FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRONICS
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
Masters of Science in: 
Energy Engineering, 
Cybernetic Engineering, 
Information & Telecommunication Engineering

Prof. Isodiana CRUPI
Department of Energy, information Engineering 
and mathematical Models (DEIM)

A.Y. 2016/17
 CONTENT HOURS
Single‐transistor amplifier Common Emitter 
2
configuration 
Common Source and Common Collector (Drain) 
3
configurations
exercises on  amplifiers 3
Differential amplifier, Operational amplifier 2
Frequency response and Active filters 3
exercises on op amp & filters 2
Negative feedback 3
exercises on feedback 3
Midterm examination on analog electronics2

Suggested books
Microelectronics Circuits, Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth 
C. Smith, Oxford University Press. 
(Italian edition by EdiSES – Napoli).
Microelectronic Circuits Design, Richard C. Jaeger, 
Travis N. Blalock, McGraw‐Hill
All the images are taken from the suggested books or from internet
Four amplifier models

In the design of an electronic system, the signal of interest 
can be either a voltage or a current.

Simple relationships can be derived to relate the parameters 
of the various models:
Ro Rm
Avo  Ais  Gm Ro 
Ri Ri
 Voltage amplifier

In order not to lose a significant portion of the 
Ri input signal in coupling the signal source to the 
vi  vs amplifier input, the amplifier must be designed 
Ri  Rs to have an input resistance Ri much greater 
than the resistance of the signal source Rs.

In order not to lose gain in 
Ri RL coupling the amplifier output to a 
Av  Avo  Av load, the output resistance Ro
Ri  Rs RL  Ro should be much smaller than the 
load resistance RL
 Common-Emitter amplifier

Amplification can be 
obtained by biasing the 
transistor to operate in the 
forward‐active region.

The common‐emitter (C‐E) amplifier

‐
is the most widely used of all BJT amplifier configurations.
VCC

RB1 RC C
C

CB
Rsig
RL v
o

vsig vi RB2 RE CE

Rin Ro

CC and CB are coupling capacitors, CE is a bypass capacitor. These

capacitors, while blocking DC, behave as perfect short circuits at
all signal frequencies of interest
 Small-signal equivalent
circuit of the C-E amplifier
To determine the characteristic parameters of the C‐E amplifier,
VCC is replaced with a short circuit to ground, the coupling and
bypass capacitor with short circuits, and the BJT with its small‐
signal model

Rsig

vi RB1 RB2 r r RC RL vo
vsig ib

Rin= RB1║ RB2║ r Ro= RC║ro

RB
RB  RB1 // RB 2 R*  RL // RC // ro vTH  vsig RTH  RB // Rsig
RB  Rsig
vTH
vo     ib R* ib 
RTH  r

vo R // RC // ro RB
AV    L voltage gain
vsig RB // Rsig  r RB  Rsig
vo  open‐circuit 
AVo   AV Rs  0  ( RC // ro )
vi RL   r voltage gain
 Common-Source amplifier

Amplification can be 
obtained by biasing the 
transistor to operate in the 
saturation region.

The common‐source (CS) configuration

‐ is
the most widely used of all MOSFET amplifier circuits.

CC1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors, Cs is a bypass capacitor.

These capacitors, while blocking DC, behave as perfect short
circuits at all signal frequencies of interest
Small-signal equivalent
circuit of the C-S amplifier
To determine the characteristic parameters of the C‐E amplifier,
VCC is replaced with a short circuit to ground, the coupling and
bypass capacitor with short circuits, and the MOSFET with its
small‐signal model

Rin
vi  vsig vi  vgs
Rin  Rsig
vo   g m v gs  ( RL // RD // ro )

vo Rin
 AV    g m ( RL // RD // ro ) voltage gain
vsig Rin  Rsig
vo open‐circuit 
 AVo   AV Rs  0   g m ( RD // ro )
vi RL  voltage gain
Common-Collector amplifier
Emitter follower
The common‐collector (C‐C) is more commonly called the
emitter follower.

Small-signal equivalent circuit

 Common-Collector amplifier
Emitter follower

RB  RB1 // RB 2
RTH  RB // Rsig
RB
vTH  vsig
RB  Rsig
vo  ( RL // RE // ro )(1   )ib

vTH  ( RTH  r )ib  vo

vo RB (1   )( RL // RE // ro )
AV   1
vsig RB  Rsig (1   )( RL // RE // ro )  ( RB // Rsig  r )
(1   )( RE // ro )
AVo  A V Rs  0  1
RL   (1   )( RE // ro )  r

Rin  RB //(1   )( RE // RL // ro )  r  input resistance

RB // Rsig  r
Ro  RE // ro // output resistance
1 
Common-Drain amplifier
Source follower
The common‐drain (C‐D) is more commonly called the source
follower.

Small-signal equivalent circuit

 Common-Drain amplifier
Source follower

RG
vi  vs vi  v g
RG  Rsig
vo  g m v gs ( RL // RS // ro ) vo  vS
vo  g m (v g  vo )( RL // RS // ro )

vo g m ( RL // RS // ro ) RG
AV    1 voltage gain
vsig 1  g m ( RL // RS // ro ) RG  Rsig
vo g m ( RS // ro ) open‐circuit 
AVo   AV Rs  0 
vi RL   1  g m ( RS // ro ) voltage gain

Rin  RG input resistance
1 1
Ro  // ro // RS  output resistance
gm gm
Voltage Buffers

Connecting a source of 1V with an internal resistance of 1M

to a 1k load resistance as in Fig.(b) would result in severe
attenuation of the signal.

An alternative is to interpose an amplifier between the source

and the load. The amplifier has a voltage gain of only unity, a
very high input resistance, and a low output resistance
 Characteristics of amplifiers
TYPE AVO RIN ROUT
 RB1 // RB 2 // r RC // ro
C‐E  ( RC // ro )
r
C‐S  g m ( RD // ro ) RG1 // RG 2 RD // ro

C‐C 0<Avo<1 High Low

C‐D 0<Avo<1 RG 1 gm

Cascaded amplifiers
To meet given amplifier specifications, we often need to design
the amplifier as a cascade of more stages, each is designed to
serve a specific purpose. For instance, the first stage is usually
required to have a large input resistance, the final stage in the
cascade is usually designed to have a low output resistance
1. The C‐E amplifier below utilizes a BJT, with  =100 and 
VA=100V, biased at IC =0.5 mA. Find Rin, Ro, Avo.
15 V

3 M 18 k

10 k
20 k

100 k 10 k

2. The C‐S amplifier below utilizes a nMOSFET, with VTn=1V and 
VA=100V, biased at ID=0.5mA when VS=3.5V and VD=6V. Find 
RS and RD, the parameters gm and ro at the bias point, and 
Rin, Ro, Avo and Av. 15 V

5 M

100 k

20 k

2.5 M
Exercise 1

1 
VC  15  RC I C  6V VE  RE I C  5.05V

VCE  0.95V  VCEsat  BJT in active mode
VT  V
r   5k r o  A  200k
IC IC

Rin  RB1 // RB 2 // r  4.75k

Ro  RC // ro  16.5k
vo 
Avo    ( RC // ro )  330
vi r
 Exercise 2

VS V  VD
RS   7 k R D  DD  18k
ID ID
RG 2
VG  VDD  5V
RG1  RG 2
 VDS  VGS  VTn nMOSFET in saturation
2I D VA
gm   2 mA V ro   200k
(VGS  VTn ) ID

Rin  RG1 // RG 2  1.67 M

Ro  RD // ro  16.5k
vo
AVo    g m ( RD // ro )  33
vi
vo Rin Rin RL
AV    g m ( RL // RD // ro )  AVo  17.1
vsig Rin  Rsig Rin  Rsig RL  Ro
Differential amplifier
A differential amplifier responds to the difference between the
two signals applied at its input and ideally rejects signals that
are common to the two inputs ( Ad  Ac )
VCC

RC RC
vO1 iC1 iC2 vO2

vi1 iE1 iE2 vi2

A B A B
vo  Avi1  Bvi 2  (vi1  vi 2 )  (vi1  vi 2 )
2 2
v v v v
vd  vi1  vi 2 vc  i1 i 2 vi1  vc  d vi 2  vc  d
2 2 2
vo  Ad vd  Ac vc
A B
Ad  amplifier differential gain
2
Ac  A  B common‐mode gain (ideally zero)
Ad
CMRR  common‐mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Ac
 Operational amplifier

The ideal op amp is not supposed to draw any input current
the input impedance of an ideal op amp is supposed to be infinite.

The output voltage will always be equal to A(v2−v1), independent 
of the current that may be drawn from terminal 3 into a load 
impedance. 
the output impedance of an ideal op amp is supposed to be zero.

An ideal op amp has zero common‐mode gain (equivalently infinite 
CMRR), infinite gain A, infinite bandwidth
 Operational amplifier

 1 and 2 are the input terminals
 3 is the output terminal
 4 and 5 are the power supply terminals

An op‐amp is comprised of at least three different amplifier stages

vid
vo
+

Differential Gain Output

Stage Stage Stage
The inverting configuration

vo
G closed‐loop gain
vi
vo
v1  v2   0  v1  v2 virtual short circuit
A
vi  v1 vi
i1  
R1 R1
R2
vo  v1  R2i1   vi
R1
R2
G 
R1

The closed‐loop gain depends entirely on external passive

components, we can make it as accurate as we want.
The closed‐loop gain is (ideally) independent of the op‐amp
gain.
The noninverting configuration

vo
G closed‐loop gain
vi
vo
v1  v2   0  v1  v2 virtual short circuit
A
v1
i1  
R1
 R 
vo  v1  R2i1  1  2 vi
 R1 
R
 G  1 2
R1
if R2  0 R1    G  1

voltage follower
The weighted summer amplifier

A very important application of the inverting configuration is

the weighted‐summer circuit

v1 v2 vn
i1  i2  ... in 
R1 R2 Rn
 Rf Rf Rf 
vo   v1  v2  ... vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 

The output voltage is a weighted sum of the input signals

The difference amplifier

The difference between two input signals is obtained by

combining the two configurations.

R2
v  vi 2
R1  R2
vi1  v  R2  R
vo  v  R2  1  v  2 vi1
R1  R1  R1
R2
vo  vi 2  vi1 
R1
The integrator

The integrator is formed from an operational amplifier with

frequency‐dependent feedback.

vi1
ii 
R
vo
ic  C  ii
t
1
 vo   RC  vi t
1 t
vo (t )  vo (0) 
RC 0
vi t
The differentiator

Interchanging the location of the capacitor and the resistor of

the integrator circuit results in the circuit below, which
performs the mathematical function of differentiation.

vi
ii  C
t
vo
iR    ii
R
v
vo   RC i
t
Frequency associated with
common signals
Laplace transform method
The time behavior of linear circuits (circuits with R,L,C and 
linear sources) is described by linear differential equations:

Laplace transform (LT)

L f (t )  F ( s )   f (t )e  st dt s: complex frequency variable
0
Inverse LT
L1F ( s )  f (t )

The Laplace transform is a powerful tool able to transform 
differential equations in algebra equations.

DIFFERENTIAL  LT ALGEBRA 
EQUATIONS EQUATIONS

DIFFICULT EASY

SOLUTIONS OF  INVERSE LT SOLUTIONS OF 

DIFFERENTIAL  ALGEBRA 
EQUATIONS EQUATIONS
Transfer function

X i (s ) T (s ) X o (s )

X o (s)
T (s) 
X i (s)

bm s m  bm 1s m 1   b1s  b0
T (s) 
an s n   a1s  a0

T ( s )  To
 s  z1 s  z 2  s  z m 
s  p1 s  p2  s  pn 
zeros are the roots of the numerator
poles are the roots of the denominator
Transfer function, impedance

I (s ) Z (s ) V (s )

V ( s)
Z (s) 
I (s)

1. Resistor
v(t )  Ri(t )  V ( s)  RI ( s)  Z ( s)  R

2. Capacitor
 dv(t )
 i (t )  C 1
 dt  I ( s )  sCV ( s )  Z ( s ) 
v(0)  0 sC

3. Inductor
 di (t )
 v (t )  L
 dt  V ( s )  sLI ( s )  Z ( s )  sL
i (0)  0
Bode plot

Hendrik Wade Bode was an American 
engineer, researcher, inventor, author and 
scientist, pioneer of modern control 
theory and electronic telecommunications.

In the 1930s, while working at Bell Labs, H. Bode devised a 
simple but accurate method for using linearized asymptotic 
responses to graph gain and phase shift against frequency on a 
logarithmic scale, together called Bode plots.

The transfer function T ( j )  T ( j ) e  jT ( j )

• Amplitude Bode plot
 (or f) on a logarithmic scale
|T(j)| in decibel (dB) on a linear scale
• Phase Bode plot
 (or f) on a logarithmic scale
 T(j) in radiant on a linear scale
Frequency response of amplifiers

Whenever a sine‐wave signal is applied to a linear circuit, the 
resulting output is sinusoidal with the same frequency as the 
input, but in general will have a different amplitude and will 
be shifted in phase relative to the input.

The transfer function T ( j )  T ( j ) e  jT ( j )
Vo
T  j  
Vi
T  j   
Frequency response of amplifiers

The amplifier has to be designed so that its midband coincides 
with the frequency spectrum of the signals it is required to 
amplify.

BW  f H  f L amplifier bandwidth
GB  AM BW gain–bandwidth product

This type of frequency response is common in audio amplifiers.
Filters
The filters are linear circuits that can be represented by the 
general two‐port network:

Vo ( s )
T (s)  transfer function
Vi ( s )

T ( j  )  T ( j ) e j  (  ) filter transmission

G ( )  20 log T ( j ) , dB gain function
Filter types

Filters that employ only passive elements such as capacitors, 
inductors, and resistors are called passive filters.
Filters that make use of the properties of op‐amps in addition 
to resistors and capacitors are called active filters
Passive low-pass filter

1 1
A( s )  0 
1  sRC RC

A  1   0
Active low-pass filter

R2 1 1
A( s )   0 
R1 1  sR2C R2C

R2
R1 dB

R2
A   0
R1
Note that the low‐frequency gain and the cutoff frequency 
can be set independently.
Passive high-pass filter

sRC 1
A( s )  0 
1  sRC RC

A  1   0
Active high-pass filter

R2 sR1C 1
A( s )   0 
R1 1  sR1C R1C

R2
R1 dB

R2
A   0
R1
Note that the high‐frequency gain and the cutoff frequency 
can be set independently.
Low-pass filter

The transmission of a low‐pass filter is specified by four 
parameters:
1. The passband edge ωp
2. The maximum allowed variation in passband 
transmission Amax
3. The stopband edge ωs
4. The minimum required stopband attenuation Amin

The ratio ωs/ωp is usually used as a measure of the 
sharpness of the low‐pass filter response and is called the 
selectivity factor.
Bandpass filter

A first‐order function can exhibit only low‐pass and high‐
pass filters. A first‐order bandpass filter can be made by 
cascading a low‐pass filter with a high‐pass filter.
1. Find the values of the 
currents and  voltages 
reported in the circuit in (a). 
Also find the voltage gain 
vO/vI , the current gain iL/iI
and the power gain PL/PI
(a)

2. Find how the output voltage 
depends on the input voltage 
in (b). If vi=2sin(4000πt) V, 
what is the output voltage of 
the amplifier?
(b)

3. Design the circuit in (c) to 
establish a low‐frequency 
gain of 20 and a cutoff 
frequency of 10kHz, 
R2=10k

(c)

4. A band‐pass amplifier has fL=1.5 kHz, fH=2.5 kHz, and 
A=10. If the input voltage is given by 
vi=[0.5sin(2000πt)+sin(4000πt)+1.5sin(6000πt)] V, 
what is the output voltage of the amplifier?
 V1
1. i I  0 A V 1 1V i1   1mA i1 i 2
1k
V oV 19ki 2  10V
Vo
iL  10mA i o i L i 2  11mA
1k
V i V i
AV  o  10 A I  L   A P  o L  
V1 iI V 1i I

R2 v v
2. iR1  iC  iR 2  vout   vin  R2C in  5vin  0,0005 in
R1 t t
vin
vin  2 sin(4000t )   8000 cos(4000t )
t
 vout  10 sin(4000t )  4 cos(4000t )

R2 1
3. A( s )  
R1 1  sR2C
1 1 1
0  C    1,59nF
R2C 2f t R2 2 10 10
4 4

R2 10 4
A  20  R1   0,5k
R1 20

4. vout  10 sin(4000t )
Feedback

Harold Stephen Black (April 14, 1898 –
December 11, 1983), an American 
electrical engineer, revolutionized the 
field of applied electronics by inventing 
the negative feedback amplifier in 1927.

His invention is considered the most important breakthrough 
of the twentieth century in the field of electronics. This is 
because all electronic devices (vacuum tubes, bipolar 
transistors and MOS transistors) are inherently nonlinear, 
but they can be made substantially linear with the 
application of negative feedback. 
Negative feedback works by sacrificing gain for higher 
linearity.

It is almost impossible to think of electronic circuits without 
some form of feedback.
Feedback
Feedback can be either negative or positive.

xo
A open‐loop gain
xi
xf
 feedback factor
xo
xo  Axi  A( xs  x f )  A( xs  xo  )
xo A
Af   Closed‐loop gain
xs 1   A
A loop gain

1  A amount of feedback

1
if A  1  A f 

When the loop gain is large, the gain of the feedback 
amplifier is almost entirely determined by the feedback 
network.
Properties of negative feedback
In amplifier design, negative feedback is applied to effect one 
or more of the following goals:

1. Desensitize the gain
dA f 1

dA (1  A) 2
dA f 1 dA the percentage change in Af is smaller than 

Af 1  A A the percentage change in A by a factor equal 
to the amount of feedback

2. Reduce nonlinear distortion
3. Reduce the effect of noise

S Vs

N Vn

S Vs
 A2
N Vn

4. Extend the bandwidth of the amplifier

5. Control the input and output resistances
Electronic amplifiers use current or voltage as input and output

voltage-sampling current-sampling

voltage-mixing current-mixing
Feedback amplifiers
Four types of amplifier are possible:

series–shunt 
feedback 
voltage‐mixing, 
voltage‐sampling

shunt–shunt 
feedback 
current‐mixing, 
voltage‐sampling

series–series
feedback 
voltage‐mixing, 
current‐sampling

shunt–series
feedback 
current‐mixing, 
current‐sampling
 Feedback voltage amplifier

Vo A
Af  Vo  AVi  A(Vs  Vo )  A f 
Vs 1  A
Vs Vi Vs
Vi  Vs  Vo  Ii    Rif  Ri 1  A
1  A Ri 1  ARi
Vx  AVi Vx 1  A Ro
Vi   Vx V 0 Ix    Rof 
s
Ro Ro 1  A
Feedback transresistance amplif.

Vo A
Af  Vo  AI i  A( I s  Vo )  A f 
Is 1  A
Ri
Vs  Vi  Ri I i I s  I i  Vo  I i 1  A  Rif 
1  A
Vx  AI i Vx 1  A Ro
I i    Vx Ix    Rof 
I s 0
Ro Ro 1  A
Feedback transconductance amp.

Io A
Af  I o  AVi  A(Vs  I o )  A f 
Vs 1  A
I s  I i Vs  Vi  I o  Vi 1  A  Rif  Ri 1  A

Vi  I x V 0 Ix 
Vx  Ro AVi   R  Ro 1  A
of
s
Ro
 Feedback current amplifier

Io A
Af  I o  AI i  A( I s  I o )  A f 
Is 1  A
Is Is Ri
Ii  Vi  Vs  Ri I i  Ri  Rif 
1  A 1  A 1  A
Vx  AI i Ro Vx  AI x Ro
I i  I x V 0 I x    Rof  Ro 1  A
s
Ro Ro
Feedback Amplifier topologies
Exercise 1
In the op‐amp circuit below, find:
•  and R2/R1 to obtain Af of 10, assuming an ideal op 
amp with infinite input resistance and zero output 
resistance
• the input resistance of the feedback amplifier if the op‐
amp has an input resistance Ri, a negligibly small output 
resistance and a gain A of 104
• the low‐frequency gain and the 3‐dB frequency of a 
closed‐loop amplifier with R1=1 k and R2=9 k, if A has 
a low‐frequency gain of 104 and a 3‐dB frequency of 
100Hz
• if A decreases by 20%, find the corresponding decrease 
in Af and its percentage change.
 Exercise 1
Vf R1
 
Vo R1  R2
R2 1
A  1  A f    9    0.1
 R1

Vs Vi  V f
Rif  
Is Ii
Vi  Vo
Rif 
Ii
Vi (1  A)
Rif   1001Ri
Ii

AM
A fM   9.99 V/V f Hf  f H 1  AM    100.1k
1  AM 

if A  10 4 , A f  10    0,099
dA f
20%
if A  0.8 10  A f  9,9975 , 
4
  0.025%
Af 1  A
Exercise 2
Design two feedback amplifiers, both with Af = 10 V/V, 
employing an amplifier with A = 1000 V/V and one with A 
= 500 V/V. Find  and the desensitivity factor in both 
cases. 
As the operating temperature changes, the open‐loop 
gain exhibits an uncertainty of ±10%. If it is required to 
constrain the change to 0.1% by applying the negative 
feedback, what is the largest closed‐loop gain possible 
factor in both cases?
Exercise 2

A
Af   10 V/V
1  A
 A1  1000 1  A11  100  1  0.099
  
 A2  500 1  A2  2  50  2  0.098

dA dA f
 10% and  0.1%  1  A  100
A Af
 A1  1000  1  0.099
 
 A2  500  2  0.198
 A1min
 A   9.99
 A1min  900  f 1min
1  A1min 1
 
 A1max  1100  A f 1  A1max  10
 max
1  A1max 1
 A2 min
 A   4.99
 A2 min  450  f 2 min
1  A2 min  2
 
A
 2 max  550 A2 max
 Af 1  5
 max
1  A2 max  2