Lesson 2

Objectives:
The students will be able to:
1. Determine the condition of their physical self;
2. Classify the physiological needs of the self in each stage of life;
3. Identify the forces and institutions that impact the development of the various aspects of
identity and the self.
4. Characterize the diversity of human sexual behavior;
5. Describe sexually transmitted diseases;
6. Describe the different natural and artificial method of family planning.

ACTIVATE

Image from:https://images.financialexpress.com/2019/08/human-development-1.jpg

1. What can you say about the picture?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. In your opinion, is it necessary as a human person to develop? What do you think is the
purpose?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the most remarkable development in yourself from childhood up to adolescent?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
ACQUIRE

Physical Self: The Beautiful Me

Human Growth and Development

Image by: hhttps://previews.123rf.com/images/artinspiring/artinspiring1711/artinspiring171100621/90586377-life-

stages-set-.jpg

What is human development?

Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of

humans throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that
primarily deals with human development. Psychologists in this field are to explain how thinking,
feeling and behaviors change throughout life (Burman, 2017; American Psychologist
Association, 2017). There are a lot of psychologists who created theory in the development of a
person. One of the most comprehensive theories is by Erik Erikson (Figure 2).
 Figure 2. The psychosocial development of a person which includes age, conflict,
resolution and culmination in old age. Photo image by
https://sites.google.com/site/erikeriksondl825/home/stages-of-psychosocial-development

What are the factors that affect human growth and development?

First, heredity (nature) affects the human growth and development of an individual. It is
considered to be a transmission of traits or characteristics from parents to offspring. Through
genes, hereditary abilities like physical, mental, social, emotional and moral are passed through
generations.

Second, environment (nurture) plays an important role in the human growth and
development. Nurture considered to be the sum total of the experiences of a person from
conception up to old age.

When is the beginning of life?

Fertilization is the beginning of life. It is called the meeting of the female and male sex
cell. These sex cells will develop into reproductive organs called gonads. Male sex cell is called
spermatozoa produced in the testes. Female sex cell is called ova and produced in the ovaries.
Zygote is the fertilized egg cell. The zygote will go to the uterus and continue to go during
gestation period for 9 months. The female parent will constantly give X chromosome and the
male parent can give either X or Y chromosome. XX = female offspring; XY = male offspring.

https://www.dreamstime.com/process-human-fertilization-process-human-fertilization-sperm-
egg-cell-image148692216
What is Erogenous Zone?

Erogenous zones refer to the part of the body that triggers sexual arousal when stimulated
for sexual manner. Common erogenous zones include the mouth, breasts, genitals, anus, neck,
thighs, abdomen and feet.

What is Human Sexual Behavior?

It is defined as any activity between two persons which includes sexual arousal (Gebhard,
P.H. 2017). There are two major factors that could determine human sexual behavior. First, the
inherited sexual response patterns which considered a genetic inheritance and the degree of
extent influenced by the society. There are types of sexual behavior:

1. Solitary Behavior
a. Self-gratification involves self-stimulation to sexual arousal and to sexual climax.
It can be done privately or in a sociosexual relationship.
b. Self-gratification is common among males and usually starts during puberty. It is
the common among single and unmarried individuals.

2. Sociosexual behavior – begins in childhood, motivated by curiosity such as showing or

examining genitalia. Necking or petting is considered as part of the learning process of
courtship and finding a marriage partner. Coitus refers to the insertion of the male organ
to the female organ.

Physiology of Human Sexual Response

The sexual response cycle refers to the sequence of physical and emotional changes that
occur as a person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating activities,
including intercourse and masturbation. Knowing how your body responds during each phase of
the cycle can enhance your relationship and help you pinpoint the cause of any sexual problems.
The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution (Anbu,
2014).

Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when activity is

continued. In addition, the intensity of the response and the time spent in each phase varies from
person to person. Understanding these differences may help partners better understand one
another's bodies and responses, and enhance the sexual experience (Anbu, 2014).

According to Anbu (2014), there are four phases of human sexual response:
 First is the excitement phase. This phase is caused by increase in pulse and blood
pressure, results in increased skin temperature, flushing, swelling, rapid breathing, secretion of
genital fluids, vaginal expansion, and muscle tension.

Second, is the plateau phase. This phase is generally, of short duration. If stimulation is
continued, orgasm usually occurs. The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and
the vaginal walls turn a dark purple. The woman's clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be
painful to touch) and retracts under the clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation from the penis.
The man's testicles are withdrawn up into the scrotum. Breathing, heart rate, and blood
pressure continue to increase. Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and hands.

Third, is the sexual climax. It is a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, increase of blood
pressure, spasms of pelvic muscles causing contraction of female organ and ejaculation by the
male. It also causes involuntary vocalizations. Blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are at
their highest rates, with a rapid intake of oxygen. There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual
tension. In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus also undergoes rhythmic
contractions. In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis result in the
ejaculation of semen. A rash, or "sex flush" may appear over the entire body.

Fourth, is the resolution phase. It is the return to the physiological state of the body.
Males return to normal even if stimulation continues, but continued stimulation can produce
additional orgasms in females. During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level of
functioning, and swelled and erect body parts return to their previous size and color. This phase
is marked by a general sense of well-being, enhanced intimacy and, often, fatigue. Men need
recovery time after orgasm, called a refractory period, during which they cannot reach orgasm
again. The duration of the refractory period varies among men and usually lengthens with
advancing age.
https://images.slideplayer.com/16/5100728/slides/slide_6.jpg

How nervous system affect our behavior?

The autonomic system is involved in controlling the involuntary responses. With the
initiation of sexual stimuli, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves transmit messages to the brain. The
brain will interpret the message and dictate the immediate response of the body. The
hypothalamus and limbic system are responsible for regulating sexual response. Animal
experiments show that each individual has 2 sexual responses coded in the brain: one for
mounting behavior and mounted behavior. There are some reflex responses that are not brain-
controlled, such as ejaculation for the male and vaginal discharges for female. But the brain can
overrule these reflexes, as it does when sexual response is inappropriate.

What are sexually transmitted diseases?

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are infections that come from an infected person
to an uninfected person through sexual intercourse. STD’s might be caused by bacteria, viruses
or parasites. Examples of STD’s include Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), gonorrhea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus
infection, chlamydia and syphilis (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the
National Institute of Health of the United States, 2017).

Examples of sexual problems and diseases:

1. HIV & AIDS. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic, potentially

life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By damaging
your immune system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight infection and disease.
HIV is a sexually transmitted infection (STI). It can also be spread by contact with infected
blood or from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breast-feeding. Without
medication, it may take years before HIV weakens your immune system to the point that you
have AIDS (Mayoclinic. 2019). There's no cure for HIV/AIDS, but medications can dramatically
slow the progression of the disease. These drugs have reduced AIDS deaths in many developed
nations. Some people infected by HIV develop a flu-like illness within two to four weeks after
the virus enters the body. This illness, known as primary (acute) HIV infection, may last for a
few weeks. Possible signs and symptoms include fever, headache, muscle aches and joint pain,
rash, sore throat and painful mouth sores, swollen lymph glands, mainly on the neck, diarrhea,
weight loss, cough and night sweats (Mayoclinic, 2019).

2. Genital herpes is an STD caused by two types of viruses. The viruses are called
herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). Oral herpes is
usually caused by HSV-1 and can result in cold sores or fever blisters on or around the mouth.
However, most people do not have any symptoms. Most people with oral herpes were infected
during childhood or young adulthood from non-sexual contact with saliva. Oral herpes caused by
HSV-1 can be spread from the mouth to the genitals through oral sex. This is why some cases of
genital herpes are caused by HSV-1. You can get genital herpes by having vaginal, anal, or oral
sex with someone who has the disease (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017)

3. Human Papillomavirus. It is the most common sexually transmitted infection in the

United States. Some health effects caused by HPV can be prevented by the HPV vaccines. You
can get HPV by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has the virus. It is most
commonly spread during vaginal or anal sex. HPV can be passed even when an infected person
has no signs or symptoms.Anyone who is sexually active can get HPV, even if you have had sex
with only one person. You also can develop symptoms years after you have sex with someone
who is infected. This makes it hard to know when you first became infected. (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2019). Vaccination can lower risk of developing HPV.

Picture retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/hpv-genital-

warts/ss/slideshow-all-about-hpv.

4. Chlamydia. It is a common sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by infection

with Chlamydia trachomatis. It can cause cervicitis in women and urethritis and proctitis in both
men and women. Chlamydial infections in women can lead to serious consequences including
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), tubal factor infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic
pain. Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV), another type of STD caused by different serovars of
the same bacterium, occurs commonly in the developing world, and has more recently emerged
as a cause of outbreaks of proctitis among men who have sex with men (MSM) worldwide
(O’Farrell, et al. 2008; White, 2009).

5. Syphilis. It is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by a type of bacteria

known as Treponema pallidum. The first sign of syphilis is a small, painless sore. It can appear
on the sexual organs, rectum, or inside the mouth. This sore is called a chancre. People often fail
to notice it right away. Syphilis can be challenging to diagnose. Someone can have it without
showing any symptoms for years. However, the earlier syphilis is discovered, the better. Syphilis
that remains untreated for a long time can cause major damage to important organs, like the heart
and brain. Syphilis is only spread through direct contact with syphilitic chancres. It can’t be
transmitted by sharing a toilet with another person, wearing another person’s clothing, or using
another person’s eating utensils (Johnson, 2012).

What are the natural and artificial methods of contraception?

Natural Method (or "fertility awareness") is a method of contraception where a woman

monitors and records different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle to work out when she's
likely to get pregnant (NHS – UK, 2018).

1. Abstinence. This natural method involves abstaining from sexual intercourse and is
the most effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate. It is also the most
effective way to avoid STIs. However, most people find it difficult to comply with abstinence, so
only a few of them use this method (Balleza, 2017)

2. Calendar Method. Calendar methods of NFP are based on the relative consistency in
the length of the luteal phase of the reproductive cycle. The rhythm method is the oldest NFP
technique. The length of past cycles is used to predict the fertile period in the current cycle. The
beginning of the fertile period is calculated by subtracting 18 days from the shortest of the
previous six to 12 cycles. The end of the fertile period is calculated by subtracting 11 days from
the longest cycle. For a woman with a perfectly consistent 28-day cycle, the rhythm method
predicts an eight-day fertile period from days 10 through 17. Variations in cycle length increase
the length of the predicted fertile period (Jennings & Arevalo, 2008; American College of
Obstetrician and Gynecologists, 2003; Pallone & Bergus, 2009). The Standard Days Method is a
simplified calendar method that assumes a cycle length of 26 to 32 days and sets a 12-day fertile
period from days 8 through 19 (Georgetown University Institute for Reproductive Health, 2011).
 Picture retrieved from: https://nurseslabs.com/family-planning-methods/

3. Basal Body Temperature.  It is the lowest body temperature attained during

rest (usually during sleep). It is usually estimated by a temperature measurement
immediately after awakening and before any physical activity has been undertaken. This
will lead to a somewhat higher value than the true BBT. In women, ovulation causes a
sustained increase of at least 0.2 °C (0.4 °F) in BBT. Monitoring BBTs is one way of
estimating the day of ovulation. The tendency of a woman to have lower temperatures
before ovulation, and higher temperatures afterwards, is known as a biphasic temperature
pattern. Charting this pattern may be used as a component of fertility awareness. The
BBT of men is comparable to the BBT of women in their follicular phase (Baker, Waner,
Vieira, Taylor, Driver, Mitchell, 2001)

4. Cervical Mucus Method. Cervical mucus monitoring has become the basis for most
modern NFP methods. These methods allow users to identify the beginning and end of the fertile
period by recognizing cyclical changes in the amount or consistency of cervical secretions. The
Billings Ovulation Method, Creighton Model, and Two-day Method are different systems for
observing cervical secretions and using them as markers of fertility. The Creighton Model is a
standardized modification of the Billings Ovulation Method taught and personalized for couples
over multiple sessions (Pope Paul VI Institute for the Study of Human Reproduction, 2011). The
TwoDay Method reduces the interpretation of cervical secretions to two questions: “Did I note
secretions today?” and “Did I note secretions yesterday?” If a woman answers “yes” to either
question, she is considered fertile (Georgetown University Institute for Reproductive Health,
2011)

5. Symptothermal Method. The symptothermal method combines calendar calculations,

basal body temperature charting, and cervical mucus monitoring. Cervical secretions are the
foundation for this method, and the other techniques provide a “double-check.” Women may use
other signs (e.g., consistency and position of the cervix) or symptoms (e.g., breast tenderness,
ovulatory pain) to aid in the identification of the fertile period (The Couple to Couple Leage,
2011; Frank-Herrmann, Heil, Gnoth, 2007).The Marquette Model combines the use of an
electronic hormonal fertility monitor to detect metabolites of estrogen and luteinizing hormone in
the urine with observation of cervical secretions or basal body temperature charting to identify
the fertile period.(Fehring, 2009; Marquette University, 2011).

6. Ovulation Detection. Detection and monitoring of ovulation has long been practiced
by women pursuing or avoiding pregnancy. The fertility window begins approximately 3–5 days
(sperm lifespan) before ovulation and continues to a point approximately 1–2 days (oocyte
lifespan) after ovulation (Ecochard, Marret, Rabilloud et al., 2009).  Identifying this window,
rather than simply identifying or detecting ovulation, is vital for encouraging or discouraging
contraception. For physicians or women who wish to know if a menstrual cycle is normal or to
evaluate ovarian function, a test that retrospectively confirms ovulation should suffice, but for
artificial reproductive techniques, the time of ovulation and the fertility window must be defined
clearly.

7. Coitus Interruptus. It is the withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation, is a time-

honored contraceptive method and is still commonly practiced. It is more widely used in
developed regions of the world, especially in Europe. Withdrawal is condemned by some
religions, which may stem from the book of Genesis 38:8–9, where Onan was killed for “spilling
semen on the ground.” Disadvantages of this method include the fact that it requires high
motivation and is frustrating to some couples. Another disadvantage is that any sperm deposited
before withdrawal or left on the vulva wall during withdrawal could reach the cervix. These
factors account for the relatively high failure rate of coitus interruptus (4–27%) (Jones, 2014).

What are the artificial methods of family planning?

1. Oral Contraceptives. It is called “the pill,” combined oral contraceptives contain the
hormones estrogen and progestin. It is prescribed by a doctor. A pill is taken at the same time
each day. If you are older than 35 years and smoke, have a history of blood clots or breast
cancer, your doctor may advise you not to take the pill. Typical use failure rate: 7% (Trussell,
Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).

2. Transdermal Patch. This skin patch is worn on the lower abdomen, buttocks, or
upper body (but not on the breasts). This method is prescribed by a doctor. It releases hormones
progestin and estrogen into the bloodstream. You put on a new patch once a week for three
weeks. During the fourth week, you do not wear a patch, so you can have a menstrual period.
Typical use failure rate: 7% (Trussell, Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).

3. Hormonal vaginal contraceptive ring. It is the ring releases the hormones progestin
and estrogen. You place the ring inside your vagina. You wear the ring for three weeks, take it
out for the week you have your period, and then put in a new ring. Typical use failure rate: 7%.
(Trussell, Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).

4. Intrauterine Devices. There are two types of intrauterine devices. Levonorgestrel

intrauterine system (LNG IUD) is a small T-shaped device like the Copper T IUD. It is placed
inside the uterus by a doctor. It releases a small amount of progestin each day to keep you from
getting pregnant. The LNG IUD stays in your uterus for up to 3 to 6 years, depending on the
device. Typical use failure rate: 0.1-0.4%. Copper T intrauterine device (IUD) is a small
device that is shaped in the form of a “T.” Your doctor places it inside the uterus to prevent
pregnancy. It can stay in your uterus for up to 10 years. Typical use failure rate: 0.8%. (Trussell,
Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).
 5. Diaphragm or Cervical Cap. Each of these barrier methods are placed inside the
vagina to cover the cervix to block sperm. The diaphragm is shaped like a shallow cup. The
cervical cap is a thimble-shaped cup. Before sexual intercourse, you insert them with spermicide
to block or kill sperm. Visit your doctor for a proper fitting because diaphragms and cervical
caps come in different sizes. Typical use failure rate for the diaphragm: 17%. (Trussell, Aiken,
Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).

6. Male Condoms. It is worn by the man; a male condom keeps sperm from getting into
a woman’s body. Latex condoms, the most common type, help prevent pregnancy, and HIV and
other STDs, as do the newer synthetic condoms. “Natural” or “lambskin” condoms also help
prevent pregnancy, but may not provide protection against STDs, including HIV. Typical use
failure rate: 13%.1 Condoms can only be used once. You can buy condoms, KY jelly, or water-
based lubricants at a drug store. Do not use oil-based lubricants such as massage oils, baby oil,
lotions, or petroleum jelly with latex condoms. They will weaken the condom, causing it to tear
or break (Trussell, Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).

7. Female Condoms. It is worn by the woman; the female condom helps keeps sperm
from getting into her body. It is packaged with a lubricant and is available at drug stores. It can
be inserted up to eight hours before sexual intercourse. Typical use failure rate: 21%, and also
may help prevent STDs (Trussell, Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018).

8. Female Sterilization—Tubal ligation or “tying tubes”— A woman can have her

fallopian tubes tied (or closed) so that sperm and eggs cannot meet for fertilization. The
procedure can be done in a hospital or in an outpatient surgical center. You can go home the
same day of the surgery and resume your normal activities within a few days. This method is
effective immediately. Typical use failure rate: 0.5%. (Trussell, Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018)

9. Male Sterilization–Vasectomy—This operation is done to keep a man’s sperm from

going to his penis, so his ejaculate never has any sperm in it that can fertilize an egg. The
procedure is typically done at an outpatient surgical center. The man can go home the same day.
Recovery time is less than one week. After the operation, a man visits his doctor for tests to
count his sperm and to make sure the sperm count has dropped to zero; this takes about 12
weeks. Another form of birth control should be used until the man’s sperm count has dropped to
zero. Typical use failure rate: 0.15% (Trussell, Aiken, Micks, & Guthrie, 2018)

Summary

This lesson tackles about the human growth and development of an individual. We
discuss about the definition of human growth and the help of developmental psychology
in understanding the developmental stage of a person. We discuss also the factors of
human growth and development; whether it is caused by nature (genetics) or by nurture
(environment). There are erogenous zones in our body that gives us pleasure. We
discussed human sexual behaviors and the cycle of the human sexual response from
excitement to resolution phase. We discussed how nervous system affect our sexual
behaviors. We also discussed sexual problems and sexually transmitted diseases. Lastly,
we tackled about the natural and artificial methods of contraception. As a student of this
subject, it is important to understand these concepts and knowledge. Thus, you are now
well-equipped with the physiology of our bodies and be responsible enough of our sexual
behaviors.

APPLICATION

1. What is your side about the formation of personality, is it genetically acquired

(nature) or a product of environment (nurture)? Justify your answer.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you think it is safe for the married couples to use artificial method of family
planning?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What do you think are the side effects of using natural and artificial family
planning? Give at least two.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

ASSESSMENT

Directions: Fill up the blanks. Write your answers in the blanks provided.

1. Natural Method (or "fertility awareness") is a method of contraception where a woman

monitors and records different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle to work out
when she's likely to get pregnant (NHS – UK, 2018).
2. Male Sterilization–Vasectomy—This operation is done to keep a man’s sperm from
going to his penis, so his ejaculate never has any sperm in it that can fertilize an egg. The
procedure is typically done at an outpatient surgical center.
3. Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of
humans throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology
that primarily deals with human development.
4. Nurture considered to be the sum total of the experiences of a person from conception up
to old age.
 5. Erogenous zones refer to the part of the body that triggers sexual arousal when stimulated
for sexual manner. Common erogenous zones include the mouth, breasts, genitals, anus,
neck, thighs, abdomen and feet.

6. Sociosexual behavior. It begins in childhood, motivated by curiosity such as showing or

examining genitalia. Necking or petting is considered as part of the learning process of
courtship and finding a marriage partner. Coitus refers to the insertion of the male organ
to the female organ.

7. Third, is the sexual climax. It is a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, increase of blood
pressure, spasms of pelvic muscles causing contraction of female organ and ejaculation
by the male. It also causes involuntary vocalizations. Blood pressure, heart rate, and
breathing are at their highest rates, with a rapid intake of oxygen.

8. ______________________ is the return to the physiological state of the body. Males

return to normal even if stimulation continues, but continued stimulation can produce
additional orgasms in females. Resolution phase

9.

References

Richard E. Jones PhD, Kristin H. Lopez PhD, in Human Reproductive Biology (Fourth Edition),

2014

Burman, Erica (2017). Deconstructing Developmental Psychology. New York, NY:

Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-84695-1.

"Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan". www.apa.org.

Archived from the original on 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2017-08-28.

Trussell J, Aiken ARA, Micks E, Guthrie KA. Efficacy, safety, and personal considerations. In:
Hatcher RA, Nelson AL, Trussell J, Cwiak C, Cason P, Policar MS, Edelman A, Aiken ARA,
Marrazzo J, Kowal D, eds. Contraceptive technology. 21st ed. New York, NY: Ayer Company
Publishers, Inc., 2018.

Peragallo Urrutia R, Polis CB, Jensen ET, Greene ME, Kennedy E, Stanford JB. Effectiveness of
fertility awareness-based methods for pregnancy prevention: A systematic reviewexternal icon.
Obstet Gynecol 2018;132:591-604.

Anbu, T. (2014). Psychiatry Made Easy. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers: New Delhi.
Batteiger BE, Tu W, Ofner S, et al. Repeated Chlamydia trachomatis genital infections in
adolescent women. The Journal of infectious diseases 2010;201:42-51.

O’Farrell N, Morison L, Moodley P, et al. Genital ulcers and concomitant complaints in men
attending a sexually transmitted infections clinic: implications for sexually transmitted infections
management. Sexually transmitted diseases 2008;35:545-9.

White JA. Manifestations and management of lymphogranuloma venereum. Current opinion in

infectious diseases 2009;22:57-66.

Ecochard R, Marret H, Rabilloud M, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound indices of

ovulation in spontaneous cycles. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2000;91(1):59–64.
[PubMed] [Google Scholar]

AskMayoExpert. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: Wasting syndrome. Mayo

Clinic; 2019.

Mahmood M (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Dec. 13, 2019.

AskMayoExpert. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: Clinical Features. Mayo

Clinic; 2019.
https://www.cdc.gov/std/herpes/stdfact-herpes.htm
1.

see: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd/hpv/public/index.html

https://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/stdfact-hpv.htm

 Jennings VH, Arevalo M. Fertility awareness-based methods. In: Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson
AL, Cates W Jr., Stewart FH, Kowal D, eds. Contraceptive Technology. 19th ed. New York,
NY: Ardent Media; 2008:343–360.

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ACOG patient education: natural family
planning . Washington DC: ACOG; 2003.

Pallone SR, Bergus GR. Fertility awareness-based methods: another option for family planning
[published correction appears in J Am Board Fam Med. 2009;22(5):596]. J Am Board Fam Med.
2009;22(2):147–157.
Georgetown University Institute for Reproductive Health. About SDM. http://www.irh.org/?
q=content/standard-days-method-sdm. Accessed September 12, 2011.

Pope Paul VI Institute for the Study of Human Reproduction. Creighton Model Fertility Care
system. http://www.creightonmodel.com. Accessed September 12, 2011.

Georgetown University Institute for Reproductive Health. About TwoDay

Method. http://www.irh.org/?q=content/twoday-method. Accessed September 12, 2011.

Fehring RJ. Efficacy and efficiency in natural family planning services. Linacre Q.

2009;76(1):9–24.

The Couple to Couple League. Sympto-thermal method of NFP. http://ccli.org/nfp/stm-

method/index.php. Accessed September 12, 2011.

Frank-Herrmann P, Heil J, Gnoth C, et al. The effectiveness of a fertility awareness based

method to avoid pregnancy in relation to a couple's sexual behaviour during the fertile time: a
prospective longitudinal study. Hum Reprod. 2007;22(5):1310–1319.

Baker, Fiona C.; Waner, Jonathan I.; Vieira, Elizabeth F.; Taylor, Sheila R.; Driver, Helen S.;
Mitchell, Duncan (2001-02-01). "Sleep and 24 hour body temperatures: a comparison in young
men, naturally cycling women and women taking hormonal contraceptives". The Journal of
Physiology. 530 (3): 565–574. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0565k.x. 

17. Marquette University. Natural family planning. http://nfp.marquette.edu. Accessed

September 12, 2011.

Medically reviewed by Suzanne Falck, M.D., FACP — Written by Shannon Johnson on

August 7, 2012

https://www.healthline.com/health/std/syphilis Syphilis

(February 22, 2018, https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/natural-family-planning/,

NHS – UK, 2018)

Balleza 2017 https://nurseslabs.com/family-planning-methods/

Richard E. Jones PhD, Kristin H. Lopez PhD, in Human Reproductive Biology (Fourth Edition),

2014. Coitus Interruptus