Vector Derivatives

∑
Line Element ds = hi dxi
i
∑ 1 ∂f
Gradient ∇f = êi i
hi ∂x
i
(√ )
1 ∑ ∂ det g i
Divergence ∇·A= √ A
det g i ∂xi hi
 
 
 
1  hi êi i· · · 
∇×A= √
det g ∂/∂xi · · ·
Curl
 hi A · · · 
(√ )
1 ∑ ∂ det g ∂Ai
Laplacian ∇ f=√
2
det g i ∂xi h2i ∂xi

Curvilinear Velocities
Cylindrical ρ̂˙ = ϕ̇ ϕ̂
˙
ϕ̂ = −ϕ̇ ρ̂

ẑ˙ = 0

Cylindrical Velocity Squared v 2 = ṙ2 + r2 ϕ̇2 + ż 2

Spherical r̂˙ = θ̇ θ̂ + ϕ̇ sin θ ϕ̂

˙
θ̂ = −θ̇ r̂ + ϕ̇ cos θ ϕ̂
˙
ϕ̂ = −ϕ̇ ρ̂

Spherical Velocity Squared v 2 = ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 + r2 ϕ˙2 sin2 θ

Calculus of Variations
∫ t2
Optimize: S[q] = F (q, q̇, t) dt
t1
Algebraic Constraint
Constraint: f (q, t) = 0
Lagrangian: L(q, q̇, t, λ) = F (q, q̇, t) − λf (q, t)
∫ t2
Optimize: S[q] = F (q, q̇, t) dt
∫ t2t1
Integral Constraint Constraint: J= f (q, q̇, t) dt
t1

Lagrangian: L(q, q̇, t, λ) = F (q, q̇, t) − λf (q, q̇, t)

∫ t2
Optimize: S[q] = F (q, q̇, t) dt
t1
Differential Constraint
Constraint: f (q, q̇, t) = 0
Lagrangian: L(q, q̇, t, λ) = F (q, q̇, t) − λ(t)f (q, q̇, t)
 Lagrangian Mechanics

Lagrangian L=T −U
( )
d
Conservative Force F = −∇r + ∇ṙ U
dt
( )
Euler-Lagrange Equation d ∂L ∂L ∂f
(holonomic constraint)
− =λ
dt ∂ q̇ ∂q ∂q
∂g
Velocity Dependent Constraint f (q, q̇) = a(q) · q̇ = 0 is holonomic ⇐⇒ a(q) =
∂q
1 2
Electromagnetic Lagrangian L= mṙ − eΦ + eA · ṙ
2

Symmetries and Conservation Laws

df
Equivalent Lagrangians L′ = L +
dt
Noether’s Theorem t′ = t + ϵT , q′ = q + ϵQ is a symmetry
( )
∂L ∂L
· q̇ − L T − · Q is conserved
∂ q̇ ∂ q̇
Symmetry Conserved Quantity

Time Translation Energy

Conserved Quantities Translation Momentum
Rotation Angular Momentum
Boost Origin
Gauge Electric Charge

Two-Body Central-Force Problem

m1 r1 + m2 r2 m2 r
Coordinate Transform R= r1 = R +
M M
m1 r
r = r1 − r2 r2 = R −
M
m1 m2
Reduced Mass µ= < m 1 , m2
M
1 1
Two-Body Central-Force Lagrangian L = m1 ṙ21 + m2 ṙ22 − U (|r1 − r2 |)
2 2
1
L = M Ṙ + µr2 − U (r)
2
1 ( )
Lbound = µ ṙ2 + r2 ϕ̇2 − U (r)
2
Angular Momentum µr2 ϕ̇ = ℓ = const.
ℓ2
Effective Potential Ueff (r) = U (r) +
2µr2
1
Transformed Radial Equation of Motion r=
u
 Noninertial Frames
Notation ṙ = time derivative in inertial frame
r′ = time derivative in noninertial frame

Newton’s Second Law in an Accelerating Frame mr′′ = F + Finertial

= F − mA

Velocity of a Point in a Rotating Frame v =Ω×r

Time Derivative in a Rotating Frame Q̇ = Q′ + Ω × Q

Newton’s Second Law in a Rotating Frame mr′′ = F + Fcoriolis + Fcentrifugal + Feuler

= F + 2mr′ × Ω + m (Ω × r) × r + mr × Ω′

Rigid Body Mechanics

Total Linear Momentum Fext = Ṗ = M R̈

Total Angular Momentum L = Lorbital + Lspin

L̇ = R × Fext + τext,spin
∫ ( )
r′ δij − x′i x′j ρ(r′ ) d3 r′
2
Moment of Inertia Tensor Iij =

Rotational Angular Momentum L = Iω

1 1 1 1
Total Kinetic Energy T = M Ṙ2 + ω · L = M Ṙ2 + ω t Iω
2 2 2 2
M gR
Precession of a Top Due to Weak Torque Ω= ẑ
Izz ω
Euler’s Equation L′ + ω × L = τ

Oscillations
Harmonic Oscillator ẍ + ω 2 x = 0

Solutions x(t) = C1 eiωt + C2 e−iωt

x(t) = B1 sin(ωt) + B2 cos(ωt)
x(t) = A cos(ωt − δ)
x(t) = Re Aei(ωt−δ)

Damped Harmonic Oscillator ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = 0

Damping γ Decay Parameter Solution
Solutions ( )
Under γ<ω β=γ x(t) = e−βt C1 eiΩt + C2 e−iΩt
(Ω2 = ω 2 − γ 2 ) Critical γ=ω β=ω x(t) = e−βt (C1 + C2 t)
Over γ>ω β± = γ ± Ω x(t) = C1 e−β+ t + C2 e−β− t

Displacements from Equilibrium η = q − q0

1 1
Lagrangian to Second Order L = η̇ t T η̇ + η t U η
2 2
Equations of Motion Tη̈ + Uη = 0

Oscillatory Solution η = Re aeiωt

( )
Secular Equation det U − ω 2 T = 0
 Hamiltonian Mechanics
Hamiltonian H = p · q̇ − L

∂H ∂H
Hamilton’s Equations = −p, =q
∂ q̇ ∂ ṗ
dH ∂H
=
dt ∂t
∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
Poisson Bracket [f, g] = · − ·
∂p ∂q ∂q ∂p
df ∂f
Time Derivative = + [H, f ]
dt ∂t
df dg d[f, g]
Poisson’s Theorem = = 0 =⇒ =0
dt dt dt

Canonical Transformations [Qi , Qj ]p,q = 0, [Pi , Pj ]p,q = 0, [Pi , Qj ]p,q = δij

[f, g]p,q = [f, g]P,Q

Generating Functions dF1 = p · dq − P · dQ + (H − H ′ ) dt

dF2 = p · dq + Q · dP + (H − H ′ ) dt
∫
Liouville’s Theorem dp dq = const.

1 2
Electromagnetic Hamiltonian H= (p − eA) + eΦ
2m

Actions
∫ t2
Action Functional S[q(t)] = L[q, q̇, t] dt
stationary for true evolution
t1
∫
Abbreviated Action Functional S0 [C] = p · dq
stationary for true path
C
Hamilton’s Principal Function
fix initial q, t, vary final q, t dS = p · dq − H dt
used in HJE

Hamilton’s Characteristic Function W (q) = S(q, t) + Et = S0

if energy is conserved in HJE
∫
Action Variable Ii = pi dqi
canonical action variable

Adiabatic Invariants and Action-Angle Variables

λ
Slowly Varying Hamiltonian H = H(p, q, λ(t)) with λ̇ ≪
T
I
1
Adiabatic Invariant I= p(q, E, λ) dq
2π
∂I ∂E
Oscillation Frequency T = 2π =⇒ ω =
∂E ∂I
∂W ∂W
Action-Angle Generating Function W = F2 (q, I, λ) =⇒ p = ,θ=
∂q ∂I
dE(I)
Action-Angle Hamilton’s Equations H ′ = E(I) =⇒ I˙ = 0, θ̇ = =⇒ θ = ω(I)t + C
dI
 Hamilton-Jacobi Mechanics
( )
∂S ∂S
Hamilton-Jacobi Equation +H , q, t =0
∂t ∂q
∑
Additive Separation of Variables S(q, P, t) = −P1 t + Wi (qi , P)
i
∂S ∂S
HJE Generating Function S = F2 (q, P) =⇒ Q = ,p=
∂P ∂q

H ′ = 0 =⇒ Ṗ = Q̇ = 0

Solve for q(t) in terms of Q, P

p2
One-Dimensional System H= + U (q) =⇒ energy conserved
2m
∫ √ ∫ √
S = −Et + p dq = −Et + 2m E − U (q) dq
√
p= 2m(E − U (q))
√ ∫
∂S m dq
Q= = −t + √
∂E 2 E − U (q)