and preferably is incompatible with her. As will be clarified in the analysis of the
In the following chapter, the suppression of behavior can be substantially improved.
when designing a reinforcement program to develop a positive opposite behavior,
prosocial.
The reinforcement of incompatible or alternative behaviors has been used effectively.
in many programs (see O'Brien and Reep, in press). For example, the behaviors of children
hyperactive in the classroom and at home have been modified by using techniques of
reinforcement. Hyperactive behaviors include excessively bothering others, talking
abruptly from their place, speak quickly, run around the room, not attending to the requests
by parents or teachers and, in general, participate in high levels of inappropriate activity. More
To punish these behaviors, many programs have been designed to reinforce behaviors.
alternatives. Typically, programs of this genre provide cards, praise, and rewards.
consumables (for example, food) for such behaviors, like correct responses in tasks
academic, stay in the same place to work on specific tasks and participate in tasks
of more limited and quiet activities. Such programs have reduced hyperactive behaviors and
increased the performance of academic behaviors of self-participation in tasks.

Reinforcement of functionally equivalent behavior

Behaviors can be examined from the standpoint of the functions for which
they serve. The functions refer to the broader purposes, goals, and consequences that
they want to achieve. For example, a child's tantrums could have different (and multiple) reasons.
functions for each child. Tantrums could divert an adult's attention away from a
brother, stop the arguments between the parents, or cease the demands being made on the child. If
the unwanted, diverted, or inappropriate response is serving some function, perhaps it can be
identify another response that serves the same function but is more suitable from the
social viewpoint. The reinforcement of functionally equivalent behaviors refers to
reinforcement of acceptable, prosocial behavior that achieves the same goals and consequences as the
problem behavior. The effect of this procedure is to reduce or eliminate the undesirable behavior.
It is also important to note that the functional role of behavior has been accepted.
widely in theoretical non-behavioral approaches for the study of behavior. By
For example, the conceptions about behavior in family therapy and psychoanalysis have held
it is common that a certain behavior in itself is of lesser interest than the functions.
for those it serves (for example, interactions and dynamics). Likewise, the more theoretical research

40
has shown that many problem behaviors in children and adolescents (for example, acts
criminals, drug addiction, early sexual activity) usually tend to occur together. This
Yes, individuals who present one of them tend to also show some.
more (Elliot, Huiziga and Menard, 1988; Jessor, Donovan and Costa, 1991). The hypothetical reasons of
clusters of problem behaviors serve similar functions in relation to development.
The autonomy of parents and attachment to peers are two of the functions that perhaps
Such behaviors can be responded to.
By identifying the functions of behavior, some can be developed socially.
acceptable that consign the same functions. For example, in a demonstration, different
conditions that were related to aggression, tantrums, disobedience, and self-harm
Four young people aged between 7 and 14 years old with developmental disabilities were studied (Carr and
Durand, 1985). They were exposed individually to different task conditions (easy against
difficult) and to different amounts of attention from adults (high vs. low). A functional analysis
revealed that the problematic behavior led to different consequences and therefore seemed to serve them
for different functions for children. For some, the problem behaviors were elevated when
they received little attention from adults. That is, when attention was high, the behavior
the problem was low. This suggests that the problem behavior for those children could function as
a way to gain the attention of adults. An appropriate behavior was trained that would serve
these children for the same function. Specifically, the children were trained to ask the
teacher. "Am I doing well?" This question from the child drew the teacher's attention and
Therefore, the function (to obtain attention) could be fulfilled. The results showed that identifying the
function of the problem behavior individually in children and then train a
appropriate behavior that served the same function decreased the problem behavior of
meaningful way. Other studies have shown that the reinforcement of behaviors
functionally equivalent can easily reduce problem behaviors such as tantrums,
self-aggression and aggression (for example, Carr, Taylor, and Robinson, 1991; Wacker, and McMahon, Steege,
Berg, Sasso and Melloy, 1990.
The reinforcement of functionally equivalent responses can be considered as a
special case of reinforcement of alternative responses. The feature that is added, above a
RDA is the systematic evaluation of the consequences of problem behavior, that is, to seek
the function(s) of that behavior and then select a behavior that achieves the same.
consequences. Because this evaluation may not be feasible in application scenarios, it is
It is reassuring to observe that RDA programs without this feature have worked well. At the same
time, if the function can be identified and the new behavior that develops is useful to you, it can
increase the likelihood of achieving the desired changes in behavior.

Reinforcement of low response rates

Another reinforcement technique to suppress behavior is to provide consequences.

enhancers to the reductions in the frequency of the undesired response. These procedures,
known as differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (RDB), can suppress from
effective way the behavior.
In an RDB program, the client receives reinforcing consequences for showing a reduction.
in the frequency of the white response. For example, Deitz (1977, Exp. 2) decreased speech.
inadequate behavior of an educable adolescent male with mental retardation who attends an education class
special. After the observations of the corresponding baseline spoken behavior, the
the teacher said that if he makes three or fewer 'talks' during a period of 55 minutes, she
he would spend more time working with him. The young man would only receive the reinforcing consequence if he showed
a low rate of disorganized behavior. This RDB contingency was evaluated by comparing in two

41
opportunities for its application and its non-application (control strategy corresponding to the design
ABAB, see p. 65). The results showed that the talking behavior decreased.
as long as the RDB containment was in force. The RDB program can completely remove
a behavior if the requirements to obtain reinforcement become increasingly more
Strict. To obtain a reinforcer, a certain number of instances may be allowed for a client.
of unwanted behavior within a given period, and to eliminate the behavior, one can go
decreasing this number over time.

Reinforcement of long response pauses

Alternatively, a client may receive reinforcing consequences for spending periods.

increasingly longer without engaging in the undesired behavior. For example, in programs
independents, the reinforcement has increased the amount of time that elapses between a
response and the following to reduce stereotypic behaviors and eat quickly (see Lennox,
Miltenberger and Donnelly, 1987; Singh, Dawson and Manning, 1981). Among other variations, the
reinforcement of the execution of a few or none of the responses has suppressed the behavior
effectively (La Vigna and Donnellan, 1986; Repp and Singh, 1990).

Advantages of using positive reinforcement to reduce behaviors

The reinforcement techniques used in the programs that were discussed earlier.
have reduced or eliminated a wide variety of undesirable or maladaptive behaviors in children
and adults. The procedures seem to be at least as effective as they are diverse.
procedures of castgo regarding its ability to decrease undesirable behaviors. Even
when punishment and extinction can decrease behavior, these procedures do not train
people in socially appropriate alternative behaviors. Even if punishment or extinction is used,
The effects can improve considerably if reinforcement for behavior is incorporated.
appropriate in the program. Also the ethical concerns and the negative reactions of the client
The issues arising from the procedures of punishment can be largely avoided if the program is based
in positive reinforcement. Given these benefits, reinforcement techniques should be employed.
as long as the goal is to decrease the behavior.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Negative reinforcement can also be used to develop behavior. This,

increases or strengthens through negative reinforcement when it results in escape or
avoidance of an aversive event. An aversive stimulus is what we normally describe as
unpleasant or annoying. The escape occurs when the individual comes into contact with the stimulus.
aversive and appropriate behavior eliminates the aversive event. Many behaviors in daily life are
they are maintained through negative reinforcement by escape. For example, leaving home to
escape from an argument with a roommate or with a spouse, turn off the alarm to
escape from a loud noise, scream to silence noisy neighbors, and take medicine to relieve the
pain, they all represent the escape.
Avoidance behavior allows the individual to indefinitely prevent or postpone the
contact with an aversive event. Avoidance learning can develop after an
individual learns to escape from an aversive event. Through classical conditioning, an event
previously neutral acquires the ability to produce escape behavior. This is reinforced by
automatic manner by the termination of the conditioned aversive event. Thus, avoidance

42
understands classical and operant conditioning. Avoidance refers to escaping an event
conditioned aversive.
Most avoidance behavior is acquired without direct experience of the event
aversive. The verbal signals from other individuals instruct us about what should be avoided.
certain consequences. Signals are discriminative stimuli that indicate that certain
Adverse consequences may come later if we behave in a certain way.
There are examples of signal-based avoidance in everyday experience. For example,
one can avoid personal harm by responding to the threat of an imminent hurricane. Avoiding it is
escape or eliminate the threat. The behavior that reduces the threat is strengthened through
negative reinforcement. Other examples of negative reinforcement through avoidance are
park the car in a specific place to avoid a traffic ticket, put on a coat
to avoid a cold, drink alcohol in moderation to prevent an accident while driving, and
abandon a sinking ship to avoid drowning.
For various reasons, negative reinforcement, in the form of escaping from an aversive event,
it has not been widely used in application scenarios.
First, because negative reinforcement requires an ongoing aversive event (scolding,
noise) that can be terminated when the desired target behavior is presented. This means that the
Aversive event must be delivered frequently before reinforcement can occur.
The use of aversive events is unjustifiable from an ethical point of view if it has not been proven.
first with positive events (through positive reinforcement). Because there are many types
positive reinforcement (token economies, contingency contracts) is rarely needed
use negative reinforcement.
Secondly, the use of aversive events often produces undesirable collateral effects. The punishment
corporal, physical restraint, reprimands, isolation, and other aversive consequences
lead the customer to escape the situation, to avoid the people who manage these events,
and even to assault them. These side effects can be avoided by adhering to reinforcement.
positive.
Third, negative reinforcement is often difficult to administer. The aversive stimulus must
be carefully controlled, so that it can be finished immediately after
appropriate behavior is presented. Generally, this requires monitoring behavior with
carefully, often with certain apparatus. For these reasons, it is not surprising that the reinforcement
Negatvo has been used quite sparingly.
An interesting example of the use of escape focused on disorganizing behavior in the
dentist's office (Allen, Loiben, Allen and Stanley, 1992). Approximately 25% of children
they present behavioral management problems when subjected to procedures
dentists. When children are not cooperative, dentists usually stop a
moment until those calm down. Although temporary, stopping can act as
negative reinforcement for the child, specifically, the termination of the aversive event (the
dental procedure in itself) contingent on behavior (acting in a disorganized manner or
no cooperator). Essentially, an escape contingency is provided for the non-compliant behavior.
desired. In this study, this contingency was altered and examined with four children aged 3 to 7 years.
age, which required dental procedures (repair) and several visits to the dentist. The behavior
disorganizing (crying, whimpering, complaining, writhing) was observed directly, using a
interval evaluation. Video tapes were also recorded for later evaluation. After
The baseline, the escape procedure was modified. The dentist was trained to make a contingent.
the escape to positive behavior (cooperative). When the child was cooperative, the dentist would say
that it had been so good to stay still that they could take a 'little break'. Then
It was proceeded with. If disorganized behavior occurred during the dental work, it was ignored.
he was reminded to the boy that there would be a break if he remained still.

43
 The negative reinforcement (escape) procedure was evaluated in a baseline design.
multiple among the four children. The escape procedure clearly reduced the behavior
disorganizing. On the other hand, two dentists who were not familiar with the program
They rated the video tapes of the baseline and intervention sessions and rated the children.
as much more cooperative during the intervention phases.
Negative reinforcement requires the presence of an aversive event in the situation that
it can be finished quickly and contingently after the appropriate behavior. It might not
to wish to introduce a negative event in a situation. In the case of the dental program, it was being
using negative reinforcement in the baseline to reinforce non-cooperative behavior
providing contingent escape from this behavior. If dental work is aversive for a child and
temporary break periods (escape) will be used, the contingency may change
so that cooperative behavior is reinforced instead of disorganized behavior.
Negative reinforcement can be present in many situations and can
contribute to inappropriate or deviant behavior. In such cases, adding aversive events or
introducing negative reinforcement is under discussion. Instead, it can be changed to the
contingency to ensure that the desired behavior is encouraged. For example, reinforcement.
negativity has shown to exacerbate and maintain self-punitive behavior among children and adolescents
with mental retardation. In a study, the client and the experimenter performed tasks and activities.
educational, such as completing a puzzle and stacking or sorting objects (Iwata and
collaborators, 1990). When self-punitive behavior occurred (for example, hitting the head), the
the experimenter put an end to the activity, collected the materials, and moved away from the client. After
Several trials showed that the procedure led to an increase in self-aggression, compared to others.
conditions that were examined (for example, playing alone, reprimanding or self-punishment). This is,
Self-harm increased contingently upon the completion of the task. This information is
important to learn why one can rearrange the contingency in such a way that the
activity is contingent on periods of non-participation in self-assessment, which is a means
effectiveness to reduce unwanted behavior (Steege and collaborators, 1990).
There are separate aspects here that inform us about the way they can operate.
the contingencies.
First, whether an event is a positive or negative reinforcer is an empirical question and not
one can always discern on intuitive bases. In the aforementioned example, one would not expect that
working on a task is an aversive activity and its completion could increase in a way
the autogas system.
Second, in some cases, the natural reinforcement in the situation (for example, the
The dentist that concludes the procedure due to non-cooperative behavior supports the behavior that...
wants to reduce. In such cases, no new procedures need to be introduced; instead, they
Can you rearrange the contingency so that the reinforcers in the situation support the ...
desired behaviors.
In the previously mentioned examples, it is very likely that the reinforcement was effective for
achieve desired goals. Positive reinforcement has many variations, and they are usually
effective. Consequently, negative reinforcement is a technique that could likely
employing as a last resort. There are possible exceptions that justify its consideration. In
in some situations, an aversive event is presented to the client as part of a program of
castgo. If you are going to use castgo (presentation of an aversive event after the behavior), it is
more effective if combined with reinforcement than if presented alone. Negative reinforcement
It can increase adaptive behavior and, therefore, enhance the effectiveness of the punishment.
Occasionally, negative reinforcement is combined with positive reinforcement. As
It was already observed that negative reinforcement could be taken into account if there is an aversive event.
inherent to the situation. For example, another application focused on children who were highly

44
disruptive during their visits to the dentist (Allen and Stokes, 1987). Behaviors such as kicking, yelling,
hitting and disobeying interfered with dental restoration treatment. It was supposed to be
treatment procedure itself (that is, remaining in the dental chair,
turning on a drill) was aversive. In special practice sessions immediately before the
dental treatment, it was said, to the children individually that they could be 'big helpers'
what I wanted to say was to remain seated and silent. The behavior (sitting quietly) was reinforced
negatively putting an end to the procedure. For example, when the child sat quietly.
for only three seconds, the aversive event (having the drill turned on) was ended with
speed. This is an example of negative reinforcement. This response (sitting in silence) is
It was gradually extended (shaping) to six minutes. Reinforcement was also used.
positive; consists of praise and stickers to increase cooperative behavior. The effect of
the combination of positive and negative reinforcement contingency markedly reduced the
disorganized behavior and allowed the dental session to be completed.
Occasionally, negative reinforcement has been applied as part of therapy techniques.
to modify behaviors such as excessive alcohol consumption, overeating, and deviation
sexual, including transvestism and fetichism. For example, a form of treatment for
Alcoholics who understand castgo and negative reinforcement require that the client ingests the drug.
disulfiram (Antabuse). If the client drinks alcohol less than 24 hours after taking the drug, it gives
as a result, intense nausea. Nausea can be avoided by not consuming alcohol. Of course, the
the client can also avoid the aversive contingency by stopping the drug.

Evaluation of negative reinforcement

An important restriction in the use of negative reinforcement is the risk of effects

undesirable secondaries. One such collateral is trying to escape or avoid the program of
behavioral change and those associated with it. It is easy to see how this could happen.
If parents, teachers, or supervisors only apply aversive events (and not positive events
they also become aversive. Escaping from such people by running away from home, leaving the living room
classes or changing jobs, is reinforced negatively. The programs based on
Positive reinforcement does not encourage escape and avoidance behavior.
From the perspective of designing a behavioral modification program, the
Aversive stimuli should be avoided or minimized. When used, emphasis should be placed on the
positive reinforcement for desirable behavior. In many applications of negative reinforcement
strong aversive stimuli are needed because other procedures have failed or because the
response (for example, sexual deviation) is strongly reinforced. In such cases, the stimuli
Aversives, including punishment, negative reinforcement, or both, constitute the last resort.

TECHNIQUES OF STIMULUS CONTROL

This chapter will address the relationship between the target response and its
Consequences and their antecedents. Antecedents are called those events that precede and
are closely related to the occurrence of a response. When considering in our
analysis of both the background and the consequences of the response, the range increases
behavioral modification procedures that can be applied.

Discrimination of the stimulus

Unestmulo discriminatvo(ED) is a stimulus that precedes and is followed by a

reinforcement to an answer. The EDestablishes the occasion for (or signifies) the availability of

45
Reinforcement for a response made in their presence. Another condition of stimulus.
antecedent, the E Delta stimulus), indicates that the response made in its presence
the same reinforcement will continue. The E It is a condition in which the EDis not present, or
Well, a different stimulus from E is presented.D.
We will call training in discrimination a modification procedure.
behavioral in which a response of a certain class, R, will be reinforced in the presence of a stimulus
(ED), using a certain type of reinforcer, but it will not be reinforced, at least not with that same
reinforcer, in the face of E It has already been indicated that it is called E to the simple absence of EDor a stimulus
different from EDprovided that, in either of these two cases, the reinforced response is not further reinforced
in the presence of the EDDiscrimination training can be outlined through the
next paradigm:
ED R ER

In the presence of An issuance is made. and is followed a reinforcer

a discriminatory stimulus answer for positive

E R ER

In the absence of EDor in A is issued and it is not followed by a reinforcer

presence of a stimulus response for positive
distant from ED.
If the response is issued in the presence of an EDwill continue the reinforcement and will increase the
strength of that response. To the response issued to E it is not followed by a reinforcement and therefore,
it decreases its strength. As indicated, the E It can present itself in two ways. In one case, the
E it simply consists of the absence of EDIn this case, the individual is required to discriminate.
simply between the presence and absence of the stimulus (regardless of what other stimuli are)
present during the absence of EDIn the other case, the E It can rather consist in the presence
from a stimulus different from EDIn this second case, the objective of the training is to teach to
respond differently to two clearly specified stimuli.
Initially, the response occurs both under condition E.Dreinforced, like that of E no
reinforced, so that discrimination between the E can be acquiredD and the E It is called
discrimination is a behavioral process in which the individual only responds to
EDbut not before the E Once differential reinforcement has been applied for a certain
number of attempts, the person responds less frequently to the E unreinforced and with more
frequency before condition EDreinforced. When the response occurs only under condition EDy
never under condition E , it is said to be under the control of the stimulus. Once achieved this
control of the stimulus, the response will only occur under condition EDand it does so with a latency
shortly after his presentation.
Examples of stimulus control fill daily life. For instance, the sound of a bell.
from a door indicates that it is likely that a response (opening the door) will be reinforced (by the
made of seeing someone). Specifically, the sound of the tremor has been frequently associated with
the presence of visitors who are at the door (reinforcer). The doorbell (ED) increases the
probability that the door will be opened. With the absence of the thunder (E ), it is very low the
probability of opening the door to see a visitor. The doorbell sound of the
phone, alarm, clock, etc. all serve as discriminative stimuli indicating the
probability that certain responses are reinforced. Hence, the probability of increased
those responses when those stimuli are present. It is also evident the control of the stimulus
in the selection and consumption of food. For example, a ripe fruit (for example, a
red apple), is associated with a sweet taste (reinforcer), while a green apple (of the

46
variety that is not green when it is ripe), is associated with the absence of sweetness (and rather
with the presence of unpleasant stimuli, such as a sour taste). The sweet taste of an apple
Strengthens the selection and consumption of apple varieties. The color of the fruit is a stimulus that
controls the future probability of eating certain fruits. In social interaction, it is also
important the control of stimuli. For example, the smile, or the wink of an eye coming from
someone has a high probability of causing a response in us (for example, to start
the conversation). While the smile serves as ED (points out that it is likely that the
reinforcement follows our social behavior), a furrowed brow serves as E ( indicates that
there is no likelihood of the reinforcement for the social response continuing)

The control that different stimuli exert over behavior explains the reason that
the behavior is specific to the situation (Mischel, 1968). That is, individuals can
to act one way in a given situation or in front of a particular person and another way in another
situation or in front of another person. Since various reinforcement contingencies operate in
different circumstances, individuals can discriminate between those stimuli likely to be
followed by reinforcement. A clear example of a highly discriminative response is a
work of Redd and Birbbrauer (1969). Two adults, who worked at different times, reinforced
retarded children with food (sweets, ice creams, sips of soda) and praise for having done a
specific response (for example, playing in collaboration with another child). When the first adult
I was with a child, reinforcement was being administered for the cooperation response (delivery
praise contingent). When the second adult was present, the same child was reinforced.
regardless of their behavior (unconditional delivery of praise). In general, every adult
delivered the same amount of available reinforcers. In a short time, the adults exercised a
strong control of stimuli over the behavior of children. The presence of the adult who was
associated with the contingent delivery of praise, led to the execution of the game in cooperation,
while the presence of the other adult, who was associated with the non-contingent delivery of
praise, he did not succeed. The children discriminated the different contingencies associated with adults. From
In this way, adults can serve as a discriminative stimulus for reinforcement. The children
they respond differentially to adults depending on the behaviors that are differentially
reinforced by the presence of each of the adults.
The control of the stimulus is always effective in behavior modification programs.
Programs are conducted in specific settings (for example, the home) and are managed by
determined individuals (for example, parents). While certain behaviors of the customer are
they reinforce or punish in the presence of certain environmental signals or certain people and not in
presence of other stimuli, the behaviors will be under the control of the stimulus.
In many behavior modification programs, the goal is to alter the relationship between
the responses and the stimulus conditions. Some behavioral problems consist of the
the fact that certain stimuli fail to control behavior, even when it is desirable
control. For example, children who do not follow the instructions given by their parents illustrate a
lack of stimulus control. The instructions have no effect on the behavior of the children.
The objective of a behavior modification program, in this case, is to increase the skill.
to follow instructions.
Other behavioral problems occur when certain responses are under the control of
antecedent stimuli when such control is undesirable. For example, the eating behavior of the
obese individuals are controlled by merely seeing food (among other stimuli), instead of hunger.
The treatment for those who overeat focuses on removing the control that sees it.
food about the act of eating.
As indicated at the beginning of this book, the ultimate goal of any program of
Behavior modification is the development of self-control by the client. This goal does not

47
it is always achievable, since many clients, due to the deficiencies they suffer, will never be able to
to develop the necessary skills to achieve self-control. However, in many
patient populations, self-control is an attainable goal. The development of control of the
stimulus is one of the fundamental strategies to achieve that the individual controls their own
behavior. An individual who is aware of how certain stimuli control their behavior,
You can structure your environment to be able to execute the behavior you want. For example, avoid a
Pastry shop is an example of the use of stimulus control as a self-control technique. When
As a person passes by the window of a pastry shop, they may not be able to "control themselves."
"same" to avoid going in and buying cakes. However, if she does not pass by the bakery or cross the.
street, just before approaching the store, one can eliminate the view of the tempting stimuli. One
One can achieve self-control in a truly tempting situation if one approaches it.
gradually to the original discriminative stimulus, in moderate doses. The individual tempted by the
the bakery's showcase can pass before it when the bakery is closed, then walk
before her quickly when it is full of people, walk by looking the other way, and stop
in front of the showcase after having eaten a hearty dinner. If one does not enter the pastry shop in
the presence of increasingly tempting signals, it is likely that the bakery will stop exerting its
influence on behavior.
Another example of the use of stimulus control techniques refers to the treatment of
insomnia. Despite the reasons that cause insomnia, it follows a well-known pattern. The
an individual may feel tired before retreating to their room, but as soon as they get into the
bed can start to reflect and worry about the activities of the day that occurred earlier
that he went to sleep. The stimuli that are generally associated with sleeping (the bed,
darkness and a specific place and time) are associated with behaviors incompatible with sleeping.
For example, an adult who suffered from insomnia went to bed around midnight, but could not sleep.
he didn't sleep until around 3:00 or 4:00 am. Before going to sleep, he was worried about several problems.
daily and finally, turned on the television. He fell asleep while the television continued
on. The treatment attempted to establish sleep under the control of stimuli associated with the
go to bed. The patient was advised to go to bed when he feels drowsy but that
would not read or watch television. If I couldn't sleep, I would have to get up, go to another room and
stay there as long as I wanted. When I started to feel sleepy again, I would have to return to the
bedroom, if I still couldn't sleep, I would have to repeat the same procedure continuously.
During the first two days of treatment, the patient got up four or five times before
to fall asleep. However, after two weeks, he stopped getting up. When he went to bed, he
He was falling asleep. The patient reported that he was sleeping much better and for more time all the
nights. During a follow-up period conducted up to two months after it began
the treatment, the patient got up at night less than once a week. It is interesting
to know that the therapist who handled this case never had any contact with the patient. The wife
The patient was responsible for explaining the procedure and reporting the results.

Generalization of the stimulus

The other fundamental control process of the stimulus is generalization. In the same way
on which appropriate occasions certain behaviors should be performed,
It is necessary to apply what has been learned in a specific situation to other situations.
Similar. The principle of stimulus generalization refers to the fact that a response
conditioned in the presence of an ED, it will occur in the presence of other stimuli as well.
similar to EDThe generalization of the stimulus occurs when a conditioned response in
presence of an EDit is also emitted in the presence of stimuli similar to it. The following diagram
show the process of stimulus generalization.

48
ORIGINAL DISCRIMINATIVE LEARNING

ED1 R ER

In the presence of A is issued and is followed a reinforcer

a discriminatory stimulus answer for positive

GENERALIZATION OF STIMULUS

ED2
ED3 R
ED4
Three stimuli Each one of the An answer
which provides
the opportunity for
D
In the previous scheme, the E it1 is the training stimulus, that is, the stimulus in the face of which the
the response is reinforced, and therefore, it establishes the opportunity for such a response to occur. As long as
what ED2, EDy
3 E they
D
4 are three stimuli similar to EDand they1 can be called generalized stimuli.
The generalization of the stimulus is the process in which the response also occurs in response to E.D, EDy E2D. 3 4
As a behavioral process, generalization only refers to the fact that a response
reinforced in the presence of a stimulus tends to occur also in response to stimuli similar to it.
response occurs before ED, EDy2 EDwithout
3 4 it being necessary to reinforce it in the presence of these

Stimuli. Generalization can be achieved in various degrees or intensities. The maximum

generalization would mean that the person responds to generalized stimuli of the same kind
shape and with the same strength of response as it responds to the training stimulus. The
minimum generalization would mean that the person responds practically only to the stimulus of
training and not in response to generalized stimuli (in this last case, the response is
finds discriminated, that is, under the control of the stimulus). In many cases, generalization
It is intermediate. In such cases, the characteristic effect is that the maximum force of the response occurs
when the training stimulus is presented, while the strength of the response decreases
As generalized stimuli resemble less to the training stimulus.
example, if ED2it resembles the training stimulus more than it resembles the ED, the strength
4 of the
the response would be maximum to the training stimulus, somewhat lower to E and D
2 much lower
before EDVarious
4 factors influence the degree of generalization, for example, the more
intermittent is the reinforcement used to reinforce the response to the stimulus of
the more training, the greater the degree of generalization obtained.
The concept of stimulus generalization is important in human behavior.
because there are many cases in which people must transfer the behaviors acquired in a
situation, to others. For example, most people learn to read in textbooks of the
school. Afterwards, reading is generalized to (1) other types of readings such as newspapers, magazines and
novels, and (2) to other places, such as home, the library, and waiting rooms. Therefore, the effect of
Stimulus generalization can be fundamental for the transfer of results from a
behavior modification program to other situations in which the program has not been implemented
but in which it is also desirable for adaptive behaviors to occur
developed by the program. This generalization of the effects of a program developed in
a situation, to other situations in which such effects must also manifest is called

Transfer of training.

49
 An important issue of behavioral problems related to stimulus control
is based on the fact that a behavior that should be generalized is strongly
discriminated, inadequately, to a single stimulus. For example, a child who is capable of
talk to your mom, but not with the adults at school. In a case like this, a
program aimed at achieving generalization, that is, for such behaviors to be able to
occur not only directed at the mother, but also towards other adults with whom the
desirable for the child to interact. Consequently, the program must consider, for example, the
reinforcement of the conversation in front of the other adults to whom the child has to address.
The aesthetics program is known as generalization training.
Many times, the behavior modifier encounters a client who is similar to
some aspects to other people he has known, such as his father, a colleague, his
wife, a child, or some other client. The therapist might respond to the client in the same way.
the way one behaves towards those other people. The generalization of the stimulus, in such cases,
it could be detrimental to the client if the therapist did not take this factor into account when establishing and
implement their treatment plan for the client's best benefit.

THE PUNISHMENT

The name decastgose refers to a series of procedures to reduce the

conduct. In its common usage, the term castgo is associated with revenge or retribution, but in
Behavioral terms refer only to procedures applied to reduce strength.
to give a response, not to inflict harm on anyone.
It is understood that castgo refers to any procedure in which an event weakens or suppresses the
response to the following. Such an event may consist of presenting a stimulus, in which case,
we talk about positive stimuli; or rather, it may consist of delaying a stimulus or more stimuli,
In which case, we talk about negative feedback. We will review them next.

Positive castgo

In this case, the castgo consists of presenting contingent to the response, a stimulus.
aversive, that is, a stimulus that, as we have already pointed out, we commonly describe as
unpleasant, annoying or painful. It can be an intense light or noise, an electric shock, a
blow, but also events such as fines or threats. However, just like the
Positive reinforcers, what can be considered aversive varies greatly from one individual to another.
to another. Therefore, what defines the punishment is not the type of stimulus that follows the response, but the
effect produced in this: its reduction.
An aversive stimulus can be conditioned or unconditioned. An aversive stimulus c}
Unconditional is punitive intrinsically or naturally, that is, it does not require pairing with another.
stimulus to possess the power to suppress behavior. A conditioned aversive stimulus requires
a prior pairing with an already established aversive stimulus, to acquire the power to suppress
Behavior. Intense light or noise, blows or electric shock are aversive stimuli.
Unconditional. Threats, fines, and suspensions are examples of aversive stimuli.
conditioned.
The procedure for the contingent presentation of an aversive stimulus
is to present said stimulus immediately after the white response has occurred. The effect
Punitive consists of the elimination of the white response and a lower probability of that.
response is repeated under similar conditions. The procedure is represented by the following
paradigm
R EA

50
 A is issued. and is followed by presentation of
Response an aversive stimulus

The EAThe above-mentioned paradigm indicates an aversive stimulus, that is to say, a stimulus whose
presentation reduces the strength of the response that follows. Castigo's estep is usually used in
many situations. For example, Jorge arrives home with dirty clothes and his mother yells at himA. A
autistic child bites himself and receives a slight electric shock (EA) These examples in form
the paradigm would have this aspect:

R EA R EA
Jorge arrives at his His mother The boy is Download
house with the clothes he shouts at her bite electric
dirty

Use of unconditioned aversive stimuli and physical punishments

The decision to use positive casting, particularly when employing an aversive stimulus.
unconditional, like the discharge or something similar, must be based on the following considerations:
1. Need for an immediate effect.
2. Relative potency of other behavior reduction techniques.
3. The negative consequences of behavior, both for the individual and for the
others, in case they are not suppressed.

For example, consider the autistic child whose body is covered in wounds from
self-mutilation. The child had to be tied by hands and feet to the bed, so that he would not bite himself or
spider. By applying a small number of downloads on the child's leg, these two were suppressed
behaviors after the incompatible response reinforcements proved useless and the
extension. The use of casting is always a source of controversy. However, as
Lovaas (1990): "Although it may seem surprising, punishment has been used with some children"
with developmental disorders under certain circumstances, and if applied carefully and
correctly, it has been shown to help them" (p. 50). Not only the behaviors of
Self-harm is susceptible to effective treatment through controlled physical punishments.
Lovaas (1990) also refers to cases of delayed and psychotic children who try to smear themselves with their
stools. Many normal children do it at some point or another, but then they stop.
Some people with developmental issues, however, maintain that practice even of
adults. It does not pose a mortal danger, but in most cases, this behavior prevents the
the person stays at home with their parents. It is also expected that this person will not be very
popular among the employees of an institution, he will probably be transferred to places increasingly
worse. However, it is almost certain that aversive stimuli can be used to prevent them from
feces, just as they can be used to prevent self-destructive behavior. There are also
individuals who are so aggressive that they pose a danger to others. It is especially serious when the
situation in which the life of a younger sibling is in danger. Few know the threats that can.
be some delayed or psychotic children, or to what extent their behavior isolates them from
normal environments. Teachers do not tolerate a high level of aggression in the classrooms. With
frequently, parents have received help from a well-intentioned professional, but probably
misinformed, more concerned about defending abstract ideals about a society
perfect (in which there are no punishments), that helps to solve practical problems and
daily issues related to living with an angry and delayed individual (Lovaas, 1990).

51
Castgo negative
The second type of punishment consists of the removal or subtraction of positive reinforcers.
and it is called, as already indicated, negative punishment. There are two ways in which punishment is presented.
negative. The first procedure uses the loss of a positive reinforcer, or the imposition of
a sanction that involves work or effort. The loss of the reinforcer or the imposition of this
Sanctions are carried out contingent upon the response target. In any of these cases,
We talk about response cost. The other form of negative punishment, which we will discuss later,
it is called time out from reinforcement.
Response cost
As mentioned, in the response cost, a positive reinforcer is withdrawn or applied.
sanction, in either case, contingent on the execution of the response
white. The positive reinforcer is withdrawn immediately after the white response occurs.
wait, with that, achieve the elimination of that response. The paradigm of response cost by
removal of a positive reinforcer would be as follows:

R E

A is issued. and is followed loss of a

response for positive reinforcer
The E of the previous paradigm indicates the loss of a positive reinforcer when the
blank response. For example, when Simón hits his sister, he loses the permission to watch.
television at night; making a mistake on an exam costs a student five points.
Angélica threw her clothes on the floor and she was not taken out for a walk for a week. In form
Paradoxically, Angélica's situation would be as follows:

R E

Angélica threw is followed her parents do not

his clothes on the floor for they took for a walk
a week
The effect of the procedure is that Angélica no longer throws her clothes on the floor.
Sometimes the extinction procedure is confused with the response cost.
loss of a positive reinforcer contingent upon the response. In extinction, the reinforcer that
conditioned or what keeps the response permanently retracted, that is, every time it occurs
the response is no longer followed by the previously presented reinforcer. The response cost for
loss of a positive reinforcer, on the other hand, what is retracted is a reinforcer different from the one
conditioned or what maintains the response (it can be any reinforcer that is present or
which could be presented). These differences are pointed out in the following paradigms:

EXTINCTION

R E
An emission is issued it is not followed a reinforcer
answer for positive presented
previously

R E
Angélica threw it's not continuous the sister's laughter

52
 her clothes on the floor by younger

Cost of response due to the loss of a positive reinforcer

R E
A is issued is followed loss of a
response for positive reinforcer

R E
Angélica threw it is followed her parents do not
his clothes on the ground for they took for a walk
during the week

In order for the removal of a positive reinforcer contingent on the response to be a procedure
The effect on eliminating that response, the positive reinforcer removed must exert greater control over
suppress the blank response that the reinforcer maintains such response. Taking for a walk to
Angélica, for example, must exert greater control in suppressing the behavior of throwing clothes.
the reinforcement received from the laughter of the younger sister. The effect of the response cost is
it can be maximized by a procedure of extension that can be applied during the cost of
It can be ordered to the sister not to laugh when Angélica throws her clothes on the floor.
There is a wide variety of response cost procedures. As we have just seen,
One of the forms of response cost consists of the loss of positive reinforcers. The most common use is
frequent response cost is presented in a chip economy program. Since
the tokens are given for desirable behaviors, it is advisable (and usually effective) to withdraw
points or tokens when undesirable behaviors occur. Some of the applications of the cost
as a response, they have included the loss of privileges (for example, watching television) to alter
disordered behaviors at home; to the loss of money or other possessions, to reduce
eating in excess or smoking; to the loss of chips, to reduce errors in speech, speech
psychotic, the annoyance, the moans, the verbal fights at home, the behavior of a student
scandalous, and the loss of break minutes, due to inappropriate behavior in the classroom
class.
Another form of response cost or censorship is called overcorrection or restitution. With the
overcorrection, the penalty for having engaged in undesirable behavior is to carry out some work
in the situation. There are two components in the overcorrection: correction of environmental effects
of inappropriate behavior and repeated practice of the correct forms of appropriate behavior. For
example, overcorrection was used on a fifty-year-old woman who was profoundly retarded, who
had been hospitalized for 46 years. For several years, she had exhibited aggressive behavior and
destructive (especially by throwing objects). The overcorrection began after it
They had compiled baseline observations on the number of thrown objects. When the
the patient exhibited a violent behavior (for example, flipping a bed), they were asked to
correct the physical effects of your behavior in the environment (for example, returning the bed to its place)
correct position and expand the blanket and arrange the cushions) and that it repeats several times the
correct behavior (for example, putting the covers on all the beds in the room). I had to
correct the immediate consequence of any inappropriate behavior that was carried out and then
practice the correct behavior throughout the entire pavilion. After eleven weeks of
training, the throwing of objects did not happen again. In the fourteenth week after
at the beginning of the program, in which data was no longer collected, the behavior did not return.
Overcorrection has also been used to eliminate the screams of a patient with damage.
encephalic to eliminate aggressive attacks on others by adult patients

53
retarded and ritualistic or self-stimulatory behavior in retarded or autistic children. Without
embargo, the simple act of making an individual correct the effects of their behavior
inadequate may not be a sufficient procedure to alter behavior. The patient must
practice extensively the correct behavior on several occasions. This is a desirable trait of the
overcorrection as a form of punishment; this procedure not only provides an element
aversive to suppress the behavior, but also provides the opportunity to practice the behavior
Correct. Hence, when the individual is punished, he or she practices the response that they can.
to avoid a punishment in the future. Additionally, when the correct response is made, it can be reinforced
positively. The practice of the correct response is an important ingredient that is omitted in
other forms of punishment.

Timeout from reinforcement

Timeout from reinforcement (or simply, timeout) refers to the elimination

temporal of all positive reinforcers. During the timeout interval, the individual does not
have access to positive reinforcers. For example, an institutionalized individual may be able to
isolate for 10 minutes, during this time there will be no access to staff or interaction with the
companions, or activities, privileges, and other reinforcers that are generally available. The
elimination of all reinforcement during an interval of time outside is an ideal that is not always
It is achieved. In situations where out-of-tempo is used, reinforcement is sometimes uncontrollable.
during a timeout. For example, a child can be sent to their room for 20
minutes like castgo. The transfer of the situation is considered as time out. However, no
All reinforcement has been removed, since the child can engage in a series of activities.
reinforcements in your room (for example, playing or lying down to sleep).
When employing an out-of-time procedure, contingencies must be established.
specific behaviors. For example, time out should be a specific brief period (for
example, five minutes). If the person resists the tempo outside by kicking, shouting, or cursing,
a penalty contingency should be established that extends that period by five or 10 minutes
for incident, for example. The completion of the off-time must be made contingent on the passage of
indicated time and the occurrence of appropriate behaviors during it. The
timeout procedure, therefore, is different from the procedures used in
Some institutions where the individual becomes isolated for long periods.
In a study, timeout was applied to eliminate undesirable behaviors during the
meals in adolescents severely and profoundly retarded (Barton et al., 1970). The behaviors
undesirables included stealing food from others, spitting on food, eating with fingers instead
to use cutlery and others. Two different procedures were used outside of time.
some subjects who misbehaved at mealtime were removed from the dining area
and they were isolated in a room for the rest of the time to eat. For other subjects, the time
outside consists of taking away their food for 15 seconds. In the first procedure of time
Outside, food was suppressed for the rest of the time allocated for eating. In the second.
procedure, the loss of the reinforcer was only 15 seconds. The two procedures
resulted in the suppression of undesirable behaviors at mealtime and in the increase
of the appropriate behaviors for eating (for example, using utensils).

Factors that influence the effects of punishment

There are certain factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment. In any type of punishment,
the punitive event (the presentation of the aversive stimulus or the withdrawal of the positive reinforcer) must
occurs immediately after the white response. If the punishment is delayed, the supposed punishment

54
he could inadvertently suppress other behaviors he follows. For example, a parent may give
a spank or reprimanding a child hours after they have committed the inappropriate response
in the presence of his mother, who said to him: 'Wait for your father to return, so you can see what it is'
good." Although the father's punishment may be formally associated with behavior
undesirable, could also suppress appropriate behaviors exhibited by the child, immediately
previous to the punishment. Other factors that may influence the effectiveness of that punishment are the
intensity and the frequency of the punishment. The stimulus of the punishment must be sufficiently intense
to suppress the undesired behavior. Similarly, the reinforcer that is suppressed must exert
more control in eliminating the behavior than the reinforcer that maintains the target response. The punishment
It must be arranged in such a way that it occurs according to a continuous program (i.e., it is applied the
castgo every time the white response occurs.
In summary, to achieve the maximum effectiveness of the punishment, there are six basic conditions:
1. The castgo must occur immediately after the white response.
2. The penalty should be applied every time that response occurs.
3. The cast must be intense enough to suppress the white response.
4. The reinforcement for the target response should be suppressed or avoided.
5. The subject should be provided with one or more alternatives to the undesirable behavior.
6. Desirable alternative responses should be positively reinforced.

The cast can cause several disadvantageous side effects. These effects could limit the
general effectiveness of punishment as a behavioral modification technique. These effects are:
translatedText
The conditioned response may reappear in the absence of the punishment stimulus, or
from the stimuli that indicate the presence of the punitive stimulus. For example, if the dad of
Julia severely reprimanded her for finding her smoking; it is possible that Julia...
dedicate to smoking in some other place where your father cannot see her.
2. The castgo individual can react through one of the counter-
control. That is, the individual can try to escape the situation of punishment (flee from the
house, being absent from school, etc.) or it can, on the contrary, verbally or physically attack the
to castigate or to rebel against their authority.
3. In some cases, aggression may be directed against someone else.
responsible for the administration of the castgo. For example, Regina received a low grade in
the University and upon arriving home, argued with her younger sister.
4. The person who administers a castgo (in particular, an aversive stimulus) can
becomes a conditioned aversive stimulus, by association with the aversive stimulus
unconditional, and then, the punished person will avoid it. So if a teacher punishes one
from her students, the teacher becomes aversive to that student.
5. As we have seen, punishment can suppress desirable behaviors while
those inappropriate actions that occur at the moment it is applied.
6. A determined cast can serve as EDof some response that subsequently
was reinforced. As a consequence of this, the stimulus of punishment (or even, who punishes, or
Any object or event associated with the castgo can become a positive reinforcer.
conditioned. This can occur when, for some reason, the aversive stimulus precedes
systematically to the presentation of a positive reinforcer. Therefore, that stimulus
aversive anticipates or signals, that is, it is an EDwhat indicates the availability of reinforcement
positive. Consequently, the aversive stimulus, as EDit is a positive reinforcement
conditioned, and will have the effect of increasing the target response that was desired
suppress

55
 To illustrate what was stated in point (6), let us consider the following example. Mrs. F criticizes
to her husband, he insults her and she starts to cry. Then, he consoles her, they make peace and have
sexual relations. This stimulus-response chain, in a paradigmatic form, would have this aspect:
R EA--- ED
Mrs. F criticizes Mr. Finsulta to the
to Mr. F. Mrs. F. (“castgo”)

R ER--- ER
Mrs. F cries

Mr. Fconsuela to the

Mrs. F.; Mrs. F does it
forgive; they have
sexual relations.

In this case, the husband's insult has become a reinforcer for the wife.
conditioned. The insult serves as EDfrom the response (crying), since, when the insult occurs, the crying
it leads to two powerful reinforcers (comfort and sexual relationships). Note that in
in this situation, two reinforcers (comfort and sexual relations) have become associated with
the husband's insult, since the episode of the insult leads to those two reinforcers. Since the
insult is an EDfor answers that lead to powerful positive reinforcers, that insult
it now acts as a conditioned reinforcer for the response of criticizing the husband (It should not
Forget that all conditioned reinforcers are so by virtue of being discriminative stimuli E.D, for
responses reinforced with primary reinforcers). The response of criticizing the husband, far from being
"castgada" by the insult, is reinforced by it, which is why the discussions between these spouses are
They perpetuate. Each discussion has been associated with a subsequent reconciliation and sexual activity.
Furthermore, the fact that Mrs. criticizes her husband, or that he insults her, can reinforce other
problem behaviors.
Despite the disadvantages of the castgo and the strict procedures for it to be
Effect, the punishment continues to be used in general as a technique for behavioral modification.
especially in daily life. One reason for this may be its effect: the punishment effect of
suppress the unwanted response typically immediate. The short-term consequences, by
so, they are very reinforcing for the one who applies the punishment. For example, the fact that the mother
I spanked my three-year-old son every time he said a curse word, completely suppressing the
incorrect language of your son. Therefore, the action of punishing becomes immediate and powerful.
reinforced. However, it is possible that the child will use this word again at some point in
that his mother is not present. The fact that the punishment has immediate effects on
suppressing undesirable behaviors suggests that its use will continue to be valid as a means to
achieve these objectives.

3. INTEGRATION OF CONCEPTS
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM AREAS
AND FORMULATION OF INTERVENTION OBJECTIVES

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 The first step in developing the behavioral intervention is, as we have indicated, the
identification of the object. The behavior modifier depends on the results of the
evaluation. Behavioral evaluation is a systematic investigation aimed at determining:
the problematic area, the specific problems of the client and the target answers and the force of
These white responses. These different data allow formulating the objectives of the intervention.
The behavioral assessment also aims to identify the determining conditions that have
relationship with said response-white, this process is called functional analysis of behavior.

Behavioral evaluation strategies

The evaluation strategies used by the behavior modifier are:

a. Direct observation. It refers to the recording of the behaviors observed in the individual in the
natural situations in which it unfolds or in some controlled environment. These techniques of
evaluation has already been described.
b. Behavioral checklists. They are a list or inventory of symptoms (behaviors
specific) related to a particular area of behavior (for example, behavior
emotional, social skills, etc.) For each symptom, a graded scale is provided, which allows the
subject respond with how often the behavior occurs (for example, 'never', 'sometimes',
always, etc.)
c. Self-reports. They are similar to checklists, with the difference that the items are
written in such a way that they describe the behaviors of the subject itself. Furthermore, they can be included
covert behaviors, that is, those that can only be referred to by the subject themselves, by
example, those related to moods, sensations, thoughts, etc.
d. Interviews. It is a more or less guided or structured conversation that allows for
behavior modifier obtain information about the case. Sometimes the interviews also
They can be used as an intervention measure, or collaborate with intervention actions.

Assessment of problem areas and identification of problem behaviors

The specialist begins the behavioral evaluation procedure by obtaining from the client a
list of the main problem areas. This list can be used along with the interviews, to
better identify the main areas of difficulty. Sometimes, a client agrees that all areas
problems have been pointed out, but then indicates the existence of other problems. These
problems, now presented, may indicate the need to reorder the treatment. There are
clients, however, change problems or try to avoid dealing with certain ones
problem presenting new issues or crises in each interview and insisting that the new
problem came to the forefront. In these crisis situations, the behavior modifier may have
What to intervene before carrying out the systematic behavioral evaluation, because the client may
I need resources, frameworks, or direct assistance. Such are the urgencies that usually
to introduce oneself when the client is already a suicidal person, requires immediate hospitalization or when it is
I need to take immediate action to provide food, shelter, or medical care.
A problematic area often presents itself in the paper, role, or position in which the client is.
experiences some difficulty, for example, as a father, teacher, employee, or spouse. Thus, among
problematic areas may include children's discipline, social skills, or the
marital relationships. Isolating the problematic area allows the behavior modifier
to focus or quickly target the behavioral patterns related to performance
unfit in the functioning within the role or part.

57
 If the client presents several problematic areas that need to be addressed, the modifier of
conduct can apply the following four criteria to determine preferences in the
treatment
1. The problem for which both the client and their relatives (for example: family, friends,
teachers) express more immediate concern. Example: A homosexual wishes
to have heterosexual relationships. A mother wants her son not to cry when going to sleep.
2. The problem has broad aversive or negative consequences for the client, their
relatives or society, if not addressed immediately. Example: A young person will be
fired from his job unless he assumes an attitude of cooperation with his
classmates. A student will be expelled from school unless she attends with more
frequency.
3. The problem that can be corrected most quickly, considering resources and
obstacles. Example: Lorenzo and Pepita decide to solve their problems regarding the
Economic issues before addressing sexual problems.
4. The problem that requires treatment before proceeding to the others.
problems. Example: Mr. and Mrs. Pérez choose to resolve their disagreements that
they have about the education of children before addressing the problems of
children's behavior.
When considering these criteria, the client must actively participate in ordering the preferences.

IDENTIFICATION OF BLANK RESPONSES AND FORMULATION OF INTERVENTION OBJECTIVES

Once the client's problems have been recognized, the behavior modifier is now in
conditions for formulating the objectives of a possible intervention. We have explained this earlier
(pages 11-13) the technique used to formulate the objectives of a program, a technique that certainly
It also applies to formulating the objectives of a treatment. What kind of objectives can be?
to consider for an intervention?
Many behavioral problems originate from the fact that the behavior is not executed.
in the presence of particular antecedent events. For example, a child may be finishing
his homework when he should be looking at the blackboard, reciting or playing during recess. The teacher
you can constantly remind the child to put away their material or to pay attention, can't you?
However, the child's behavior is not controlled by these instructions (antecedent events).
training can focus on giving instructions to the child to perform some behavior, and
reinforce its compliance. Likewise, parents often cajole, urge or order their
children to perform a variety of behaviors, however, these expressions very often
they markedly influence the behavior of their children. In these terms, it is important
develop behaviors in the presence of certain antecedent events.
There are other situations that certainly involve a consideration of the conditions.
background. For example, to develop the speech of a mute psychiatric patient is
It is important to reinforce verbalizations only in relation to the specific conditions. A patient
it can be reinforced by conversing with other individuals (antecedent stimuli) instead of
self. A verbalization is only appropriate when it is under a limited number.
of stimulus conditions. A program must associate verbalizations with reinforcement in
those "appropriate" situations in such a way that the situations provide a signal (stimulus)
discriminatory) to speak. Apart from these examples, it should be clear that the development of the
Objectives require consideration of the antecedent events.
The objective for most patients is to develop behaviors in response to certain
conditions of stimulus. For some individuals, an initial objective is training in the
ability to respond to certain consequential events. Normally, these individuals do not

58
respond to events that play an important role in social interaction, such as the
attention, physical contact, praise or moderate disapproval. For example, it has been described that the
autistic children as individuals without the ability to respond to events that are reinforcing for the
majority of children. Likewise, children with behavioral problems at home and delinquents,
they often do not respond to praise. In such cases, contingencies are planned to alter the value of
the stimuli such as physical contact and praise from an adult. In these programs, the
neutral stimuli (for example, statements of approval) are paired with events that are
reinforcers (for example, food and termination of an aversive event). Over time, the
Stimuli that were previously neutral serve as positive reinforcers. Once they have
establishing the events as reinforcers, the program focuses on the development of responses-
specific whites. In this way, the establishment of the effective consequences is
Generally a preliminary objective, once achieved, other programs are started.

IDENTIFYING THE DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR:

THE FUNCTIONALANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR

As already noted, compliance with a behavioral modification program

requires a clear presentation of the objective or objectives of the program and a description
careful of the blank response. However, even though the purpose of the program is to change
Any behavior, this change is not made by just focusing on the behavior. It is important to specify
the conditions associated with behavior and the conditions that will be used to achieve the change
behavioral.
As indicated at the beginning of this course, the conductor considers all behavior,
adapted or maladapted, as an interaction between an individual and one or more stimulus objects. The
stimulus objects can be things or people, or they can also be the activities themselves
same individual, verbal and non-verbal (that is, the individual can interact with their own
verbal or non-verbal behavior). The behavior modifier considers that all behavior
three major groups of factors are involved:
a. The stimulus-response contingency relationships. That is, given the target response,
what conditions of stimulus it is related to, or what are the stimuli that control the
occurrence, or the non-occurrence, of said behavior. In principle, it is important to identify the stimuli that
antecedents to the behavior, increasing its probability (discriminative stimuli) or inhibiting it
(delta stimuli or inhibitory), and the stimuli that follow the behavior, which can be reinforcers
or aversive.
b. Dispositional factors. The term dispositional factor was introduced by Kantor.
and has been extensively used by Bijou to refer to environmental or bodily conditions.
that affect the way stimuli control behavior, for example, by increasing or
decreasing the reinforcing power of a reinforcer.
c. A third factor that has also been postulated by Kantor and that may be of great
The importance in behavior modification is that of the means of contact, that is, those
conditions or events that allow or impede the individual's interactions with stimuli
what responds. In the case of human behavior, the means of contact are very important.
normative or social, such as the rules, norms, conventions, and practices of the culture, that regulate
the behaviors that are considered socially desirable.
It is likely that various antecedent and consequent events are associated.
systematically with the execution of the blank response. In most scenarios
applied, social stimuli or interactions with others constitute a category
main events that influence patient behavior. For example, the attendees,
Parents and teachers can provide verbal statements (for example,

59
instructions or praises), gestures (for example, physical contact, gestures, non-verbal commands) and
expressions (for example, smiles or frowns) that exert control over behavior.
These stimuli can precede (for example, instructions) or follow (for example, praise) the
behavior focused on a behavioral change program. In any given scenario, it is
to obtain descriptive notes to immediately record the events that precede or follow
the behavior.
The preceding and subsequent events associated with the target response may lead
the hypothesis about what events control behavior, and consequently, can be used to
change behavior. These hypotheses can be tested directly by altering events in order to
determine its influence on behavior.
It is extremely important to observe the consequences that follow
ordinarily to the behavior. If an undesirable behavior is carried out consistently, it is
it is likely that some environmental event is maintaining it. Conversely, if a desirable behavior
It is not consistently carried out, perhaps because certain environmental events (that is, reinforcers
positives) fail to follow it. In most programs, the
consequences that follow the blank response. To ensure that the consequences are
they deliver in a particular way (for example, contingently and with some frequency),
must be evaluated, otherwise there would be no systematic way to determine if it
they altered the consequences as intended. The preceding events can be evaluated and
consequences while registering the blank response.

PROGRAM EVALUATION: I. BEHAVIORAL BASELINE

A fundamental characteristic that clearly distinguishes behavioral modification is

the careful and systematic evaluation of your interventions. In this regard, the modifier of
Conduct raises two fundamental questions. The first is: Are changes occurring
in the white response during the program administration? The second: The changes
observed during the treatment, are they due to the treatment itself, or to external factors?
While many people who apply for the programs are only interested in the first one.
Question, the behavior modifier usually cares about both. Once the cause is clear
of behavioral change, our knowledge about the variables that control it increases.
behavior. Furthermore, if it is shown that the program is responsible for the behavioral change, it
it can apply to the same individual in the future, or to other clients and scenarios with confidence
increased in that behavior can also change in those new applications.
Therefore, there are two important aspects of program evaluation for modification.
of behavior. The first one has to do with the continuous measurement of behavior, both before, and
during and after the treatment, in order to determine whether such treatment is producing
effects. The concept of Baseline refers to this first aspect. The second relates to
with certain procedures to organize the number and sequence of treatments, which
allows the behavioral modifier to evaluate the factors that may be responsible for the changes
detected behaviors. These procedures are called experimental designs
behavioral.

The concept of behavioral baseline

The baseline (LB) is referred to as the measurement taken of the target response. Thus, the LB
it is basically made up of the data generated by that measurement. LB measurements cover
an arbitrary period of time. Generally, the LB is usually distinguished in pre-treatment baseline,
during treatment and post-treatment. The baseline of pre-treatment refers to the record that is made

60
of the target behavior before applying any behavioral modification technique. The LB of
the treatment is the recording of the baseline response during the application of a modification technique
behavioral. The post-treatment LB is the record of the target response that is made after
the application of a behavioral modification technique has been completed.
The LB allows for the evaluation of the effects of one or more treatments, as it enables a comparison.
objectivation of the results obtained during the treatment and non-treatment phases, or between phases
that cover different treatments. The pre- and post-treatment LB, therefore, corresponds to the group
control. Therefore, the LB pre and post-treatment is also called LB control. Likewise, it should be
take into account the concept of operant level, which refers to the baseline level of a target response before
that any type of treatment or experimental manipulation has been carried out. In the research
basic, the operant level refers to the level of a response before conditioning, while
in behavior modification, it refers to the level of the response target before starting the
intervention.
As we have indicated, an important first question is whether any changes occur in the
white response during the intervention. To respond to it, the LB records must be continuous.
and they must use, throughout the entire process, the same measure of response. Thus, if during the phase of
pre-treatment, the target response is measured through its occurrence rate, the same measure
It should be used during the treatment and post-treatment phases. It is important to clarify that,
mainly in behavior modification, the pre-treatment LB usually corresponds to a
behavior that occurs under uncontrolled conditions, as no control is being applied yet.
behavioral control technique, since the application corresponds to the treatment phase. In other
cases, especially in basic research (that is, in Experimental Analysis of
Behavior), the pre-treatment LB usually corresponds to a behavior that is already occurring
under controlled conditions (for example, under the effects of some reinforcement program), and the
The treatment will consist of changing some specific aspect of those conditions (for example,
change the reinforcement program or some aspect or component of it; introduce a
determined new stimulus, a drug, surgically produce an organic alteration, etc.
To be useful, the LB must have certain characteristics. The LB must be, first of all, stable.
It should be remembered that the purpose of the LB is to allow comparison between treatment conditions.
and no treatment, or between different treatments. A reliable comparison is only possible
when the data shows stability, that is, little variability. This means that behavior
shows little variation between the different observation sessions, and within them. Sometimes the
blank response shows some trend, either of gradual increase or decrease. It
It is advisable to extend the observation period until that trend disappears. In the LB of
control, sometimes it is possible to conclude the observation period even if some trend is maintained
as long as that trend is opposite to the behavioral change that is intended with the treatment.
Another important characteristic of a good LB is sensitivity. This means that a
good LB can be significantly altered by any experimental manipulation, whether it consists of
this is about starting or ending a treatment, changing from one treatment to another, or changing something
aspect of the treatment. An LB is not suitable when it fails to show changes in behavior.
some experimental manipulation may have occurred. In some cases, there may have been a change in the
behavior, however, if the record is not the most appropriate, that change will not be noticed and could
incorrectly conclude that the treatment has had no effects.

Types of baseline

Simple baseline. We talk about simple LB when we exclusively measure one category.
behavioral. The simple LB record is limited to computing a measure of behavior and comparing it.
the observational and manipulative phases.

61
Concurrent baseline. The LB step includes the recording of two or more blank responses that
they can occur simultaneously. Obtaining a concurrent LB can have three objectives:
a. The intervention program is planned to cover more than one target response, and
therefore, measures are taken for as many behaviors as specific programs are going to
design and apply.
b. The modification of several blank responses is projected, but only the intervention will be on
one or two of them, without directly affecting the rest. It is desired to evaluate whether the intervention on
one of the behaviors also modifies a part or all of the recorded behaviors, without
the need to design specific programs for each of them. This is done when
suspects that several behaviors may be controlled by common factors.
Multiple baseline. The multiple baseline consists of the successive recording of two or more identical behaviors in
different situations; or of two or more different behaviors in the same situation; or of the same
behavior of two or more people. Baseline data is used when:
a. We wish to evaluate the generalization of the effects of the applied program on a
white response in a specific environment (for example, an institutionalized environment) to a
different environment (for example, a natural environment);
b. It is desired to evaluate the generalization of the effects of a program on several responses.
white of the same individual that are not issued at the same time, but under successive circumstances;
c. It is desired to measure the effect of a treatment applied to a subject, on the same.
blank response from other subjects.
We can conclude this section by pointing out that the concurrent and multiple LB can also
to be used as an effective means of control, as we will see shortly.

PROGRAM EVALUATION:
II. BEHAVIORAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The behavior modifier adopts certain strategies that allow them to verify that the
the effects of their treatments are responsible for the behavioral changes observed during the
application of such treatments. These strategies are known as experimental designs.
design is a scheme or a plan by which the behavior modifier organizes the sequence and
combinations among themselves of: a. treatments and b. certain control techniques. In the terminology of
experimental design, each treatment applied is known as the independent variable (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) to each of the blank responses and each of the measures that are
take from them. Furthermore, in the case of behavioral experimental design, it is symbolized as A the phases
from the LB corresponding to the absence of treatment, and with B, C, D, etc. for each different treatment
applied to the behavior or behaviors of the same record.
The following are the characteristics of behavioral experimental design.
1. Behavioral design emphasizes the intensive study of the individual subject. This means
to say that, unlike traditional experimental designs, the experimenter is interested in
the performance of each subject and not by an average of the results of several individuals. A
The average may not correspond to the behavior actually exhibited by any of the subjects.
studied, considered individually.
2. Behavioral design is characterized by the continuous measurement of behavior and verification.
of the progressive changes that occur in this when the VI is introduced. Again, these processes, which
they can imply important properties of behavior, remain hidden if the individual data is
average.
The significance of the results and their generalization is not established through tests.
statistics, but when the same results are achieved, first on several occasions in the
same individual, and then in different individuals. It is assumed that if a behavioral principle is

62
true, or a behavioral modification technique is effective, this must be demonstrated in all
individual cases.
4. It seeks to carry out the experimentation under the most controlled conditions possible.
Another way, it would be impossible to replicate an experimental result on another occasion or in other subjects. A
Sometimes, a result may differ from what is observed in the majority of cases. The behavioral analyst
consider this discrepancy as a consequence of the lack of adequate controls, that is, as
an effect of unknown or uncontrolled factors, which must be identified.

Control techniques in behavioral experimental design

Control techniques are procedures that ensure that changes

observed throughout the record (between the pre and post-treatment phases) are effectively due to
The applied behavioral modification techniques. We will review them next.

Reversion

During the LB pre-treatment, the target behavior is simply recorded, but it is not
no treatment is applied. When a stable pre-treatment LB has been obtained, the
Application of the behavioral modification technique. The recording of the target response continues. It
wait for the technique to produce an effect on the target response, which may
noticing by comparing the pre-treatment and treatment LB records. To ensure that we
that these effects are really due to the applied technique, we can use the procedure of
reversion, which means to suspend the application of the technique. The blank response, of course,
it continues to be recorded and the obtained record is called LB of reversal. If during the phase of
reversion, the behavior returns to the levels it had during the pre-treatment phase, it can
It can be concluded that the technique applied was the cause of the change observed during the treatment.

Establishment of an RDO

The RDO technique consists of reinforcing a behavior different from the target response.
in order to reduce it. Obviously, therefore, this procedure can only be used as
control medium when the behavioral modification technique used had the objective
Increase the blank response. For example, if positive reinforcement was used for the behavior of
pay attention to the class, the use of the RDO as a control technique is appropriate. In this case, it
it would reinforce any response instead of paying attention. Suppose that during the application of
positive reinforcement increased the behavior of paying attention. To verify that this increase is
due to positive reinforcement, using the RDO, we will now reinforce in the same way some
another response, but no longer the conduct of attending. If when applying the RDO the conduct of attending
decreases, we can conclude that the increase observed during the treatment with
positive reinforcement was due to this procedure.

Non-contingent application of consequences

Assume that positive reinforcement was applied during the treatment, and that the response-
White increased in that phase. To demonstrate that the reinforcement applied as a technique of
treatment was responsible for the behavioral change observed during its application, it
proceeds, in a later phase, to apply said reinforcement non-contingently. The
non-contingent application means that reinforcement will be applied regardless of the
emission of the blank response. If this procedure reduces the blank response that was there.

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increased during treatment, it is concluded that this increase was due to reinforcement
contingent applied in the treatment.

Use of a concurrent or multiple LB

When a concurrent or multiple LB is used as control means, the

effects on behavior under treatment, along with the effects on behavior that is not receiving the
treatment. When a treatment is administered to a target response, and it is observed that
only this one changes, but not the other behaviors that are being recorded, it can
to verify that the treatment is responsible for the change observed in that behavior. If the
if some other variable is responsible for the change, that change would be observed in all or several of them.
the recorded behaviors, including those that did not receive the treatment.
On the other hand, and as already indicated, the multiple LB consists of the successive recording of: a. two or
more behaviors of the same individual; b. the same behavior of the same individual in two or more
different situations, or the same behavior of two or more different individuals. In the first case,
After the pre-treatment LB phase, the treatment of the first behavior proceeds, leaving
without treatment to the others. There should be observed as a result a change in the treated behavior and little
or no effect on other behaviors. Then the treatment of the second behavior begins, and
subsequently with each of the others. Effects should always be observed only in the behaviors
treated. The second and third cases are similar to the first; the difference is that after the LB pre-
treatment begins the treatment of behavior in one of the situations (or the behavior of one of
the individuals); leaving the behavior under the other situations untreated (or the behavior of the
other subjects). Effects should only be observed in the situations or individuals where they occur.
behaviors subjected to treatment.
It is worth adding that in concurrent and multiple LB, they can also be used
three control techniques examined earlier.

Classification of behavioral designs

Behavioral designs can be classified by the number of treatments applied and the
number of opportunities in which treatment and non-treatment conditions are compared:
a. Univariate irreversible designs. When only one technique is applied and only one is carried out.
comparison between its application and its non-application.
b. Reversible univariate designs. Only one behavioral modification technique is applied, but it
add the reversal procedure, which consists of after a period of application, this
is suspended.
c. Multivariable designs. Two or more techniques are used.

Non-reversible univariate designs

A-B Design. This design consists of two phases, one of which (phase A) corresponds to the
baseline condition and the other (phase B) to the treatment. The same subjects go through both phases and
These are applied successively in time. To change from one phase to another, it is necessary that the
the behavior being measured stabilizes.
Simple balanced design. The purpose of this design is to control the possible effect of bias.
in which conditions A and B are presented. Thus, a subject, or group of subjects, is applied the
sequence A-B and to another subject or group of subjects, the sequence B-A (that is, in this second case, it
starts with the treatment and continues with the LB). If the order has no effect on the

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results, both measurements of A must be equivalent to each other and both measurements of B must also be
serlo.
Coupling design. In this case, the changes in stimuli presented to a subject (the
coupled subject), depend at least partially on the changes in stimulus caused by the
behavior of a second subject. For example, two subjects working separately receive a
reinforcement at the same time, but the delivery of the reinforcement depends on the behavior of one of
them.

Reversible univariate designs

Reversible design A-B-A. In this design, a baseline is established, then the independent variable is introduced and
finally it returns again to the LB. The objective is to show that, after a change has occurred in the
behavior when introducing VI, this behavior can return to LB levels when returning to it
phase. If this happens, it is said that the effects are reversible; if not, the effects are irreversible.
Although many examples of reversibility have been found in basic research, this does not
It always happens. In behavioral analysis applications, the effects of a treatment do not always
they are reversible, and when they are, it is not desirable to return to the LB conditions. An objective of this
The design is to show that the observed changes in B were produced by the IV, given that such effects
They are not observed in phase A. This control objective is only possible if it involves reversible effects.
Reversible design A-B-A-B. Some researchers have described it as a replication design.
intrasubject, since it consists of a first sequence A-B, followed by a second sequence A-B,
what could be considered a replication of the first. Its objective is also to demonstrate that the effects
observed in B are due to VI.
Multiple reversible design A-B. It consists of several successive replications of the sequence.
A-B. Its use is not as common as it is with the two previous designs. Its main objective
is to demonstrate that a high degree of control over the subject's behavior has been achieved through several
successive modifications and reversals.
Reversible balanced designs. As in the case of simple balanced designs, their
The objective is to estimate the possible effect produced by the order in which phases A and B are presented. In this
In case, reversal phases are added. There are two forms of this design. In the first type, a subject or group
of subjects, receives the A-B-A sequence, or the A-B-A-B sequence, and the other subject, or group, receives the
B-A-B sequence or the B-A-B-A sequence. In the second type, less preferred, the same subject or group.
Receive the two sequences, one after the other, allowing for a sufficiently long pause.
between both (for example, first the sequence A-B-A and then the sequence B-A-B).

Reversible multivariable designs

These designs involve the manipulation of two or more IVs, either in combination or in
successive form (the different IVs will be B, C, D, etc.). When talking about different IVs, it is done
reference to different behavioral procedures, for example, the application of reinforcement with
cards (B), followed by instructions (C); followed by social reinforcement (D), etc. There is no limit to
number of VI that can be investigated successively, and sometimes two of them are used in
combination in one or more phases of the experiment.
Reversible multivariable designs contain at least one reversal. The phase of
Reversion can occur at any point in the sequence, so a design could be A-B-A-.
C and another could be A-B-C-A. Obviously, the more reversal phases are included, the greater the
degree to which the effects of manipulated independent variables can be evaluated.

Design of changing criteria

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 This is a design linked to the molding and/or differentiation procedures of the
response, in which successive approaches to a target behavior are reinforced. In esthetic of
procedures, an initial performance criterion to be achieved by the subject is established. At some
moment, the subject reaches this criterion. When their performance stabilizes at this level, a
new criterion, more demanding, which requires a change in performance to reach the new
criterion, and so forth, until reaching the performance criterion chosen as target behavior. If
behavior changes, adjusting to each new level of performance required, it is demonstrated that
there is control of behavior by the manipulated VI.

SCHEMA OF A BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION

Given the wide range of populations and issues to which the modification applies
behavior, it is usual for the professional to adapt the procedures to the specific cases that they must
manage. In many environments, behavioral intervention should focus on various problems of
the same individual, couple, or group. Previously we have seen that a modification program
a procedure is a systematic approach aimed at producing changes in a response-
specific white. On this occasion, we will call behavioral intervention, all that
complete sequence of actions that the behavior modifier performs from the very first moment
in which their services are requested. Therefore, the intervention includes everything from the initial evaluation,
going through the treatment (application of one or more programs), until its completion and
the respective monitoring. The intervention, unlike a specific program, is intended for
the action on the entirety of individual or group problems that require treatment. For
Thus, a behavioral intervention may include one or more programs. Several of these programs
they can be executed simultaneously, in other cases, it is necessary to achieve the objectives of certain
programs, before being able to start other programs. Let's consider the parts of a
behavioral intervention plan.
a. Determination of the objective(s) of the intervention. As a result of the evaluation
Behavioral, the modifier establishes the treatment objectives. The objective of a treatment
it is formulated in the same way as the objective of a program, that is to say, by stating a
white response and a measure of the strength that is expected to be achieved. A treatment can have, and
usually in complex cases, more than one object, for each object a
private program. Some of the goals can be achieved at the same time. Frequently, if there is
various objectives, these can be immediate, intermediate, or final. For example, one can start the
treatment of a specific behavior in order to achieve a certain skill that will later be used
to achieve other objectives.

b. Task analysis and determination of prerequisites. In some cases, once defined

the objectives, the behavior modifier seeks to determine what skills or behaviors are already possessed by the
a person that can be used as a starting point for the intervention. In this part, the goal is to
identify two aspects:
1. the prerequisite behaviors, that is, those behavioral repertoires that are necessary
to start an intervention program and that the subject must already possess. For example, a
amount of attention, concentration, memory, and visomotor coordination for learning
from reading; certain repertoires of attention, imitation, and motor skills, to develop abilities
self-care in delayed children, etc.
behaviors that are part of the target response and that during treatment, must be
gradually acquired by the subject until reaching such a response. For example, if the
The final objective is for the subject to be able to speak without fear in front of an audience of 100 people.

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 and for an hour, a behavior that must be acquired beforehand is speaking in front of just one
person and for five minutes, then continue to speak before increasingly larger audiences
larger and for longer.
c. Development of an intervention strategy. The treatment goals are set out as
common agreement between the professional and the client, whenever possible, on the basis of the
information collected and the technical considerations related to the previous points. In the
An intervention strategy may include one or more behavioral techniques. Without a strategy
Explicitly, the application of an isolated behavioral technique can prove ineffective in achieving the goals.
of the treatment. When there are several objectives, the strategy must define what the sequence will be.
treatment.
d. Evaluation of the input repertoire. The input repertoire refers to the current state of the
blank response (and the prerequisite behaviors, if they are considered). In other words, a measure of
the blank response in its current conditions, and the degree or percentage in which they are present
the prerequisites. In this stage, behavioral records (pp. 13-18) are used, as well as other
strategies (pp. 57-58). It is also determined how many behaviors and in what forms they will be recorded.
(pages 60-62).
e. Selection of intervention techniques. Intervention techniques are the specific techniques
employees in the modification of the one or more blank responses.
f. Selection of materials and motivational systems to be used. The systems
Motivations are the objects and events that will be used as reinforcers and the way in which they...
they are administered to the subject (the selection of these systems may be based on data collected in the
initial assessment). Many programs also require the use of certain instruments and/or
support materials that will be used to manage contingencies (present or delay stimuli)
discriminators and reinforcers), or to record behavior before, during, and after treatment.
g. Selection of a control design. As we will see, the behavior modifier seeks
to ensure not only the success of the treatment, but also its real effectiveness, that is, of the
to the extent that the treatment itself is the true responsible for the effects that arise
obtaining. The term control design is used here as a synonym for experimental design, it is
to say, to refer to a plan or strategy that allows comparing the behavior that occurs under the
treatment condition that occurs when the treatment is not given. If the treatment is
truly efficient, there must be a significant difference between both conditions
(treatment vs. no treatment). See pages 62-65.
h. Analysis of resources and possible obstacles to the intervention plan. To achieve the objectives.
of the treatment, the behavior modifier and the client must implement and provide the means
indicated in (c), (d), (e), and (f). Therefore, it is necessary to identify what the resources and obstacles are
environmental challenges that the client will face to achieve these program objectives. This includes
Identify the available reinforcers and the individuals who control the supply of those reinforcers.
A plan must be formulated to maximize the advantages of the treatment in the environment.
natural of the client. The behavior modifier must carefully consider the cost (expenses),
efficiency (time), effectiveness of the available techniques, and comfort for the client.
Finally, the behavior modifier will also pay attention to ethical considerations. It is
obviously this step is not carried out afterwards, but during the decision-making process to implement the
steps (c), (d), (e), and (f).
i. Application of the treatment program. This part consists of applying the programs.
designed for the specific problems chosen, taking into account the priorities and strategies of
treatment already considered. During this phase, the measurement of the control responses continues,
in order to evaluate the progress of the treatment process.
Exit evaluation. It is the evaluation that is carried out at the end of each program intended for each
specific problem. Many treatment plans propose objectives that must be achieved

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sequentially, that is, it is necessary to achieve a given objective as a prerequisite to start
a program aimed at achieving another objective. Yes, in a case like this, the objective has been achieved.
From a previous program, it moves on to the next objective. If the results have not been achieved.
desired, it is necessary to review the program. It is evident that when a treatment consists of
programs that must be carried out sequentially, a final evaluation must also be conducted
of the entire treatment.
k. Corrective programs. If the continuous evaluations of the treatment or of any of its
programs, reveal that they are not producing the expected results, it is necessary to review the
intervention. These problems may be due to three reasons: a. the advance of one objective to the next
it is too fast, or the difference between successive objectives is very large b. the analysis of
tasks possibly have not identified any prerequisite, or component of the blank response, of the
what the subject lacks; c. the motivational systems or the implemented materials are inadequate
For the subject. It is called a corrective program a sub-program designed to remedy the shortcomings of the
original program. Once this phase is completed, one can return to the original program.

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