Water-Resources Engineering - Parte 6

170 WATRR'RBSOURCfiS RNOINHHRINO
The riparian doctrine has a serious defect in modern society—it does not
provide fpr use of water by the riparian owners for irrigation or other purposes.
Consequently, the riparian concept has been modified to permit reasonable use
of water. Reasonable use allows riparian owners to divert and use streamflow in
reasonable amounts for beneficial purposes. In regions of ample flow this permits;
riparian owners to use all the water they need, but if the flow is inadequate fo
all owners, the available water must be divided on some equitable basis. However:
upstream proprietors may always use as much water as they need for domesti
use and for watering domestic stock. Such use is considered an ordinary or natura
useJrrigation or watering of commercial herds of stock is an artificial use an
not entitled to preference. Reasonableness, of use is usually determined by sue11
factors as area, character of the land, importance of the use, and possible injury?
to other riparian owners. No priority of right can exist between riparian ow ner
i.e., all riparian owners have equal rights to their reasonable share of water, and
no owner can exercise his or her rights to the detriment of other owners. When;
riparian rights are transferred, the new owner must adhere to the condition^
governing the original owner.
A riparian right inheres in the land and is not affected by use or lack of use.
It can be voided by due process of law, as by exercise of eminent domain by at
governmental unit. Riparian rights can be lost by upstream adverse use that ripens
i n f o a prescriptive right at the end of the period specified under the statute of
limitations. If riparian property is sold, the right i$ automatically transferred tp
the new. owner. If a parcel of riparian land is divided, any section not adjacent to
the stream loses its riparian status unless, the right is specifically preserved in the
conveyance.; Commonly, riparian status lost by division of land is not recoverable
even though, a ne\v owner combines the land into a single parcel. Riparian rights
do not attach to land outside of, the stream basin, , even though this land is
contiguous to riparian land j n the basin. Thus riparian owners cannot transport
water from one basin to another. Riparian rights attach to all natural watercourses
and all water in these channels from natural sources. Natural lakes have the same
status as streams. Riparian rights do not inhere in artificial channels such as canals
or drainage ditches unless by long existence and use these channels háve developed
characteristics of natural watercourses. ,
6.2 Appropriátive Rights

The idea of appropriation of water without regard to riparian rights was brought
to the New World by the Spaniards, who adopted jt from Roman civil law. The
system, although not highly developed, influenced water Jaws of Arizona, New
Mexico, apd Colprado. The custom of appropriating water by diverting it and
putting it to use was practiced by the Mormons from the time of, their earliest
settlement in Utah: The doctrine of prior appropriation fqr beneficial use was most
profoundly influenced by developments in the mining camps of the Sierra Nevada
in California. During the gold rush, of 1849, mining claims were taken by tjie
process of posting a notice of intention to utilize the land. Since water was essential
WATER LAW Í? Í
I® hydraulickitfg and placer mining, the miners used á similar procedure to lay
^lim to water. L •
Water was appropriated in the mining areas by posting* a notice of intent at
|He point’of diversion, liling a copy with the local recorder, and proceeding to
pOnstruct the facilities and put the water to use. In most Western states a?much
fclOre elaborate procedure is now prescribed by law. The1outstanding feature of
)he doctrine of appropriation is the concept of “first in time, first in right.” The
m of the earliest appropriator is superior to any other claim, and further
Impropriation is possible only if water in excess of earlier claims‘is available.
During water shortages the available Supply is «or apportioned among all users.
Instead, those claimants with the earliest priority are entitled to their full share,
ind those with later priorities may have to do without.
Under am exclusive system of appropriátive rights, alt water ih natural
Intercourses i& subject to appropriation. An appropriator iriay store wáter in
Jiservoirs for use during periods of shortage, but the amount Stored is limited by
the terms of the storage appropriation. In many states, appropriations for direct
Ule and for storage are kept separate, although both appropriations^ rnay be
Iranted at the same time by the same instrument. Wastewater, seepage, and
releases from flood-mitigation or hydroelectric storage reservoirs discharged with
BO intent to recapture may be appropriated, but the appropriator cannot insist
fen the contifiiiance of such flow by persons with prior rights. Reservoir releases
intended for downstream use belong to the person storing the water or those to
Whotn it is consigned and may not:be appropriated.
In following the public trust doctrine1 many states have adopted modifica
tions of appropriation doctrine to establish minimum flows for public use to meet
Instream requirements. These minimurmflow requirements may vary along the
Stream and throughout the year. The modifications usually preclude the diversion
If all flow from the stream. The goal of maintenance of a minimum flow is to
provide adequate water in the stream for fish and wildlife and for recreation
(boating ánd swimming) and to protect the aesthetics of the streám. ^
4.3 Comparison of Riparian ánd Appropriation

Doctrines
The appropriation doctrine provides for acquiring rights to use of water by
diverting it and putting it to beneficial use in accord with procedures set forth in
State statutes or acknowledged by the courts. Appropriated water may be used
6n lands away from the stream as well as bn lands adjoining the stream. The
Sarliest appropriator ifi point of time has the é^clüsive right to use o f water to the
Sxtent of his or her appropriation without diminution of quantity or deterioration
1 Under the public trust doctrine, thé states Hold navigable waters and the underlying beds in trust
for publicuse. Private parties cannot get rights superior to public use.
172 WATER-RESOURCES e n g in e e r in g
of quality whenever the water is naturally available. Each subsequent appropriat

has like priority over all appropriations later in time than his or her qw"
Appropriations are for a definite quantity of water apd are valid only as long
the right is exercised. Appropriations may be made only for beneficial anl
reasonable uses. »
The riparian doctrine gives to the owner of land adjacent to a stream C
right to use water from that stream. This use is generally limited to riparian lan
but may be for an& beneficial. purpose. Use of water for irrigation must
reasonable in relation to the reasonable requirements of the owners of other land
riparian to the same watercourse. No riparian user, acquires priority over othe
riparian users by virtue of the time use began. The riparian right is proportional
not exclusive. Riparian rights are not expressed in specific quantities of Ayat
unless they have been apportioned by a court decree* Such a decree is based oJ
conditions existing at the tipie of the hearing and is subject to change by the cour
if the conditions change. . , ,
6.4 Permit Systems

Some jurisdictions have initiated permit systems in lieu of riparian systems,
permit confers a right to use a specified quantity of water at a specific locatio"
and at specific tipies, The issuing agency may include any reasonable condition-
in the permit. Permits are usually for a limited term^ subject to renewal. Priorit
of issue does not control priority of rights—allpermittees usually have equal stati
apd deficiencies, must be shared on an equitable basis.
Permit systems thus, have some characteristics of riparian law (no priority)
and some features of appropriation, law (use may be permitted ,on npnriparia"
land). Additionally, there are features exclusive to the permit system, such as a
fixed time limit which permits the water to be transferred to higher use at the
expiration of a permit. The Florida Water Resources Act of 1972 is an example
of a permit system. ,
6.5 Development of Water Law in the Western

States o tth e United States
The doctrines of appropriation and riparian right are quite different, and consider
able confusion is to be expected where both doctrines are jointly recognized. The;
lapd of the West was largely the property o f the U.S. government until it wa^
transferred jto other ownership by various acts. The Homestead Act of 1862 and
the Pacific Railway Act of 1864 made public lands available for private patent
under prescribed terms. Since the federal government was riparian owner pf these,
lands prior to the issuance of the patents, the new owners generally claimed
riparian rights on any streams adjacent to ^heir property. Since the water of these
streams was, in many cases, already appropriated, a conflict immediately arose.
In the act of 1,866, Congress recognized the existence of appropriative rights to
water on public lands and provided that in claims recognized “ by the local
WATER LAW 173
customs, laws, and decisions of courts, the possessors and owners of such vested
i rights shall be maintained andprotected in sarfie.” The act of 1870 provided that
Í ill patents granted or preemptions or homesteads allowed should be subject to
fights acquired under or recognized by the act of 1866. The Desert Land Act of
1877 provided specifically for appropriation of water for irrigation of desert lands
j in the Western states except Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Although
! the act applied Specifically to desert lands; the U.S. Supreme Góürt has held that
; it was the intent of Congress that the act should apply to all public lands in the
States to which the legislation applied. This interpretation established the policy
that all nonnavigajble waters on the public lands were separate from the land and
subject to appropriation under state laws.*
The acts of 1866 and 1870 recognized water rights vested under state law
without limitation as to the navigability of the stream. Appropriation of water
from navigable streams is subject, however, to the dominant easement of the public
for navigation. Thus water rnay be diverted from a navigable stream so long as
the diversion does not impair its navigability. Diversion of water within the public
lands does not require pernaissión from the federal government, but a right-of-way
for a ditch or reservoir must be obtained from the agency controlling the particular
land. If the diversion is for power, a license from the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission is necessary.
6.6 Water Codes,

Riparian law has been formulated largely by the courts, but the appropriation
doctrine rests on statue law in most states! These states have water codes that
govern the acquisition and control of water rights. In many statés the riparian
doctrine has been replaced by appropriation, while in other states the two concepts
exist together. In those states where the riparian concept is still recognized, the
water code may contain some reference to riparian rights, chiefly by way of
limitation. Thé complications refcultihg fróih the joint ádherence to!two basically
different ideas prevent any detailed discussion of the various state water eodefc in
‘ this text.2 ; i*wTmáffik
Inthose státes that still recognize the riparian doctrine the tendency of both
law and court decisión is toward restriction of ripárian right to reasonable use.
The riparian owner is grántéd a prior right to water tó the extent of his or her
1 The Pelton Dam decision upholding the right of the Federal Power Commission to license á power
plant that had been denied a license by the Oregon Fish and Game Commission; the Fallon case, in
which the U.S. Navy was not required to obtain a permit for a wéll under Nevada law; and the
Fallbrook case, in which the federal government attempted to void all rights on the Santa Marguerite
River in California aqd to preempt the, water for the use of a military installation cast some shadow
on the strength of state water right v
2 “A Summary Digest of State Water Laws,4’ National Wáteí Commission, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.Cl, 1973. ' 12 . *
174 WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING
reasonable requirements, but all water in excess of this amount is subject

appropriation, in many instances, appropriators haye J>eeji held tq have.acquir
prescriptive, rights .superior to those of the riparian owners. , , ,,
The typical complete'water code consists of three parts: appropriationV
water, adjudication of water rights, and administration of water .rights a
distribution of water. The various water codes differ greatly in detail and exte
of coverage, but many of them contain similar provisions on fundamental matte
Some of the items with respect to appropriation of water are as follows: ,
1. Method o f appropriation. The intending appropriator is usually required to fi

an application for a permit with a state agency süch as the state engineer. T
filing of this application is advertised; and ifi any interested parties object, 4
hearing is held before a permit isf issued^ .. ;
2. Conditions o f fulfillment and- forfeiture.' A tifrife- limit is set within whr
construction of works must be commenced and the water put to use (often!
months of a year). This limit is subject to extension for good cáüse. Nonuse
water for a specified period (usually 3 to 5 yr) constitutes forfei ture of the right.1
3. Preference for use. In most stáíes domestic and municipal use have the fir
preference for water. The usual order of preference is then for irrigation, pow
and mining, wildlife, and recreation, although there is sorhe variation in t
codes. These preferences are exercised in several ways. If conflicting applicatio
for appropriation are filed at the same time, approval is given to the one havi
the highest preference. In time of water shortage the highest preferences a
entitled to water, but prior rights cannot be taken by the holders Of juni
rights without jusfcompensation. Water rights may also be condemned in fav
of a higher preference use. Some states permit municipalities to reserve wat
for future •use .without the time limits set fó r-most: appropriatofs. •
) State water codes usually give the state engineer pr water-rights hoard T
authority to grant or deny applications for water rights. If the, water is, availab
and the application fulfills the statutory requirements, a permit must be issued,
there is a question as to the availability of water, the decision of the state éngin
or water-rights board, can be appealed in court. Tfie burden of, ¡proof is usu
on the claimant to demonstrate that sufficient water is available to satisfy his,
her appropriation without detriment to the prior rights of the stream.
In addition to setting forth the methods of appropriation of water ari
adjudication of water rights, water codes often specify the procedures to
followed for the administration, of water rights. Three methods are; in com nr
use: (1) distribution under the direction of commissioners appointed by a cou
as a result of litigation, (2) distribution by water masters appointed by*the st
and reporting to the state agency thát administers the water code, and (;
distribution by water masters appointed by voluntary agreement of the interest
water users. It is the function of the water master or commissioners to secure V
measurements of flow necessary to the computation of the quantity of water t
. . WATER I,AW 175
which each user is entitled; to provide proper facilities for the measurement of the
quantities actually delivered to each user;: and to see that the head gates of the
various users are,set and locked at all times at the proper opening to provide each
user with his or her legal share of the available water.
Permit systems require similar codes and organization and are generally
similar to appropriation systems, except for the greater restrictions that can be
placed on permits. ,. . ,
It has been suggested in areas where water, is in short supply that all water
rights ought to be reviewed ;once every 10 yr to $ee that each right to water is
being used in a beneficiál and reasonable manner. If not, then some modification
of the right may be appropriate so that the available water is used to maximum
advantage, r . ■ ,- • -* , .
6.7 Groundwater ta w
Under the common law, rights to groundwater are inherent in the overlying
property, and the owner of this property is free to remove and use the water as
he or she wishes. Like riparian law, this concept is satisfactory in areas with more
than ample water, but if groundwater supply is inadequate tfy meet all needs,
difficulties may be expected. Under the common law, early court decisions held
that diversion 6f water from Under a neighbor’s property of lowering of the water
table by excessive pumping was not a proper cause for court action.
For some time the trend of court decisións respecting groundwater in arid
areas has been toward a doctrine of reasonable use. Under this doctrine overlying
landowners retain their rights to water under their property, but they are not
permitted to use more than they really need dr tó export the water to points
distant from the source. The California doctrine o l torrelative rights goes even
further in stating not only that the use of water must be reasonable but that the
priorities of all landowners are equal and if the supply is not sufficient for all
demands, each owner is entitled to no more than an equitable portion of the
available water.
Water law with respect to groundwater is notably less advanced than for
surface water. This results from a general lack of understanding of the mechanics
of groundwater íhovemenf and a lack, of specific information on the physical
features of groundwater basins as well as the comparatively moderate use of
groundwater during the nineteenth century.
Legally, grcjundwater is commonly divided into underground streams and
percolating water's. In almost all states underground streams havebeen accorded
the same legal status as surface streams. Thé eâct nature of an underground
Stream has never been thoroughly defined, but the burden of proof rests on the
claimant who asserts the existence of such a stream. Percolating waters have been
described as “ vagrant, wandering drops moved by gravity in any and every
direction along the line of least resistance.” Such waters are further supposed “not
to contribute to the flow? of any definite strean^ or body of surface or subterranean
water.” In eight1 of the Western states percolating waters are subject to appropria-r
tion in the same manner as for surface water or underground streams. Th
remainder of the states follow the common-law rule, generally modified to require
reasonable use.
The* interrelation between surface water and groundwater creates anothc
legal problem. Groundwater may be tributary to a stream or it may be derived
from streamflow. In the first case the use of groundwater reduces streamflow, while
in the second cáse extensive diversion of surface water may reduce the available
groundwater supplies* In many states this condition is not recognized, and the
two sources of water are treated quite independently. Several states hold that
groundwater that contributes to streamflow is a part of the stream and subject to
the rules governing surface water. Underflow2 of a stream is also considered to
be part of the surface stream in some states. In other states all rights to the use
of water from interrelated sources are adjudicated jointly. It may be presumed
that future statutory action will be in the direction of correlating all sources of
water.
6.8 Water Marketing

Rapidly growing urban areas in the arid West seeking new sources of water for
their growing needs are looking farm ward to satisfy their requirements. In some
states (e.g., New Mexico), appropriative, water rights are separate from land
ownership and cities are purchasing water rights from irrigators. The rights that
can be purchased relate onfy to the consumptive use of water. That is, they do
not refer to the total diversion right but only to that part of the* diverted water
that would have been consumed in the irrigation operation. Normal return water
from irrigation must be made available to those \yith junior rights for water on
the stream, > ........ ' ■. . ■ ■
In some states (e.g., Arizona) the rights to water are not separate from
ownership of the land. Under such circumstance cities are purchasing farmland
to reserve the rights to the water fpr present or future use. For the case of future
needs, (he city may lease the land baqk to the farmer so he or she can continue
the farming operation until the water is needed for the city.
Legislation that will facilitate water marketing is underway in a number of
states. The concept of water marketing in effect makes water a commodity to be
sold to the highest bidder. Conservationists generally favor water marketing as it
removes marginal land froip irrigation and puts the water to a higher economic
use. Those residing in areas whose local economy depends on the farm product
a re ; generally opposed to water marketing. Private parties are now entering
1Idaho, Nevada, N ew !Mexico, Oklahoma' Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

2 Underflow is that water flowing in permeablematerialsimmediately below the stream bed.
WATER JLAW 177
water-marketing ventures seeking profits, Governmental controls on water mar

keting are needed tp keep things from getting; out of hand.
6.9 Federal Góvernment Water Rights r

The federal government derives its authority over streams from several sources.
Federal authority over navigable waters is based on the Commerce clause of the
U.S. Constitution,1 which states that Congress has the power “to regulate
commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, apd with the Indian
Tribes.” This places under federal control all navigable streams. One definition of
a navigable stream was prescribed by Congress in the Federal Power Act of 1920,
which states that navigable streams are those that “either in their natural or
improved condition notwithstanding interruptions between the navigable parts of
such streams or waters by falls, shallows, or rapids compelling land carriage, are
used or suitable for. use for the transportation of persons or property in interstate
or foreign commerce.” ;
Continuous use of a stream for navigation is not essential; and past use, as
well as present use, establishes navigability. Navigation is established by a vessel
of any type including rafting pr floating of timber. Navigation need not be
commercially important, private pleasure boats serving to demonstrate navig
ability. A river (hat is ^susceptible of improvements ¡that would piake it navigable
is considered navigable. Numerous court decisions have also held that federal
authority over navigable streams extends to their tributaries as well, since diversion
of flow on the tributaries might destroy the navigability of the main stream.
Federal interest in flood mitigation as well as navigation has been based on
the Commerce clause, since floods are detrimental to navigation. Private utilities
must be licensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission before they may
construct dams on navigable streams. Numerous decisions have emphasized the
right of the federal government to develop hydroelectric power; a( ,projects
constructed for navigation or flood mitigation. In the Ashwander case (1936) the
Supreme Court ruled that Wilson P am on the Tennessee River was legally
constructed under the Commerce clause and that “the power pf falling water was
an inevitable incident of the construction of the dam. That water power came into
the exclusive control of the Federal government.. . and the water power, the right
to convert it into electric energy, and electric energy thu|s produced, constitute
property belonging to the United States.”
The federal government does not, under the Commerce clause, have to
compensate abutting owners for any damage resulting from work it may do below
the ordinary high-water mark of a navigable stream, since the government holds
an easement for navigation on the bed of navigable streams. Such an owner may
not even claim compensation for loss of streamflow from a, navigable stream by
l U.S. Const, Art. 1, §8, f3 .

virtue of federal activity; Federal activity that results in flooding of private land
adjacent to a stream does require fair compensation to the landowners.
The Commerce clause is not the sole basis of federal authority over streams.
The Property clause of the Constitution1 authorizes Congress to “dispose of and
make all needful Rules and regulations respecting the Territory or other property
belonging to the United States.” The Reclamation Act of 1902, which is the basis
of the FederaFReclamation program, was intended to develop public lands under
the authorization of the Property clause. The Constitution2 also gives Congress
power to levy taxes and to appropriate funds for the “common Defense:” Wilsori
Dam on the Tennessee River was built during World War I to produce nitrates
for ammunition. The Constitution also delegates to the president with the approval
of the Senate the authority to make treaties and specifies3 that treaties “shall bé
the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound
thereby, ány Thing in the Constitution or laws of any state to the Contrary
notwithstanding.” Treaties with Canada and Mexico concerning such interna
tional streams as the Rio Grande, Colorado River, arid Columbia River have beeri
made Under this authority. Certain water rights have also been recognized by the
government as a result of treaties with Indian tribes.
Finally, the spending power of the government to “provide for the general
welfare’’ constitutes authority under which it may control and develop the nation’s;!
rivers. In discussing this authority, the Supreme Court has stated,4 “ Thus the
power of Congress to promote the general welfare through large-scale projects for
reclamation, irrigation, and other internal improvements, is now as clear and
ample as its power to accomplish the same results indirectly through resort to
strained interpretation of the power over navigation.”
Although by legislation discussed in Sec. 6.5 Congress placed the adrriinistra-
tion of water rights under the states, it did not surrender the right of the federal
government to make reservation of water for specific purposes, with a priority
date when the reservation is created. A prior appropriation under state law is
good against a subsequent federal reservation.
In the Winters case56the Supreme Court ruled that the Indians of the Fort
Belknap Reservation had a right to the water they required on the reservation
and that right dated from the creation of the reservation in 1888. The Winters
doctrine has resulted in a number of law suits currently underway in which the
Indians contend that the U S. government permitted others to usurp the rights of
the Indians tó water on their reservations. In Arizona v. California* the concept
1 U.S. Const. Art. 4, §3,'1Í2.

2 U.S. Const. Art. 1, §8, Ifl.
3 U.S. Const. Art. 6 , 1f2.
4 United S ta tes v. ú erlach L ive S tock Co ., 339 U.S. 738.
5 Winters v. United States, 207 U.S. 564 (1908).
6 A rizona v. California , 373 U.S. 546 (1963).
WATER LAW 179
of the Winters doctrine was extended to cover the water required for parks, forests,
monuments, water projects, etc., with a right dating from the establishment of the
facility on the public lands. Only the magnitude of the right is unspecified. The
issues are complex and could wipe out privately held rights that have been in
effect for many years.1,2
(.10 Federal Regulatory Law

States exercise control over water rights and other activities involving water-
resources development, but they are always subject to the paramount authority
of the federal government. Hence various federal government regulations play an
important role in water-resources development. In addition to rights obtained
under constitutional grounds and reserved rights to water, Congress has assigned
to 42 different agencies some functions with regard to water in the United States.1*3
Most of these functions are related to the conduct of each agency’s normal
functions (e g., Bureau of Indian Affairs, Farmer’s Home Administration). Some
important regulatory functions have also been created.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission4*must license all hydroelectric
plants. Extensive hearings are held and all details of the project reviewed before
a license is issued. The Water Pollution Control Act of 1965? and the amendments
of 1972 commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act6 and subsequent amend
ments give the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) authority to regulate the
discharge of pollutants into streams and lakes and to require development of plans
for eliminating or reducing pollution levels. The EPA also has authority to provide
grants to cities for the construction of wastewater-treatment facilities. The Natio
nal Environmental Policy Act of 19697 requires the preparation of Environmental
Impact Statements in connection with all federal projects or federally licensed
projects that may affect the environment. A Council on Environmental Quality
was created to assist agencies in developing procedures to assure that environ
mental values are given proper consideration in project planning. Finally, the
Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army* are required to issue permits for dredging or filling.
1 Frank J. Trelease, “Federal-State Relations in Water Law,” No. PB 203 600, National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Va., 1971. . ■ ,
a Federal-State Jurisdiction in the Law of Waters, chap. 13 in “Water Policies for the Future,” National
Water Commission, U.S. Government Printing Office» Washington, D.C., 1973.
* 14A Summary Digest of the Federal Water Laws and Programs,” National Water Commission, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973. >
4 The FederalEnergy Regulatory Commission was created October 1,1977, as part of the Department
of Energy under P.L. 95-91, 91 Stat. 565. It retains most of the functions of the former Federal Power
Commissipn.
1 P.L. 89-234, October 2, 1965, 79 Stat. 903.
6 P.L. 92-500, October 18, 1972, 86 Stat. 816.
7 P.L. 91-190. 1969. 83 Stat. 852.
180 WATKRrMIOURCBS ENGINEERING
of land under the navigable waters of the United States or the tributaries to
navigable waters, ,
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has responsibility for
the Federal Flood Insurance Program (FFIP) and as such sets standards for,
determination of the flood plain, issues maps for use by local agencies to regulate :
the use of the flood plain, and manages the federal flood insurance program (Sec.,
20-22). The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Cleanup and Liability ^ c t
(CERCLA), also known as the “Superfund,” of 1980 and its consequent amend -1
ments apply to the release of hazardous materials to the groundwater. The
CERCLA establishes a multi-billion-dollar fund the EPA can use to clean up
contaminated sites. ¿Reimbursement by responsible, parties is obtained, by, legal
action, if necessary.
These regulatory powers are complex, and no attempt will be made to
summarize them here. Interested persons can find a general summary in “A,
Summary Digest of Federal Water Laws and Programs”1 and reference should ;
be made to the appropriate congressional documents for more detail.
6,11 Interstate Problems

With many streams crossing state boundaries and others serving as state bound-;
aries, it is inevitáble that disputes over water rights will arise between states. In
general, these disputes take the form of a complaint by the downstream state that
it is not getting its fair share Of the water of the stream. Such-disputes fall under
the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, arid this Court has developed a doctrine
of equitable apportionment based on the facts of the controversy arid without
adherence to any particular formula. In a dispute between Kahsás and Colorado
(1907) Kansas claimed riparian rights to the water of the Arkansas River. The
Court held, that diversions in Colorado had not béen detrimental to users iri
Kansás and refused to enjoin Colorado from usé of Arkansas River water or to
allocate the water between the states. In a subsequerit suit between Colorado and
Wyoming over waters of the Laramie River the Court held that since both states
adhered to the appropriation doctrine within their own boundaries, this same
doctrine was a fair basis of allocation between the states, Subsequent decisions
have all tended in the same direction. The Court has^refused to allocate Waters
that have riot been and may not be used or to enjoin existing beneficial uses
without proof of serious detriment to the plaintiff.
In Arizona v. California (1963), the Supreme Court announced a new method
of apportioning interstate streams—by congressional action. The Court found that
Congress had authorized legislation that provided for the construction of Hoover
Dam the apportionment of the flow of the Lower Colorado tóver among Arizona,
1 “A Summary of Digest of Water Laws and Programs,” National Water Commission, U.S. Govern
ment Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1973.
WATER LAW 181
California, and Nevada and that this authority had been exercised by the Secretary
of the Interior when he executed water-delivery contracts for the water stored in the
reservoir. .** i
The Supreme Court has also urged the use of interstate compacts as a basis
of agreement between states. The Constitution1 provides that “no State shall,
without the consent of Congress,.. . enter into any Agreement or Compact with
another Státe.” In 1911, however, Congress passed a law2 giving blanket consent
to interstate compacts “for the purpose of conserving the forests and water supply
of the States,” but it is thought necessary for Congress to ratify a compact after
it has been negotiated among the states. Numerous interstate compacts have
evolved to govern the apportionment of flow of interstate rivers for irrigation and
other uses and setting up machinery for the control of pollution on interstate
rivers. A compact for flood mitigation exists for the Red River of the North, ánd
an early compact (1785) covers navigation on the Potomac River.
An interstate compact governing the allocation of water normally represents
a mutual agreement between the states Specifying the amount (or a formula by
which the amount is determined) to which each state is entitled. The compact may
also include provision for a commission or water master to supervise the terms
of the compact and to determine in specific cases (under established rules) the
quantities of water to Which each state is entitled: The distribution of each state’s
allotment of water within its own boundaries is a matter for the state to determine.
It has been held that the apportionment of water under a compact is binding oh
all citizens of the states involved even though it contravenes existing rights within
the states. Because of federal interest in water problems, federal representatives
commonly participate in the negotiations for interstate water compacts. The
Delaware River Basin Compact is unique in that it is a compact among several
states and the United States. This type of compact is referred to as a federal-
interstate compact.
6.12 State and Local Control o f Water Projects

Most states exercise their general welfare and police powers in connection with
water projects: Many states require approval of the state, engineer of plans for
dáms above some minimum size and also inspect the dams while under construc
tion'. These requirements are mainly to assure the safety of persons who are down
stream of the dam. Federal guidelines for dam safety have been defined and the
Corps of Engineers is assisting individual states in establishing and improving
dam safety programs.
Many states regulate the discharge of wastewater into streams and lakes and
the use of water for domestic purposes and for irrigation. Such control is usually
1 U.S. Const. Art. 1, §10,113.

* Act of Mar. 1.1911.' 1, 35 Stat. 961; 16 U.S.C. 552.
exercised through the state departmejit of health or through special water pollutio
control boards. General guidelines for quality of wastewater discharges to stream
and other water bodies are established by the federal government, Environmenta
Protection Agency (EPA). These controls are intended to prevent the spread of
disease and to avoid nuisance through careless discharge of waste or inadequat
sanitary precautions in a water-supply system. The provisions of state laws wit‘
respect to supervision of dams and pollution control are so varied that they cannot
be discussed in detail here. Engineers engaged in the design of water project
should become acquainted with the applicable state regulations.
The price that public utilities and private water companies can charge fori
water is regulated by the individual states. The State of Arizona Groundwater Ac^
of 1980 regulates pumping from the groundwater, .and local water districts hav~
instituted pump taxes that place a tax on water pumped from the ground t*
thereby reduce overdraft of the groundwater aquifer. Cities and counties play
regulatory role in water development through zoning ordinances and by other;
means.
6.13 Drainage Law

Two basic rules, of law are applied in drainage problems. Although several states^
follow á common doctrine, each has some modifications as a result of local usage;!
or interpretation. Legal advice should always be sought in important cases. Some;
states1 follow the Roman civil law, which specifies that owners of high land^
(dominant owner)are entitled to the advantage that this elevation gives them and
may discharge their drainage water onto lower land through natural depressions*
and channels without obstruction by lower, or servient, owners. A dominant owner s
may accelerate the flow of surface water by constructing ditches or by improving;
natural channels on his or her property and may install tile drains. He or she may
not carry water across a drainage divide and discharge it on land that would not
have received the water naturally; nor may he or she locate the outlet of the
drainage system at a point other than the natural outlet of the area., A servient
owner can do nothing to prevent natural drainage from entering his, or her
property from above. Statute law in many states permits the dominant owner to.
construct drains on the land of a servient owner after á simple eminent-domain*
proceeding and payment of all costs and damages. Many states also modify, the
rule of law for oities, by relieving the servient owner of many restrictions. Otherwise
a large number of lawsuits might develop as a result of grading and developing
city lots.
1 The rule of\ Roman civil law is followed in Alabama, California, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas.
w a t e r 'LAW 1$3
English common law employs the common-enemy rule} The basic principle
here is that water is a common enemy of all, and landowners may protect
themselves from water flowing onto their land from a higher elevation. Under this
rule, the dominant landowner cannot construct drainage works that result in
damage to the property of á servient owner without first securing an easement.
The servient owner is allowed to construct dikes or other works to prevent the
flow of surface water onto his or her property.
Both doctrines of drainage law place the responsibility for damages on any
person or organization altering the natural stream pattern of an area of creating
an obstacle that blocks the flow of á natural stream. Common law confers no
rights to control of navigable streams under state jurisdiction except by the
construction of levees to keep the stream from overflowing one’s land.
The trend in drainage law is toward reasonableness: reasonable use of land,
reasonable modification of the drainage pattern, and reasonable care to see that
neither the dominant nor the servient landowner suffers unreasonable injury. This
approach provides flexibility, but its ambiguity often leads to lawsuits between
and among parties.
Major drainage projects are constructed by public, institutions such as
counties, cities, or special districts. These entities have the power of eminent
domain to condemn properties (with proper compensation) for drainage purposes.
Usually these agencies enjoy sovereign immunity, which means they cannot be
sued by private parties as long as the drainage facilities provide a reasonable
degree of protection.
PROBLEMS
6.1. F ro m one o f the references given in th e c h a p te r o r from y o u r state w ater code, p repare
a sum m ary of the procedures for ap p ro p ria tin g w ater, adjudicating w ater rights, and
adm inistering w ater rights for surface w ater.
6.2. If your state has a g ro u n d w ater code, determ ine the rules governing the use of
groundw ater an d prep are a brief sum m ary o f the m o st im p o rta n t items.
6.3. D eterm ine the o rd er o f preference for use of a p p ro p ria te d w ater in y o u r state.
6.4. P repare a rep o rt on the legal basis for the w ater supply provided to yo u r home,
including the type of w ater right, w ho holds it, an d any restrictions th a t apply to it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beck, Robert E., and C. Peter Goplerud III: “Waters and Water Rights— A Treatise on the Law of
Waters and Allied Problems,” 3d e d , Michie, Charlottesville, Va., 1988.
Bradley, Michael D.: “The Scientist and Engineer in Court,” Monograph 8, American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D.C., 1983.1
1 The common-enemy rule is used in Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Maih^Vâssachusetts,

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico. Ne\v Yotk, Oklahoma,
South Carolina, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Dewsnút, Richard L;, and Dallin W. Jensen (Eds.): “A Summary Digest of State Water Laws,” National
Water Commission, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973.
Getches,, David H.: “Water Law in a Nutshell,” West Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn., 1984.
Goldfarb, William: “Water Law,” 2d ed., Lewis Publishers, Cheisea, Mich., 1988.
Hough, James E.: The Engineer as Expert Witness, pp. 56-58, “Civil Engineering,” American Society
of Civil Engineers, New York, December 1981.
Meyers, Charles J., and A. Dan Tarlock: “Water Resource Managemént—a Casebook in Law and
Public Policy,” 2d ed., The Foundation Press, Mineóla, New York, 1980. \
Rice, Leonard, and Michael. D. White: “Engineering Aspects of Water Law,” Wiley, New York, 1987.
Trelease, Frank J.: “Cases and Materials on Water Law,” 4th ed., West Publishing Co., St. Paul,,
Minn., 1986.
“Water Policies for the Futiire,” Final Report to the President and Congress of the U.S., National
Water Corhmission, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., June 1973.
CHAPTER
7
RESERVOIRS
A water-supply, irrigation, or hydroelectric project drawing water directly from a

Itream may be unable to satisfy the demands of its consumers during low flows.
This stream, which may carry little or no water during portions of the year,, often
becomes a raging torrent after heavy rains and a hazard to all activities along its
banks. A storage, ox conservation, reservoir can retain such excess water from
periods of high flow for use during periods of drought. In addition to conserving
water for later use, the storage o f filoodwater may also reduce flood damage below
the reservoir. Because of the varying rate of demand for water during the day,
many cities find it necessary to provide distribution reservoirs within their water-
supply system. Such reservoirs permit water-treatment or pumping plants to
operate at a reasonably uniform rate and provide water from storage when the
demand exceeds this rate. On farms or ranches, stock tanks ox farm ponds may
Conserve the intermittent flow from small creeks for useful purposes.
Whatever the size of a reservoir or the ultimate use of the water, the main
function of a resérvoir is to stabilize the flow of water, either by regulating a
varying supply in a natural stream or by satisfying a varying demand by the ultimate
Consumers. The general aspects of reservoir design are discussed in this chapter,
while the special aspects pertinent to specific uses aré covered more fully in Chaps.
14 to 21.
7.1 Physical Characteristics o f Reservoirs

Since the primary function of reservoirs is to provide storage, their most important
physical characteristic is storage capacity. The capácity of a reservoir of regular
lhape can be computed with the formulas fpr the volumes of solids. Capacity of
185
A rea-1000 acres
FIGURE 7.1
Elevation-storage and elevation-area curves for Cherokee Reservoir on the Hofston River, Tenness
(Data from T V A Technical R eport No. 7)
reservoirs on natural sites must usually be determined from topographic) survey

An area-elevation curve (Fig. 7.1) is constructed by plapimetering the area enclos
within each contour within the reservoir site. The integral of the area-elevatio
curve is the elevation-storage, or capacity, curve for the reservoir. The increme
of storage between two elevations is usually commuted by multiplying the avera
of the areas at the two elevations by the elevation difference.1 The summation
these increments below any elevation is the storage volume below that level,
the absence of adequate topographic maps, cross sections of the reservoir ar
sometimes surveyed and the capacity computed from these vertical cross sectio
by use of the prismoidal formula. ,
: Normal pool level is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir surfa
will rise during ordinary operating conditions. For most reservoirs normal po
is determined by the elevation of the spillway crest or the top of the spillway gat
Minimum pool level is the lowest elevation to which the poo) is to be drawn unde
1 Greater accuracy can be achieved through usé of the prismoidal formula:
Volume = £¿41 + J A xA 2 + A 2) Az
RESERVOIRS 187
i normal conditions. This level may be fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet
¡In the dam or, in the case of hydroelectric reservoirs, by conditions of operating
(efficiency for the turbines. The storage volume between the minimuni and normal
¡pool levels is called thc useful storage. Water held below minimum pool level is
1 4$ad storage. In multipurpose reservoirs the useful storage may be subdivided into
' conservation storage and flood-mitigation storage in accordance with the adopted
I plan of operation. During floods, discharge over the spillway may cause the iwater
| tovel to rise above normal pool level. This surcharge storage is normally tin-
: Controlled, i.e., it exists only while a flood is occurring and cannot be retained for
later use. Reservoir banks are usually permeable, and water enters the so:l when
[the reservoir fills and drains out as the water level is lowered. This bank storage
jIncreases the capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-storage
ECurve. The amount of bank storage depends on geologic conditions and may
[ imount to several percent of the reservoir volume. The water in a natural stream
| Channel occupies a variable volume oi valley storage (Sec. 3.18). The net increase
I In storage capacity resulting from the construction of a reservoir is the total
Cipacity less the natural valley storage. This distinction is of no importance for.
Conservation reservoirs, but from the viewpoint of flood mitigation the effective
Itorage in the reservoir is the useful storage plus the surcharge storage less the
| natural valley storage corresponding to the rate of inflow to the reservoir (Fig. 7.2).
The preceding discussion has assumed that the reservoir water surface is
flevel. This is a reasonable assumption for most short, deep reservoirs. Actually,
| However, if flow is passing the dam, there must be some slope to the water surface
ito cause this flow. If the cross-sectional area of the reservoir is large compared
[With the rate of flow, the velocity will be small and the slope of the hydraulic
(grade line will be very flat. In relatively shallow and narrow reservoirs, thp water
[ lurface at high flows may depart considerably from the horizontal (Fig. 7.3). The
Wedge-shaped element of storage above a horizontal is surcharge storage. The
Zone* of storage in a reservoir.

FIGURE 7.3
Profiles of the water surface in the Wheeler Reservoir on the Tennessee River. (Data from TVÁ)
shape of the water-surface profile can be computed by using methods for nonu
form flow (Sec. 10.4). Á different profile will exist for each combination of infl
rate and water-surface elevation at the dam. The computation of the water-surfa
profile is an important part of reservoir design since it provides information
the water level at various points álong the length of the reservoir from which t‘
land requirements for the reservoir can be determined. Acquisition of land
flowage rights over the land is necessary before the reservoir can be built. Dock
houses, stprm-drain outlets, roads, and bridges along the bank of the reservo
must be located above the maximum water level expected in the reservoir.
Storage in reservoirs subject to marked backwater effects cannot be relate
to water-surface elevation alone as in Fig^ 7.1. A second parameter such as inflo
rate or water-surface elevation on a gage near the upper, end of the reservoinmus
also be used. Storage volume under each profile can be computed from cro
sections by the methods used for earthwork computations.
7.2 Reservoir Yield

Probábly the most important aspect of storage-reservoir design is an analysis
the relation between yield and capacity v YfeW is the ámount of water that can
supplied from the reservoir during a specified interval of time. The time inters
may vary from a day for a small distribution reservoir to a yeár or more for
RESERVOIRS 189
large storage reservoir; Yield is dependent on inflow and will vary from year to
year. The safe, or firm, yield is the maximum quantity of water that can be
guaranteed during a critical dry period. In practice, the critical period is often
taken as the period of lowest natural flow on record for the stream. Hence, there
Id a finite probability that a drier period may occur, with a yield even less than
the safe yield. Since firm yield can never be determined with certainty, it is better
to treat yield in probabilistic terms. The maximum possible yield during a given
time interval equals the mean inflow less evaporation and seepage losses during
that interval. If the flow were absolutely constant, no reservoir would be required;
but, as variability of the flow increases, the required reservoir capacity increases.
Given a target yield, the selection of reservoir capacity is dependent on the
acceptable risk that the yield will not always be realized, A reservoir to supply/
municipal water should have a relatively low design yield so that the risk of a
period with yield below the design value is small. By contrast, an irrigation system
may tolerate 20 percent of the years with yield below the nominal design value.
Water available in excess of safe yield during periods of high flow is called
secondary yield. Hydroelectric energy developed from secondary water may be
Hold to large industries on a “when available” basis. Energy commitments to
domestic users must be on a firm basis and should not exceed the energy that can
be produced with the firm yield unless thermal energy (steam or diesel) is available
to support the hydroelectric energy. The decision is an economic one based on
costs and benefits for various levels of design.
7.3 Selection of Distribution-Reservoir Capacity

for a Given Yield
Often a project design requires the determination of the reservoir capacity required
to meet a specific demand. Examples are found in municipal water supply or in
Irrigation when it is desired to irrigate a specified area, Since the yield (outflow)
Is equal to the inflow plus or minus an increment of storage, the determination
of the capacity to supply a given yield is based on the storage equation [Eq. (3.12)],
In the long run, outflow must equal inflow less waste and unavoidable losses. This
is another way of saying that a reservoir does not make water but merely permits
its redistribution with respect to time.
A simple problem involving the selection of distribution reservoir capacity
is given in Example 7.Í. Here the required yield is based bn an estimate of the
maximum daily demand by the consumers: The inflow rate is fixed by a decision
to pump at a uniform rate: The reservoir capacity must be sufficient to süpply the
demand at times when the demand exceeds the pumping rate. A similar solution
would be used if a variable pumping rate were assumed.
Exam ple 7.1. T he water su pp ly for a city is pu m ped from w ells to a distribution
reservoir. T he estim ated hourly w ater requirem ents for the m axim um day are as
follow s. If the pum ps are to operate at a uniform rate, w h at distribu tion reservoir
capacity is required?. ..
Hour Demand, Pumping Required from

ending m/h fate, m/h reservoir, m3
pipo 27? 529.3 0

0200 206 529.3 0
Ó300 256 529.3 0
0400 237 52913 0
0500 257 529l3 0
0600 312 529.3 0
0700 438 529,3 0
0800 627, 529.3 98
0900 817 529.3 288
1000 875 529.3 ; 346
HOP 820 529.3 291
1200 773 529.3 244
1300 , 759 529.3 230
1400 764 529.3 235
1500 , 729 529.3 200
1600 671 52Í9.3 142
1700 670 529.3 141
1800 6 57. 529,3 128
1900 612 529.3 83
2000 525 529.3 0
2100 423 529.3 0
2200 365 529.3 0
2300 328 529.3 • 0
2400 309 529.3 0
Total 12,703 12,703 2426
Solution, T he average pum ping rate is determ ined by dividing the to ta l p um ped by
24. The required reservoir capacity is the sum o f the hourly requirem ents frorp
storage, o r 2426 m 3. This is also show n graphically in Fig. 7.4; the required storage
is given by JJJ (O I) dt, w here 0 is the outflow (dem and) an d / is the inflow p u m p in g
rate.
7.4 Selection of Capacity for a River Reservoir

The determination of required capacity for a river reservoir , is usually called'
an operation study and is essentially a simulation of the reservoir operatic)"
for a period of time in accord with an adopted set of rules. An operation
study may analyze only a selected “critical period” of very low flow, bujt
modem practice favors the use of a long synthetic record (Sec. 5.16). In the
first case the study can do no more than define the capacity required during
the selected drought. With the synthetic data it is possible to estimate the
reliability of reservoirs of various capacities.
An operation study may be performed with annual, monthly, or daily
time intervals. Monthly data are most commonly used, but for large reservoirs
that carry over storage for many years, annual intervals are satisfactory. For very
RESERVOIRS 191
FIGURE 7.4
Graphical illustration of the computation of required reservoir capacity.
small reservoirs, the sequence of flow within a month may be important and a
weekly or daily interval should be used.
When lengthy synthetic data are to be analyzed, computer analysis is
indicated and the sequent-peak algorithm1 is commonly used. Values of the
cumulative sum of inflow minus withdrawals (including average evaporation
and seepage) are calculated (Fig. 7.5). The first peak (local maximum Of cumulative
net inflow) and the sequent peak (next following peak that is greater than the first
peak) are identified. The required storage for the interval is the difference between
the initial peak and the lowest trough in the interval. The process is repeated for
all cases in the period under study and the largest value of required storage can
thiis be found.
A mass curve (or Rippl diagram) is a cumulative plotting of net reservoir
Inflow. Figure 7.6 is a mass curve for a 4-yr period. The slope of the mass
Curve at any time is a measure of the inflow at that time. Demand curves
1 H. Á. Thomas, Jr., and M. B. Fiering, The Nature of the Storage Yield Function, in “Operations
Research in Water Quality Management,’* Harvard University Water Program, 1963.
FIGURE 7.5
Illustration of sequent-peak algorithm.
representing a uniform rate of demand are straight lines. Demand lines drawn i
tangent to the high points of the mass curve (A , B) represent rates of withdrawal
from the reservoir. Assuming the reservoir to be full wherever a demand lines
intersects the mass curve, the maximum departure between the demand line and*
the maps curve represents the reservoir capacity required to satisfy the demand.,
The vertical distance between successive tangents represents water wasted ó vet
the spillway. If the demand is not uniform, the demand line becomes a curve
(actually a mass curve of demand) but the analysis is not changed. It is essential,
however, that the demand line for nonuniform demand coincide chronologically
with the mass curve, i.e., June demand must coincide with June inflow, etc.
Exam ple 7.2. W h at reservoir capacity isre q u ire d to assure a yield o f 75,000 acre-ft/yr
fo r the inflows show n in Fig. 7.6? ^
Solution. T an g en ts to the m ass curve a t A a n d B have slopes equal to th e d em and

of 75,000 acre-ft/yr. The m axim um d ep artu re occurs a t C an d is 56,000 acre-ft. T his
is the required reservoir capacity. Such a reservoir w ould be full a t A , depleted to?
34,000 acre-ft o f storage a t D, a n d full again a t E. Between E a n d B the reservoir ;
w ould rem ain full an d all inflow in excess o f th e dem an d w ould be w asted d o w n - ,
stream . At C th e reservoir w ould be em pty a n d a t F it w ould be full again. N o te
th a t in this case the storage m u st carry oyer 2 yr.
Mass curves may also be used to determine the yield that may be expected:
with a given reservoir capacity (Fig. 7.7). In this case tangents are drawn to the
: * RESERVOIRS 193
FIGURE 7.6
Use of a mass curve to determine the reservoir capacity required to produce a specified yield.
high points of the mass curve (A , B ) in such a manner that their maximum
departure from the mass curve does not exceed the specified reservoir capacity.
The slopes of the resulting lines indicate the yields that can be attained in each
year with the specified storage capacity. The slope of each demand line is the yield
for the period. A demand line must intersect the mass curve when extended
forward. If it does not, the reservoir will not refill.
Exam ple 7.3. W h at yield will be available if a reservoir o f 30,000 acre-ft capacity is
provided a t the site for which th e m ass curve of Fig. 7.7 applies?
Solution. T he tangents to the m ass curve of Fig. 7.7 are draw n so th a t th eir m axim um
dep artu re from th e m ass curve is 30,000 acre-ft. T he tangent from B has the least
slops, 60,000 acre-ft/yr, an d this is th e m inim um yield. T he tangent a t A indicates a
possible yield o f 95,000 acre-ft in th a t year, h u t this d em and could n o t be satisfied
betw een points B an d C w ith o u t storage considerably in excess o f 30,000 acre-ft.
194 WATBR-RESOURCES ENOINEERINO
FIGURE 7.7
Use of a mass curve to determine the possible yield from a reservoir of specified capacity.
Before finalizing the decision regarding reservoir capacity, it is usually

desirable to perform a detailed operation study on one or more periods of data.
These detailed analyses should consider seepage as a function of reservoir levels
evaporation as a function of reservoir area and variable evaporation potential*
and operating rules that may be dependent on natural inflow, reservoir storage,
or other factors. It is generally convenient to use a computer1 for the operation
1 D. F. Manzer and M. P. Barnett, Analysis by Simulation: Programming Techniques for a High-Speed

Digital Computer, chap. 9 in Arthur Maáss and others (Edf), “Design of Wáter-Resource Systems,”
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1962; and M. M- Hufschmidt and M. Fiering: “Simula
tion Techniques for the Design of Water-Resources Systems,” Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Mass.. 1966. >
RESERVOIRS m
study since this permits a number of trials using various assumptions as to
operating rules, etc.
Construction of a reservoir increases the exposed water-surface area abo vie
that of the natural stream and increases the evaporation loss. At the same time,
there is an increase in runoff from the área occupied by the reservoir water surface
because all precipitation falling on the water becomes available (i.e., fc = 1:0),
whereas only a fraction of the precipitation became runoff previously (i.e., k < 1.0).
Usually there is a net loss of wáter flowing past a dam. Thus, in terms of depth
of water, disregarding seepage losses,
Net loss of w ater. ?=■Ew — (JP —q) (7.1)
where is the free water evaporation, P is the precipitation, and g is the
runoff from the area inundated by the reservoir. As an example, employing
information from Figs. 2.5, 2.12, and 2.16, comparing á reservoir near the
southwest corner of Utah with one in central Georgia gives annual averages (in
inches) as follows:
Ew P l
Southwest Utah 60 8 0.3

Central Georgia 43 46 15
From Eq. (7.1) the respective water losses are as follows:

Southwest Utah 60 —(8 —0.3) = 52.3 in.
Central Georgia 43 —(46 — 15) = 12 in.
The volume of water loss per year is calculated by multiplying the depth loss
by the average area of the reservoir water surface during the year. More accurate
results are possible if the calculations are conducted on a monthly or weekly basis.
It should be noted that a net gain in water at a reservoir is possible where
the precipitation is considerably greater than the evaporation. In arid regions,
however, the loss may be so great as to defeat the purpose of the reservoir. Lake
Powell behind Glen ¡Canyon D>am on the Colorado' River reduced, the runoff
in the Colorado River by over 500,000 acre-ft/yr, equivalent to about 4 percent
of the runoff from the entire Colorado River basin. The reservoir, though reducing
the volume of water available, permits control of the flow in the river, provides a
Water-surface elevation drop for the generatipri of hydroelectric energy, and has
resulted in recreational benefits. To justify this project, these benefits had to be
balanced against the depletion of volume of runoff.
7,5 Reservoir Reliability

Tht reliability of a reservoir is defined ás the probability that it will deliver the
expected demand throughout its lifetime without incurring a deficiency. In this
sense lifetime is taken as the economic life, which is usually between 50 and 100 yr.
We may estimate the reliability by generating stochastically (Sec. 5,16) 500 to 1

traces, each trace equal in length to the adopted project life. Each trace may the
be said to represent one possible example of what might occur during the projec
lifetime, and all traces are equally likely representatives of this future period,
the storage required to deliver a specified demand is calculated for each trace, th
resulting values of storage can be ranked in order of magnitude and plotted as
frequency curve, or the theoretical curve can be calculated from the data. Th
Gumbel extreme-value distribution appears to be the appropriate one for thi
purpose. The result is a reliability curve (Fig. 7.8) that indipates the probability
that the demands during the project life can be met as a function of reservoi
capacity. For the stream of Fig. 7.8, a reservoir capacity of 615,000 acre-
(758 x 106 m3) is required if a reliability of 99.5 percent is desired while 550,0
acre-ft (678 x 106 m3) are adequate if a reliability of 95 percent is acceptable. Zer
risk or 100 percent reliability is impossible and the traditional concept of safe yie
or firm yield has no meaning. Use of reliability analysis permits one to compar
the costs of achieving various levels of reliability and to determine whether a
increase in reliability is warranted.
7.6 Sediment Transport by Streams

Every stream carries some suspended sediment and moves larger solids along th
stream bed as bed load. Since the specific gravity of soil materials is about 2.65
the particles of suspended sediment tend to settle to the channel bottom, bu
:i n •ÍI
E
«o■*
■:\n
FIGURE 7.8
A reservoir reliability curve.
RESERVOIRS 197
Schematic drawing of the sediment accumulation in a typical reservoir.
upward currents in the turbulent flow counteract the gravitational settling. When
sediment-laden water reaches a reservoir, the velocity and turbulence are greatly
reduced. The larger suspended partidles and most of the bed load are deposited
as a delta at the head of the reservoir (Fig. 7.9). Smaller particles remain in
Suspension longer and are deposited farther down the reservoir, although the very
smallest particles may remain in suspension for a long time and some may pass
the dam with water discharged through sluiceways, turbines, or the spillway.
The suspended-sediment load of streams is measured by sampling the water,
filtering to remove the sediment, drying, and weighing the filtered material.
Sediment load is expressed in parts per million (ppm), computed by dividing the
weight of the sediment by the weight of sediment and water in the sample and
multiplying the quotient by 106. The sample is usually collected in a bottle held
in a sampler (Fig. 7.10) that is designed to avoid distortion of the streamlines of
flow so as to coflect a representative sample of the sediment-laden water. Most of
the available sediment-load data have been gathered since about 19J8. Because
of poorly designed samplers, many of the early data are of questionable accuracy.
No practical device for field measurement of bed load is now in use. Bed
load may vary from zero to several timefc the suspended load. More commonly,
though, it lies in the 5 to 25 percent range. Einstein1 has presented an equation
for the calculation of bed-load movement on the basis of the size distribution of
the bed material and the streamflow rates* v;
The relation between suspended-sediment transport Qs and streamflow Q is
often represented by a logarithmic plot (Fig. 7.11), which may be expressed
mathematically by an equation of the form
Qs = kQn (7.2)
1 H. A. Einstein, The Bed-load Function for Sediment Transportation in Open-channel Flow, U.S.
Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 1026, September 1950.
FIGURE 7.10
Depth-integrating sediment sampler, model U.S. DH-48, for small streams.
S u sp en d ed sed im e n t d isch a rg e in m e tr ic to ns per day
10 ! 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1
W ater d isc h a rg e in m j's e c
FIGURE 7.11
Sediment-rating curve for Powder River at Arvada, Wyoming, (L. B. Leopold and T. Maddock, Jr.,
The Hydraulic Geometry of Stream Channels and Some Physiographic Implications, U S. Geol. S u m
Prof. Paper 252, 1953)
RESERVOIRS 199
where n commonly varies between 2 and 3, though values of n as low as unity

have been observed on some streams. A sediment-rating curve such as Fig. 7.11
may be used to estimate suspended-sediment transport from the continuous record
of streamflow in the same manner that the flow is estimated from the continuous-
Itage record by use of a stage-discharge relation. The sediment rating is much less
accurate than the corresponding streamflow-rating curve. Rates of erosion vary
from storm to storm with variations in rainfall intensity, soil condition, and vegetal
development. Sediment eroded from a basin during one storm may be deposited
In the stream channel, to remain until a subsequent storm washes it downstream.
Portions of the drainage area may be more susceptible to erosion than others,
ind higher sediment loads may be expected when a storm centers over such areas.
Thus, the rate of suspended-sediment transport and the rate of streamflow are
rarely closely correlated. Despite these inaccuracies, the sediment rating provides
I useful tool for estimates of suspended-sediment transport. The total sediment
transport may be estimated by adding a suitable amount to the suspended-
lediment transport to allow for the bed-load contribution.
In the absence of suspended-sediment data, the total sediment transport of
a stream may be estimated by comparison with similar watersheds whose sediment
transports have been previously determined from suspended-sediment-load data
or from studies of reservoir-sediment accumulation. The total amount of sediment
that passes any section of stream is referred to as the sediment yield or sedinient
production. Rates of sediment production for typical watersheds in the United
States are presented in Table 7,1. Mean annual sediment-production rates
generally range from 200 to 4000 tons/mi2 (70 to 1400 t/km2).
7.7 Reservoir Sedimentation

The ultimate destiny of all reservoirs is to be filled with sediment. If the sediment
inflow is large compared with the reservoir capacity, the useful life of the reservoir
may be very short, A small water-supply reservoir on the Solomon River near
Osborne, Kansas, filled with sediment during the first year after its completion.
Reservoir planning must include consideration of the probable rate of sedimenta
tion in order to determine whether the useful life of the proposed reservoir will
be sufficient to warrant its construction.
Our knowledge of reservoir sedimentation rates (Tabê 7.1) is based on
Surveys to determine the rate of sediment accumulation1 in reservoirs that have
been in existence for many years. These surveys indicate the specific weight of the
Settled sediments and the percentage of entering sediment that is deposited in the
reservoir. These data are necessary in order to interpret the data on sediment load
1 J. M. Caldwell, Supersonic Sounding Instruments and Methods* Trans. A S C E , Vol. 117, pp. 44-58,
1952; and L. C. Gottschalk, Measurement of Sedimentation vfc Small Reservoirs, Trans. A S C E , Vol.
117, pp. 59-71, 1952.
TABLE 7.1
R a tes o f sed im en t accu m u la tio n in selected reservoirs in d ie U n ite d S ta tes*
English units Metric units
Net Original Sediment Annual Net Sediment

drainage capacity, production loss of drainage Original production
area, 1000 rate, storage, area, capacity, rate,
Name and location mi2 acre-ft tons/mi2 yr % km2 106 m3 t/km2 y
Schoharie 312 63.8 217 0.07 800 78.5 77

(Prattville, N.Y.)
Roxboro 8 0.5 447 0.69 19 0.6 159
(Roxboro, N.C.)
Norris 2,823 2,050.0 450 0.05 7,238 2,520.0 160
(Norris, Tenn.)
Bloomington 60 6.7 514 0.50 155 8.2 182
(Bloomington, 111.)
Crab Orchard 160 67.3 1980 0.45 410 82.7 . 701
(Carbondale, 111.)
Abilene 98 10.3 274 0.19 250 12.7 97
(Abilene, Tex.)
Dallas 1,157 181.0 1300 0.72 2,967 222.0 463
(Denton, Tex.)
Mission 8 1.8 3870 1.20 20 2.3 1380
(Horton, Kan.)
Morena 109 66.8 2440 0.31 279 82.1 868
(San Diego, Calif.)
Roosevelt 5,760 1,520.0 1110 0.25 14,770 1,870.0 395
(Globe, Ariz.)
Mead 167,600 31,250.0 877 0.33 404,100 38,440.0 311
(Boulder City, Nev.)
Arrowrock 2,170 279.0 173 0.09 5,560 343.0 61
(Boise, Idaho)
RESERVOIRS 201
TABLE 7.2
Constants in Eq. (7.3) for estimating specific weight of reservoir sedimente*
Sand Silt Clay
Reservoir operation W, W*■ . «2 w} B}
Sediment always submerged or nearly

submerged 93 0 65 5.7 30 16Ú
Normally a moderate reservoir drawdown 93 0 74 2.7 46 10.7
Normally considerable reservoir
drawdown 93 0 79 1.0 60 6.0
Reservoir normally empty 93 0 82 0.0 78 0.0
•From E. W. Lane and V. A. Koelzer, “Density of Sediments Deposited in Reservoirs o f a Study of

Methods Used in Measurement arid Analysis of Sediment Loads in Streams,” U.S. Army Corps of
Ingineers, St. Paul, Minn., 1953.
ef streams in terms of reservoir sedimentation. The specific weight of settled

lediments seems to vary with the age of the deposit and the character of the
lediment. Specific weights (dry) of sediment samples from reservoirs range from
ibout 40 to 90 pcf (650 to 1500 kg/m3) with an average of about 50 pcf (800 kg/m3)
for fresh sediments and 80 pcf (1300 kg/m3) for old sediments.1
The specific weight (dry) of deposited sediment can be estimated vising the
following equation:
w - + Si l ogT) + ' 4 ^ ( W 2 * B 2log 7> + * $ * < * , + B3log7)

100 100 100
, (7.3)
In which W is the specific weight (dry) of a deposit with an age of T years; the
Percent of sand, silt, and clay is on a weight basis; W u W2, and W3 represent the
Specific weights of sand, silt, and clay, respectively, at the end of the first year; B l9
and B3 are constants having the same units as W that relate to the compaction
iharacteristics of these soil types. Typical values of these parameters are given in
fable 7.2. Since deposition occurs during the life of the Reservoir, to eStimáte the
fetal volume occupied by the deposited sediment, valúes of W must be calculated
f each year. Sediment deposited in earlier years will occupy less space per unit
Wight than the more recent deposits because of compaction that occurs with time.
Example 7.4. Estimate the specific weight (dry) of deposited sediment that is always
submerged., The sediment is 20 percent sand, 30 percent silt, and 50 percent clay by
y {; weight. Calculate how the specific weight pf the deposited material varies with time
• D. C. Bondurant, Sedimentation Studies at Conchas Reservoir in New Mexico, Trans. A S C E , V o l

116» pp. 1283-1295, 1951; and V. A. Koelzer and J. M. 'Lara, Densities and Compaction Rates of
Deposited Sediment, /. H ydraulics D iv ., A S C E Paper 1603, pp. 1-15, April, 1958.
an d find th e volum e occupied by 500 to n s o f first-year an d ten th -y ear deposited

sedim ent.
Solution.
W = 0.20(93 + 0) + 0.30(65 + 5.7 log T) + 0.50(30 + 16 log T)

T = 1 yr W = 0.2(93) + 0.3(65) + 0.5(30) = 53.1 pcf ¡
T = 2yr W = 0.2(93) + 0.3(65 + 5.7 log 2) + 0.5(30 + 16 log 2)
= 56.0 pcf '
T = 3 yr W = 57.7 pcf
T = 10 yr W = 62.8 pcf
T = 50 yr W = 69.6 pcf
500 x 2000
V olum e (first year) = = 18,830 ft3
53.1
500 x 2000
V olum e (ten th year) = = 15,920 ft3
62.8 . ¿
E xam ple 7.5: If the specific gravity o f sedim ent particles is 2.65 an d th e specific w eight
(dry) of a cubic foot of d eposited sedim ent is 70 pef, w hat is the poro sity o f V
deposited sedim ent an d w h at does, 1 ft3 o f th a t sedim ent weigh?
Solution.
Solids volum e = (1 — p) x 1 ft3 ; > -4 ,
W ate r volum e = p x 1 ft3

Solids w eight = 70 = solids vol x (2.65 x 62.4) pcf
T hus
70 = (1 - p) x (2.65 x 62.4) an d p = 0.576 = 57.6% ,

W eight o f 1 ft3 o f sedim ent = (1 - 0.576) x (2.65 x 62.4) + (0,576 x 62.4) f= 106 ]
The percentage of the inflowing sediment that is retained in a reservoir (tr

efficiency) is a function of the r a t i o r e s e r v o i r capacity to total inflow. A sma1
reservoir on a large stream passes most of its inflow so quickly that the fin
sediments do not settle but are discharged downstream. A large reservoir, on th
other hand, may retain water for several years and permit almost complete remov°
of suspended sediment. Figure 7.12 relates reservoir-trap efficiency to the capacity,
inflow ratio on the basis of data from surveys of existing reservoirs.1 The tra
efficiency of a reservoir decreases with age as the reservoir capacity is reduced b
1 G. M. Bruñe, Trap Efficiency of Reservoirs, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union , Vol. 34, pp. 407-418, Ju$
RESERVOIRS 203
F IG U R E 7.12
Reservoir trap-efficiency as a function of the capacity-inflow ratio. (From G. M. Bruñe, Trap Efficiency
of Reservoirs, Trans. Am . Geophys. Union, Vol. 34, pp. 407-418, Juné 1953.)
sediment accumulation. Thus complete filling of the reservoir may require a very
long time, but actually the, useful life of the reservoir is terminated when the
capacity occupied by sediment is sufficient to prevent the reservoir from serving
its intended purpose. Figure 7J2 may be used to estimate the amount of sediment
a reservoir will trap if the average annual sediment load of the stream is known.
The volume occupied by this sediment can then be computed, using a reasonable
value of specific weight for the deposited sediment. The useful life may be computed
by determining the total time required to fill the critical storage volume.
Sediment transport fluctuates widely from near zero during dry weather to
extremely large quantities during major floods. Consequently, it is very difficult
to predict the sediment accumulation to be expected during a short period of time.
Conversely, it is unwise to assume that the accumulation during a period of a few
yeans can indicate the true average annual sediment transport. It has been
demonstrated that sediment simulation1 can be added to a continuous hydrologic
simulation model. Simulation therefore, offers the opportunity to extend a short
sediment record and estimate more reliably the mean annual transport. To do this
effectively, daily sediment samples should be collected for two or three years to
provide the data with which to calibrate the simulation model.
1 M. Negev, A Sediment Model on 9. Digital Computer, Technical Report 76, Department of Civil
Engineering, Stanford University, March 1967.
Exam ple 7.6. U sing Fig. 7.12 find the p ro b ab le life of a reservoir w ith an initial
capacity of 30,000 acre-ft if th e average ann u al inflow is 60,000 acre-ft a n d the average |
annual sedim ent inflow is 200,000 tons. A ssum e a specific Weight o f 70 pcf for the j
sedim ent deposits. The useful life o f the reservoir will term inate w hen 80 percent o f
its initial capacity is filled w ith sedim ent.
Solution.
Trap efficiency
At Average Annual sediment Incre \

Capacity- indicated v for trapped ment
Capacity, inflow volume, increment, volume, !êa*i|
acre-ft ratio % % Tons Acre-ft* acre-ft j to
30,000 0.5 96.0 ; W / |- \ ■

24,000 0.4 95.5 95.7 191,400 126 6000 J 48 I
18,000 0.3 95.0 95.2 190,400 125 6000 48 1
12,000 0.2 93.0 94.0 188,0Q0 123 6000 49
6,000 0.1 87.0 90.0 180,000 118 6000 51 1
* 1 acre-ft = 43,560 x 70/2000 = 1525 tons.
7.8 Reservoir Sedimentation Control

The most common procedure for dealing with the "sediment problem is t
designate á portion of the reservoir capacity as sediment storage. This is
negative approach that in no way reduces the sediment accumulation but meref
postpones the date when it becomes serious. Since Sediment is deposited all
through the resérvoir, the allocation for sedinient storage cannot be exclusively i
the dead storage but must also include some otherwise useful storage. Figure 7.(
shows schematically the distribution of sediment within á reservoir, While Fig; 7.1
shows the relative disposition of sediment in several reservoirs and a tentative
design curve Suggested by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.1
Actually, reservoir sedimentation cannot be prevented, but it may bé re
tarded. One way of doing this is to select a site where the sediment inflot
is náturally lów. Some basins are more prolific sources of sediment than other;
because of Soil type, lánd slopes, vegetal cover, ahd rainfall characteristics. If ai
alternative site exists, prolific Sedimerit sources should be avoided. After á site has
been selected, the reservoir capacity should be made large enough to create s
Useful life sufficieiit to warrant the construction. Although trap efficiency of larg|
reservoirs is high, it does not increase linearly, and thé uséful life of á large r¿$ervoÍJ
is longer than that of a small reservoir if all other factors remain constant.
1 “Ü.S. Bur: Reclamation Manual,” Vol. 7, Part 9, chap. 9-4, U.S. Government Printing O ffic e i
Washington D.C., April 1948.
RESERVOIRS 205
FIGURE 7.13
Distribution of sediment in several reservoirs and a suggested design curve. (U.S. Bureau o f Reclam a
tion)
Some reduction in sediment inflow to a reservoir is possible by use of

soil-conservation methods within the drainage basin. Terraces, strip cropping,
Contour plowing, and similar techniques retard overland flow and reduce erosion.
Check darns in gullies retain some sediment and prevent it from entering the
Streams. Vegetal cover On the land reduces the impact force of raindrops and
minimizes erosion. However, if a stream is denied its normal sediment load, it.will
tend to scour its bed or cave its banks. Consequently, stream-bank protection by
revetment, vegetation, or other means is a necessary feature of a sediment-control
plan. Conservation methods will never completely eliminate erosion and may be
difficult to justify economically in some areas.
,( Sediment accumulation in reservoirs may be reduced by providing means
for discharge of some sediment. Sluice gates at various levels will sometimes permit
discharge of the finer sediments before they have time to settle to the bottom. In
many reservoirs, a sediment-laden inflow may move through the pool as a density
currentr ox layer of water with a density slightly different from that of the main
body of reservoir water. The density difference may result from the sediment
dissolved minerals, or temperature. Because of the density difference, the water
the density current does not mix readily with the reservoir water and maintain
its identity for a considerable time. Reservoir-trap efficiency may be decrease
from 2 to 10 percent if it is possible to vent such density currents through
sluiceways. •.
Physical removal of sediment deposits is rarely feasible. Sluice gates near th
base of the dam may permit flushing some sediment downstream, but the remov
will not extend far upstream from the dam. At the most favorable prices, remov
by ordinary earth-moving methods would be expensive unless the excavate
sediment has some sales value.
7.9 Wind Setup and Waves in Reservoirs

Earth dams must have sufficient freeboard above maximum pool level so th
waves cannot wash over the top of the dam. Waves in reservoirs may also damag
shoreline structures and embankments adjacent to the water and interfere wit
navigation. Part of the design of any reservoir is an estimate of wind setup an
wave height.
Wind setup is the tilting of the reservoir water surface caused by th
movement of the surface water toward the leeward shore under the action of th
wind. This current of surface water is a result of tangential stresses between th
wind and the water and of differences in atmospheric pressure over the reservoir
The latter, however, is, typically, a smaller effect. As a consequence of wind setu“
the reservoir water surface is above normal still-water level on the leeward sid
and below the still-water level on the windward side. This results in hydrostati
unbalance, and a return flow at some depth must occur. The water-surface sloj
that results is that necessary to sustain the return flow under conditions of botto :
roughness and cross-sectional area of flow that exist. Wind setup is generally large
in shallow reservoirs with rough bottoms.
Wind setup may be estimated from
VjF
(7v
14Q0d
where Z s is the rise in feet (meters) above still-water level, Vw is the wind sp
in miles (kilometers) per hour, F is the fetch, or lerigth, of water surface over whic
the wind blows in miles (kilometers), and d is the average depth of the lake alon
the fetch in feet (meters). In SI metric units, the constant in the denomínalo
becomes 63,200.
Equation (7.4) is modified1 from the original equation developed by Dutc
engineers on the Zuider Zee. Additional information and techniques are given r
1T. Saville, Jr., E. W. McClendon, and A. L. Cochran, Freeboard Allowances for Waves in Inland;
Reservoirs, J. W aterways H arbors Div ., A SC E , pp. 93-124, May 1962.
RESERVOIRS Í0 7
other references.1 Wind-setup effects may be transferred, around bends in a

reservoir, and the value of F used may be somewhat longer than the straight-line
fetch., - ;V
When wind begins to blow over a smooth surface, small waves, called
capillary waves, appear in response to the turbulent eddies in the wind stream.
These waives grow in size and length as a result of the continuing push of the wind
on the back of the waves and of the shearing or tangential force between the wind
and the water. As the waves grow in size and length, their speed increases until
they move at speeds approaching the speed, of the, wind. Because growth of a wave
depends in part upon the difference between wind speed and wave speed, the
growth rate approaches zero ás the wave speed approaches the wind speed.
The duration of the wind and the time and direction From which it blows
are important factors in the ultimate height of a wave. The variability of the wind
and the amazingly complex and yet to be fully understood response of the water
surface to the wind lead to a wave pattern that is a superposition of many waves.
The pattern js oftendescribed by its energy distribution or spectrum. The growth
Of wind waves as a function of fetch* wind speed* :and duration can be calculated
from knowledge of the mechanism of wave generation and use of collected
empirical results.12 The duration of the wind and the fetch play an important role
because a wave may not reach its ultimate height if the wave passes out of the
region of high wind or strikes a shore during the* growth process. The depth of
water also plays a key role, tending to yield smaller and shorter waves in deep
water.
Wave-height data gathered at two major reservoirs34confirm the theoretical
and experimental data for ocean waves if a modified value of fetch is used. The
derived equation is
zw = 0.034 Ki/06F 0-47 (7.5)
where zwis the average height in feet (meters) of the highest one-third of the waves
and is called the significant wave height, Vwis the wind; velocity in miles (kilometers)
per hour about 25 ft (7.6 m) above the water surface, and F is the fetch in miles
(kilometers). In SI metric units the coefficient becomes 0.005. The equation is
•hown graphically in Fig. 7.145 together with lines showing the minimum duration
of wind required to develop the indicated wave height. Figure 7.15 shows the
method of computing the effective fetch for a narrow reservoir.
Since the design must be made before the reservoir is complete, wind data
over land must generally be used. Table 7.3 gives ratios of wind speed over land
1 Shore Protection, Planning and Design, Technical Report 3, 3d éd., U.S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center, June 1966.
1 W. J. Pierson, Jr., and R. W. James, Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting Ocean Waves,
U.S. N avy H ydrographic Office Pub. 603, 1955 (reprinted 1960).
, T. Saville, Jr., E, W. McClendon, and A. L. Cochran, Freeboard Allowances for Waves in Inland
Reservoirs, J. W aterways H arbors Div., A SC E , pp. 93-124, May 1962.
4 A graph for the solution of Eq. (7.5) in SI metric units is given in Appendix B-l.
m nÍPún
Wind velocity over water, mph
. v>^‘■
30 /:£os^
20
10 1I ± I
0.1, 0.2 0.3 Q.40.5 07 1 2 3 , 4 5 7 10 20 301
,, , Fetch distance, mi
F IG U R E 7.14
Significant wave heights and minimum wind durations (From T. Saville, Jr., E' W. M cClendon,;
A. L. Cochran, Freeboard Allowance for Waters! in Inland Reservoirs, J. W aterways an d Harbors Dtuii
A SC E , pp. 93-124, May 1962.) For metric version see Appendix B. ,,r
to those over water and may be used to correct observed wind to reservoi|§
conditions. Waves are critical only when the reservoir is near maximum level*
Thus in selecting the critical wind speed for reservoirs subject to seasons
fluctuations, only winds that can occur during the season of maximum pool levélf
should be considered. The direction of the wind and the adopted fetch must alse
be the same.
The height of the significant wave is exceeded about 13 percent of the time!
If a more conservative design is indicated, a higher wave height may be chosenf
Table 7.4 gives ratios of z'/zw for waves of lower exceedance,
TA B LE 13
Relationship between wind over land and that over water*
Fetch, mi (km) 0.5 (0.8) 1 ( 1. 6) 2(3.2) 4(6.5) 6(9.7) 8 (12.9)
1.08 1.13 1.21 1.28 1.31 1.31
♦ After T. Saville, Jr., E. W. McClendon, and A. L. Cochran, Freeboard Allowances for Waves
in Inland Reservoirs,/. W aterw ays, H arbors Div., A S C E , pp. 93-124, May 1962.
RESERVOIRS m
0 5 10
L------- ; _______ I______________ I
Scale, thousands of feet
F IG U R E 7.15
Computation of effective fetch. (Modified from T. Saville, Jr.; E. W. McClendon, and A. L. Cochran,
Freeboard Allowance for Waters in Inland Reservoirs, / . W aterways and H arbors D iv ., ASC E , pp.
93-124, May 1962.)
TABLE 7.4
Percentage of waves exceeding various wave heights greater than zw*
t'/z K 1.67 1.40 1.27 1.12 1.07 1:02 1.00
Percentage of waves > 0.4 2 4 8 10 12 13
* After Saville, McClendon, and Cochran.

21Ó WÁTER-RÉSOURCES ENGINEERING
s -ICM
CN
-< |« *
C sl CSJ
r H |C 4
FIGÚRE 7.16
Wave run-Up ratios versus wave sleepness and embankment slopes. (Frofti T. Saville, Jr., E. W;
McClendon, and A. L. Cochran, Freeboard Allowance for Waters in Inland Reservoirs, J. W aterway
and H arbors Div., A SC E , pp. 93-124, May 1962.)
When a wave strikes a land slope, it will run up the slope to a height aboV
its open-water height. The amount of run-up depends on the surface. Figure 7.1
shows the results of small-scale experiments1 on smooth slopes and rubbl
mounds. Height of run-up zr is shown as a ratio z r/ z w and is dependerit on th
ratio of wave height to wavelength (wave steepness). Wavelength k for deep-wate
waves may be computed from
k = 5 12i* ft or k = 1.564 m (7.
1 T, Saville, Jr., Wave Run-up on Shore Structures, Trans. A S C E ,V ok. 123, pp. 139-158,1958; and R .'
Hudson, Laboratory Investigation of Rubble-Mouncj Breakwaters, Trans. A SC E , Vol. 126, Part I
pp. .492-541,1962. !
RESERVOIRS 2 11
where the wave period tw is given by

(7 .7 )
For shallow-water waves other lengjtli relations' are appropriate.1 In metric

units the coefficieht o f feq. (7.7) becomes 0.3Í2 The curves for rubble mounds
represent extremely permeable construction, and for more typical riprap on earth
embankments the run-up may be soiriewhat higher, depending on both th e’
permeability and thé relative1smoothness of the surface.
mn.K:
7.10 Reservoir Clearance
The removal of trees and brush from a reservoir site is an expensive operation
and is often difficult to justify on an economic basis. The main disadvantages
resulting from leaving the vegetation in the reservoir are the possibilities that (1)
trees will eventually float and create a debris problem at the dam, (2) decay of
organic material may create undesirable odors or tastes in water-supply résérvoirs,
and (3) trees projecting above the water surface may create an undesirable
appearance ^nd restrict the use of the reservoir for recreation.
Frequently all timber that would project above the water surface at minimum
pool level is removed. This overcomes most of the problems cited earlier at some
savings, qver the co$t of complete clearance. , „
7.11 Reservoir Leakage

Most reservoir banks are permeable, but the permeability is so low that léakage
is of no importance. If the walls of the reservoir are of badly fractured, rock,
permeable volcanic material, or cavernous limestone, serious leakage may occur.
This leakage may result not only in a loss of water ,but also in damage to property
where the water returns to the surface. If leakage occurs through a few well-defined
channels or within, a small area of fractured rock, it may be possible to seal the
area by pressure grouting. If the area of leakage is large* the cost of grouting may
be excessive. Small distribution reservoirs are often lined with plastic membranes
to assure water tightness. ,v , •* < ' ,
7.12 Reservoir-Site Selection

It is virtually impossible to locate a reservoir site having completely ideal
characteristics. General rules for choice of reservoir sites are:
1. A suitable dam site must exist. The cost of the dam is often a controlling factor
in selection of a site.
2. The cost of real estate for the reservoir (including road, railroád, cemetery,
and dwelling relocation) must not be excessive.
1 Shore Protection, Planning and Design, Technical Report, 3, 3d ed., ILS. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center, June 1966.
3. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity.

4. A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because of lower land costs
per unit of capacity, less evaporation loss, and less likelihood of weed growth.
5. Tributary areas, that are unusually productive of sediment should be avoided
if possible. .¡ L.,',.. . .
6. The quality of the stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use.
The reservoir banks and adjacent hillslopes should be stable. Unstable banks
will contribute large amounts of soil material to the reservoir.
8. The environmental impact of the proposed reservoir must be studied and made
available to the public to ascertain the social acceptability of the project.
PROBLEM S
7.1. F o r the reservoir o f Fig. 7.1, how m u ch w ater m ay be sto red betw een th e m inim um
operating level a n d th e n o rm al p o o l level? H ow m u c h w ater m ay be sto red as
surcharge storage?
7/2. F o r a site selected by y o u r in stru cto r, co n stru ct area-elevation á ñ d elevation-
capacity curves.
7.3. W h at reservoir cap acity is re q u ired for the d em an d rates o f E xam ple 7.1 if p u m p in g
is to be lim ited to off-peak nig h t h o u rs (7 p.nl. to 7 a m.)? W h at p u m p capacity is
required?
7.4. Suppose th a t the city in E xam ple 7.1 h as a n installed puhfip capacity 6 f 800 m 3/h. If
the pum ps a re to be tu rn e d on a n d off only once p er d^y, a n d ru n a t capacity, when,
should they be o p e ra te d to m inim ize the need for sto rag e? H ow m uch sto rag e will be
needed u nder these conditions? ' ,
7.5. A flood basin and, p u m ping sta tio n are to be designed. T he flow in to th e basin is as
show n in the follow ing draw ing. T h ere is no gravity flow o u t of the b asin ; it is to be
drained solely by pum ping! T he design criterion is th a t th e basin m ust be pu m p ed dry
w ithin 24 h r after th e occurrence o f th e first peak o f inflow. D u rin g th e early h o u rs o f
inflow the púm ps will p u m p w ater o u t o f the básin as fast as it enters th e basin. This
will continue until th e capacity of th e pum ps is reached. F ro m th en o n th e p u m p s will
o p erate a t co n sta n t capacity until th e basin is pu m p ed dry. D eterm ine:
(a) C apacity of the p um ps (in cubic feet p er second) so th a t the basin can be p u m p e d
dry w ithin 24 h r o f the first peak. /
(b) R equired storag e capacity o f th e flood basin (in acre-feet).
RESERVOIRS 213
7.6. T he m ass curve o f available w ater d u rin g th e critical d ry period a t a given storage
reservoir is as show n in the follow ing figure:
(a) W h at co ntinuous c o n stan t yield (in acre-feet p er year) is possible w ith a reservoir
having a storage capacity o f 500 acre-ft?
(b) W h at storage capacity (in acre-feet p er year) is req u ired for a co n sta n t yield
rate o f 140 gpm ? r
7.7. T he flows in to an d o u t o f a reservoir a re as follows:
Time Inflow, m3/s Outflow, m3/s
1000' >*'• 0.85

1200 0:74 0.79
140Q 1.22 0.57
1600 1.64 0.34
1800 1.36 0.25
2000 1.02 0.23
A t 10a.m . there are 4 9 0 0 m 3 o f w ater in th e reservoir. H ow m uch"w ater is in the

reservoir a t 5 p.m .?
7.8. W h a t reservoir capacity is required to p ro d u ce a yield (at uniform rate) o f 70 acre-ft/yr
for a site w here th e m o n th ly net flow in to th e reservoir d u rin g a critical flow p erio d
is as tab u lated in the follow ing tab le? *
October 18 acre-ft October 5 acre-ft October 15 acre-ft

November 22 November 6 November 17
December 17 December 6 December 25
January 26 January 5 January 47
February 15 February 3 February 16
March 32 March 2 March 18
April 8 April 1 ■^ April 7
May 3 May 0 May ■■■:4 - — —
June 0 June 0 June 0
July 0 July 0 July 1
August 0 August August " T 1 -.
September 0 September September 4

7.9. W h at uniform yield (acre-feet p e r m o n th ) could be áchiéved a t th e site o f P ro b . 7.8 if

the available reservoir capacity w ere 4Ó áCfé-ff? w
7.10. T he following tab le gives m onthly flows, p a n e v a p o ra tio n rainfall, a n d d em an d rates
for a critical 12-m onth period a t a p ro p o sed reservoir site. P rio r w ater rig h ts require
the release of n a tu ra l flow o r 8 cfs, w hichever is least. A ssum e th a t th e a v e ra g e ;
reservoir area is 1500 acres a n d th a t th e runoff coefficient for the lan d th a t will be <
flooded is 0.3. W h a t reservoir capacity is required? If th e previous year w#s su b stan ti
ally sim ilar to th e one given in th e table, is there sufficient w afer to m eet th e dem and?
Month M ean flow, cfs Dem and, a c r e -ft ! Evaporation, in. Rainfall, in.
January 119 1100 ! " 2.1 '■ 5.3

February 107 1650 2.7 310
March Í31 2200 3.2 \l¿ 6 " ■ - i
April 52 330& .....
May 20 3960 -"Ó .2

0 ^ -5
4io6 ■ : : 8.3 ..... '0'\' ' ‘
August — ■■5 - ■ , 4100 ‘ “ ;L ‘ : - r . . ' - i ? - ' 6' - "Í

1 -: t e - á9Ío'!' * ‘"'; ■ 7:8 0
October 42 2200 6.1 0
November 95 1980 i 4.7 '
December 103 1200 ! ; 2.1 6.3 . ' V- u, i
W h at co n stan t d em an d can be m et by th e reservoir w hose capacity w as determ ined

in P rob. 7.10? ' . v" '. ■'
A city engineer estim ates th e h o u rly d em and for Water o n the m axim um day as
tab u lated in th e follow ing table. If p um ping is to bé a t a uniform ráte for th e 24 hr,
w hat pum p capacity is required? W h a t reservoir capacity?
Hour ending Demand, JL/s Hour ending Dem and, L/s
0100 1300 1020 >
■AA tAA
0300 650 1500 k , 1050 A úl ' ■ ; j
0400 1600 1030

0500 1700 ........................
1035
0600 650 lfcoo ■ ■i 4
0700 670 '«* 1900 1040 ' M
0800 2000 1070
0900 900 2100 1090
1000 990 2200 1105
1100 1000 2300 1070 4v:wM :'- ■
' .'A
1200 1010 2400 1000
7.13. T ab u lated afe m o n th ly floWs for a p erio d o f low ru n o ff o n a sm all stream , correspond
ing m onthly rainfall, a n d the average m o n th ly p a n ev ap o ratio n . F in d th e fipm yield,
RESERVOIRS 215
assum ing a c o n stan t d em an d ra te a n d a 5000-acre-ft reservoir; W h a t is th e m axim um

possible yield from this stream for th e p erio d given înd w h a t reservoir capacity w ould
be required to sustain this yield? A ssum e th e average w ater-surface a rea o f the
reservoir to be 500 acres, a required release o f th e lesser o f 15 acre-ft p er m o n th o r
the n atu ral flow, a n d the runoff coefficient o f th e flooded land to be 0.3.
Flow , acre-ft Rainfall, in.

Norm al pan
Month 1932 1933 1934 1935 1932 1933 1934 1935 evaporation, ft
Jan. 2030 1045 62 1820 4.5 9.1 1.3 9.1 0.20

Feb. 4460 26 300 18 4.7 1.2 5.5 1 3 ' , 0.29
March 0 340 13 1630 0.5 3.4 0 5.9 0.42
April 0 6 8 3680 0.7 0.2 0.7 5.8 0.48
May 8 4 6 23 0.2 1.9 0.6 0 0.51
June 0 1 0 8 0 Q 0.6 0 0.45
July 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0.38
Aug. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.25
Sept. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 0.2 0.14
Oct. 0 0 0 0 0.4 1.9 1.0 0.8 0.07
Nov. 1 0 0 0 0 0.8 0 5.1 0.5 0108
Dec. 0 1 8 4.6 6.9 3.7 0.11
7.14. P lo t a m ass curve for a period of 20 y r for a s tre a m selected by y o u r in stru cto r. W h at
is th e firm yield o f th is stream if a reservoir w ith a capacity equal tb the m ean ann u al
runoff volum e w ere p rovided? H ow m an y years d u rin g th e 20-yr p erio d w ould have
p roduced an an n u al yield n o t m o re th a n 25 p ercent g reater th a n th e firm yield? Fifty
percent greater th a n th e firm yield? Twice th e firm yield? W ould it be reasonable to
p lan a w ater-use pro ject on the basis o f a yield g reátér th a n th e firm yield?
7.15. U sing the d á ta o f P ro b . 7.14, find th e fir& yield w ith a reservoir capacity o f one-half
the m ean an n u al run o ff of the stream . E stim ate th e p ro b ab le change m th is yield if
th e m ass curve were corrected for rainfall b n a n d ev ap o ra tio n from th e réservoir
surface! A ssum e á reasonable reservoir area. '
7.16. T he m agnitudes o f the w ater-year p recip itatio n in inches a t a statio n w ere ás follows:
28.13 36.45 26.73 27.98 30.18

31.62 34.72 27.12 26.12 32.66
27.45 29.16 30.06 28.35 \ 36.81
34.12 " 26.81 38.55 31.17 33.22
31.06 28.62 30.16 ,30.25 24.16
32.77 33.15 31.74 22.06 27.60
39.01 23.64 32.42 28.48 29.15
35.20 29.12 35.21 ) 25.26 33.12
29.17 36.20 ; 34.65 ; 39.22 29.62
32.24 33.13 29.17 28.43 26.45
25.96 30.62 36.71 32.17 32.53
24.87 30.54 34.36 27.45 35.64
T he relation betw een w ater-year p recipitation a n d ru n o ff from a w atershed in th

vicinity o f the rain gage is given by th e following curves:
40
30
¿2
Q.
1 20
" Previoiis year's
precifstation
10
/
5 . 10 15 20 25
Water-year runoff, in.
(a) D evelop a 50-yr record o f w ater-year ru n o ff o n the assum ption th a t the give
65-yr reco rd o f precip itatio n is a representative one. D o this by selecting p recipita
tions a t ra n d o m from the en tire set o f data. A ssum e 20 in. o f p recip itatio n d u rin
the year preceding the sta rt o f records. H ow co u ld this pro ced u re be im prove
to accoun t for. th e possibility o f p recipitation outside the bou n d s o f the given; d a ta
(b) A ssum ing th e basin has a n a rea o f 8700 acres, p lo t a mass curve o f runoff fo
th e 50 yr o f record.
(c) D eterm ine th e m ean an n u al flow.
(d) L ook a t th e m o st critical d ry periods o f y o u r m ass curve a n d determ ine th
storage required for yields o f 3600, 3000, 2400, 1800, and 1200 acre-ft/yr. Neglec
the effects o f local inflow, p recipitation, ev ap o ratio n , seepage, dow nstream r~
: leases, etc.
7.17. T he suspended sedim ent, in to n s p e r day, conveyed by a certain stream is related t
the flow rate, in cubic feet p er second, by Eq. (7.2) w ith k = 0.004 a n d n = 3. C o m p u t
an estim ate o f th e am o u n t o f suspended sedim ent passing the gaging statio n du rin
the rising lim b o f th e h y d ro g rap h show n in the follow ing figure.
Hours
RESERVOIRS 217
7.18. If the (dry) specific w eight of sedim ent deposited in .a reservoir is 9400 N /m 3 an d the
specific gravity of the sedim ent particles is 2 .6 7 ,4how m uch will 1 m 3 of sedim ent
weigh in situ. W h at will be its po ro sity ?
7.19. E stim ate the dry specific w eight o f a reservoir sedim ent deposit com posed of
35 percent sand, 28 percent silt, an d 37 percent clay by w eight 10 yr after deposition.
By how m uch will the porosity o f this deposit change after an ad d itio n al 15 yr of
consolidation? A ssum e th a t the sedim ent is alw ays subm erged an d th a t the specific
gravity of the sedim ent particles is 2.'65.
7.20. O n e-h alf inch of a sedim ent com posed of 22 percent sand, 41 percent silt, and
37 percent clay is deposited each year in a reservoir. E stim ate the to tal thickness of
the deposit after 25 yr if the sedim ent is always subm erged? R epeat for a reservoir
th a t is norm ally m bderately draw n dow n. ; ■ 1
7.21. A reservoir is contem plated on á stream th a t has an average ann u al runoff of
350 x 106 m 3. M easurem ents indicate th á t the average sedim ent inflow is 200,000 t/y.
A ssum ing th a t a cubic m eter of settled sedim ent will d ry b u t to a w eight of 9600 N /m 3,
show a plot of p robab le reservoir capacity versus tim e if the original capacity of the
reservoir is 42 x 106m 3. U se the m edian curve of Fig. 7.12. J
7.22. R epeat the preceding p ro b lem for the situation w here the average sedim ent inflow is
2,000,000 t/y. ;
7.23. W h at is the average co n cen tratio n o f suspended sedim ent for the inflows of th e two
preceding problem s? Express answ ers in p arts per m illion (ppm )'oh a w eight basis.
7.24. A reservoir has an initial capacity of 60,000 acre-ft a n d an average an n u al inflow of
200,000 acre-ft. If the average án n ü al sedim ent inflow is expected to be 4000 acre-ft,
and the deposited sedim ent com position is 25 percent sand, 35 percent silt, and
40 percent clay, p lo t reservoir capacity as a function o f time., for, the first 20 yr of
reservoir life.
7.25. A sm all reservoir (10,000 acre-ft capacity) is pro p o sed on the Red River. The average
annual sédim ent load is estiniated a t 1130 to n s/m i2, drainage area is 850 m i2. If the
average annual runoff from this basin is 1.6 in., w hat is th e m ost p ro b ab le life of the
reservoir to the p o in t where it is 80 percent full Of sfcdimbnt? Assume 1500 tons Of
sedim ent occupies 1 acre-ft. If 25 p ercent o f the incqnnhg^ s e ^ rh é h t could be vented
th rough the sluiceways, w hat w ould be the probable life of th e \e se rv o ir?
7.26. A reservoir has a fetch o f 4 mi, an d the estim ated v ariatio n of w ind spped:with d u ratio n
is tab u lated in the following table. W h a t is the significant w ave height to be expected
on this reservoir? Show also the significant wave height for each p air of data*
Wind duration, hr 0.2 0.5 ,1.0 1.5 , 2.0

Wind speed, mph 56 42 33 30 23
7.27. Analysis of westerly w inds at a given p o in t reveals the following relation between
w ind speed and d u ratio n :
Wind duration, min 15 30 60 90 120

Wind speed, km/h 108 92 76 72 70
D eterm ine the significant wave heights for westerly w inds with fetches of 1, 2, 3,
5. an d 7 km.
¡218 WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING
7.28. R epeat the preceding problem w ith th e follow ing w ind d a ta :
Wind duration, min 15 30 60 90 120

Wind speed, mph 83 67 48 39 34
7.29. W h at w ind setup m ay be expected o n a reservoir w ith a fetch o f 12 km , average d epth

of 5 m, an d critical w ind speed (land, station) of 65 m p h ? W h at w ind setup w ould
occur i f the dep th w ere 50 m ?
7.30. A shallow reservoir has a n effective fetch o f 4 mi a n d an average d ep th along the
fetch of 8 ft. If the design w ind speed, based on d a ta from an adjacent lan d station,
is 75 m ph, w hat w ind setup w ould you predict?
7.31. H ow m uch ru n -u p will occur w hen waves w ith a significant wave height of 6.0 ft an d
a period of 4 sec strik e ,a 22° sm o o th slope?, ,
7.32. A reservoir has an effective fetch fo r waves of 11 m i and} for setup of 19 mi. Average
depth is 100 ft. T h e critical w ind velocity (land statio n ) is 51 m ph. W h a t freeboard
allow ance should b e m ade for a n 8 p ercent exceedance if th e u p stream facô fT h e,
dam is sm ooth? H ow m uch less sh o u ld th e allow ance be for an u p stream facing o f
rip rap ? Slope o f th e up stream face o f the d am is 1:3.
7.33. F o r a reservoir in y o u r vicinity selected by the in stru cto r, carry o u t a com plete setup
an d wave analysis, securing w ind d a ta from th e N a tio n a l W eath er Service a n d
physical d a ta on the reservoir from th e op eratin g agency.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burges, S. J.: Use of Stochastic Hydrology to Determine Storage Requirements for Reservoirs: A
Critical Analysis, Stanford University Program in Engineering. Economic Planning, Report
EEP-34, September 1970.
Gottschalk, L. C.: Reservoir Sedimentation, chap. 17-1 in V, T. Chow (Ed.), “Handbook of Applied
Hydrology,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
Graf, W. H.: “The Hydraulics of Sediment Transport,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 19tl.
Koelzer, Victor Al: Reservoir Hydraulics, sec. 4 in C. V. Davis and K. E. Sorenson (Eds.), “Handbook
of Applied Hydraulics,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.
Leopold, L. B., M. G. Wolman, and J. P. Miller: “Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology,” Freeman,
San Franciscp, 1964.
Linsley, R. K., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus: “Engineering Hydrology,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1982.
Thomas, N. O., and G; E. Harbeck: Reservoirs in the United States, U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply
Paper 1360-A, 1956.
Vanoni, Vitó (Ed ): “Sedimentation Engineering,” Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No.
: 54, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1975. (
CHAPTER
8
DAMS
The first dam for which there are reliable records was built on the Nile River
sometime before 4000 b . c . It was used to divert the Nile and provide a site
for the ancient city of Memphis. The oldest dam still in use is the Almanza Dam
in Spain, which was constructed in the sixteenth century. With the passage of time,
materials and methods of. eonstfuction ‘’hávé' 'improved, mákíng possible the
erection of such large dams as the Rogun Dam, which is being constructed in the
USSR on the Vaksh River near the border of Afghanistan. This dam will be 1020
ft (335 m) high, of earth and rock fill. In terms of amount of material, aside from
a large tailings dam in Arizona, the Tarbela Dam on the Indus River in Pakistan
with a volume of 139 x 109 yd3 (106 x 109 m3) is the largest. However, the
Chapetón Dam, currently under construction on the Parana River in Argentina,
will contain nearly three times that volume.
The failure pf a dam may cáuse ¿erioüs loss of life and property; cohf-
sequelntly, the design and maintenance óf dams are commohly uñder government
surveillánce. In the United States over 60,000 dams are under the Control of stkte
authorities. The 1972 Federal Dam Safety Act (P.L. ’92-36^-’fCqîiresupelSoidi€
inspections of dams by qualified experts. The failure of the Teton Dam 1 in Idaho
in June 1976 added to the concern for dam safety in the United States. Sipqe then,
numerous studies have been initiated to define design criteria for dams2 and to
1 Philip M. Boffey, Teton Dam Failure: A Foul-up by the Engineers, Science 195, pp. 270-272, January
21, 1977. ...................................................................
2 Committee on Safety Criteria for Existing Danis; ‘‘Safety of Dahis— FloodandEarthquake Criteria,”
National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 1985.
219

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170 WATRR'RBSOURCfiS RNOINHHRINO

6.2 Appropriátive Rights

4.3 Comparison of Riparian ánd Appropriation

of quality whenever the water is naturally available. Each subsequent appropriat

6.4 Permit Systems

6.5 Development of Water Law in the Western

6.6 Water Codes,

reasonable requirements, but all water in excess of this amount is subject

1. Method o f appropriation. The intending appropriator is usually required to fi

6.8 Water Marketing

1Idaho, Nevada, N ew !Mexico, Oklahoma' Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

water-marketing ventures seeking profits, Governmental controls on water mar­

6.9 Federal Góvernment Water Rights r

l U.S. Const, Art. 1, §8, f3 .

1 U.S. Const. Art. 4, §3,'1Í2.

(.10 Federal Regulatory Law

6,11 Interstate Problems

6.12 State and Local Control o f Water Projects

1 U.S. Const. Art. 1, §10,113.

6.13 Drainage Law

1 The common-enemy rule is used in Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Maih^V^assachusetts,

A water-supply, irrigation, or hydroelectric project drawing water directly from a

7.1 Physical Characteristics o f Reservoirs

reservoirs on natural sites must usually be determined from topographic) survey

1 Greater accuracy can be achieved through usé of the prismoidal formula:

Zone* of storage in a reservoir.

7.2 Reservoir Yield

7.3 Selection of Distribution-Reservoir Capacity

Hour Demand, Pumping Required from

pipo 27? 529.3 0

Total 12,703 12,703 2426

7.4 Selection of Capacity for a River Reservoir

Solution. T an g en ts to the m ass curve a t A a n d B have slopes equal to th e d em and

Before finalizing the decision regarding reservoir capacity, it is usually

1 D. F. Manzer and M. P. Barnett, Analysis by Simulation: Programming Techniques for a High-Speed

Southwest Utah 60 8 0.3

From Eq. (7.1) the respective water losses are as follows:

7,5 Reservoir Reliability

We may estimate the reliability by generating stochastically (Sec. 5,16) 500 to 1

7.6 Sediment Transport by Streams

Schematic drawing of the sediment accumulation in a typical reservoir.

S u sp en d ed sed im e n t d isch a rg e in m e tr ic to ns per day

10 ! 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1

W ater d isc h a rg e in m j's e c

where n commonly varies between 2 and 3, though values of n as low as unity

7.7 Reservoir Sedimentation

English units Metric units

Net Original Sediment Annual Net Sediment

Schoharie 312 63.8 217 0.07 800 78.5 77

Reservoir operation W, W*■ . «2 w} B}

Sediment always submerged or nearly

•From E. W. Lane and V. A. Koelzer, “Density of Sediments Deposited in Reservoirs o f a Study of

ef streams in terms of reservoir sedimentation. The specific weight of settled

w - + Si l ogT) + ' 4 ^ ( W 2 * B 2log 7> + * $ * < * , + B3log7)

• D. C. Bondurant, Sedimentation Studies at Conchas Reservoir in New Mexico, Trans. A S C E , V o l

an d find th e volum e occupied by 500 to n s o f first-year an d ten th -y ear deposited

W = 0.20(93 + 0) + 0.30(65 + 5.7 log T) + 0.50(30 + 16 log T)

Solids volum e = (1 — p) x 1 ft3 ; > -4 ,

W ate r volum e = p x 1 ft3

water-marketing ventures seeking profits, Governmental controls on water mar

At Average Annual sediment Incre \