(5.

7) Harmonic Plane Waves

The classical wave equation is of the form:

r
∂ p% (r ,t ) r
2

= c 2 ∇ 2 p% ( r , t )
∂t
2
r
where r = rx xˆ + ry yˆ + rz zˆ is the position vector.
If we assume that the solution is of the form:
r r
p% ( r , t ) = g% ( r )h% (t )
where
h ( t ) = e jωt
then
r r
∇2 g% ( r ) + k 2 g% ( r ) = 0 . (Helmholtz Equation)
The Helmholtz equation is a convenient form to solve propagation factors (wavenumber) in different
coordinate systems. The use of rectangular coordinates is useful in describing plane waves. A plane
wave is an acoustic wave in which the acoustic variables have constant amplitude and phase on any
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates
gives:
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = 2 + 2 + 2 (Laplacian operator in rectangular)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂2 g% ∂2 g% ∂2 g%
+ + + k 2 g% = 0 .
∂x 2 ∂y2 ∂z2
Let’s try the solution:
r
g% ( r ) = X% ( x ) Y% ( y ) Z% ( z )
then

∂2 X% ( x ) % % ∂2Y% ( y ) % % ∂ 2Z% ( z ) %
Y (y ) Z ( z ) + X (x ) Z ( z ) + X ( x ) Y% ( y ) + k 2 X% ( x ) Y% ( y ) Z% ( z ) = 0
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2

dividing by X% ( x ) Y% ( y ) Z% ( z ) yields
1 ∂ 2 X% ( x ) 1 ∂ 2 Y% ( y ) 1 ∂ 2 Z% ( z )
+% + % = −k 2 .
X% ( x ) ∂x 2 Y ( y ) ∂ y2 Z ( z ) ∂z2
In order for the equation above to hold for all x, y and z each term must be equal to a constant, so
1 ∂ 2 X% ( x ) 1 ∂2Y% ( y ) 1 ∂ 2 Z% ( z )
% = −k x ,
2
% = −k y ,
2
% = −k z2
X ( x ) ∂x 2
Y ( y ) ∂y 2
Z ( z ) ∂z 2

and
r
k 2 = k 2x + k 2y + k z2 and k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + kz zˆ (the wave vector)
This represents the 3D acoustic wavenumber for rectangular coordinates.
Each of the three terms above can be solved and have the solution
Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 15
 X% ( x ) = e − jk x x
for a simple plane wave propagating in the + direction.
r
This gives a total solution for g% ( r ) of:
r
g% ( r ) = Ae − jk x x e y e − jk z z
− jk y

r r r
g% ( r ) = Ae − j k⋅ r
The pressure is then:
r r
r rr
j (ωt − k ⋅ r )
p% ( r , t ) = Ae e j ωt − j k⋅ r
= Ae . (+ going wave).

Let’s take as an example a plane wave propagating in both + and – directions and constrained to move
only in the x-direction (a 1D plane wave solution). The solution to this will be:
p% ( x, t ) = Ae j (ωt − kx ) + Be j( ωt + kx )
or
p% ( x, t ) = p+ + p−
Note: Since we are talking about a real physical acoustic wave, we may represent the solution using the
complex exponential form but we are really interested in the real part of the solution.

So, we have the constants A and B, which in general are complex but for this solution we are assuming
them to be real. The acoustic pressure that would be measured is the real part:
p ( x, t ) = A cos ( ωt − kx ) + B sin (ω t + kx ) .
r
r ∂u
To obtain the particle velocity, u , we use the force equation (Euler’s equation) ρ0 =−∇p :
∂t
r
∂u 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= −  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  p
∂t ρ0  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
But since we are talking about a plane wave propagating only in the x-direction then:
r
∂u 1 ∂p
=− xˆ
∂t ρ 0 ∂x
r
∂u 1
= − ( − jk ) Ae ( + ( jk ) Be (
j ωt − kx) j ωt + kx)
 xˆ
∂t ρ0  
where we have again used the exponential form due to the ease of manipulation and operations. What
we have derived is the particle acceleration of a plane harmonic wave
r
r ∂u  jkA j( ωt − kx) jkB j (ωt + kx ) 
a= = −
∂t  ρ 0  xˆ
e e
ρ0 
r
To get u = u x xˆ we must integrate wrt time. If differentiating our solution wrt time mean multiplying by
jω then integrating wrt time mean dividing our solution by jω.
jkA j(ω t− kx ) jkB j(ω t+ kx )
ux = e − e
jωρ0 jωρ0
A j(ω t− kx ) B j (ωt + kx)
= e − e
ρ0 c ρ0 c

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 16

where we used c = ω k .
We can then relate this to pressure:
p+ p
ux = − −
ρ0 c ρ0 c
and
jkp+ jkp−
ax = − .
ρ0 ρ0
So, for a positive going wave,
ux is in phase with p
ax leads p by 90°

For the negative going wave,

ux is 180° out of phase with p
ax lags p by 90°

This is illustrated by the following figures:

Positive going
p+

propagation
u+

kx
2π

At peak in compression u is in direction of propagation.

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 17

Negative going
p–

propagation u–

kx

Note that at the peak in compression u is in direction of propagation in both cases. (Negative amplitude
with negative going wave).

Other wave parameters:

1 A B j (ωt +kx )
ξx = ∫ u x dt = ux =
j (ωt –kx)
e – e
jω jωρ0 c jωρ0 c

–j + j
ξx = p +
–
p
ωρ0 c ωρ 0c
r
Also u = ∇φ so can get φ, the velocity potential, and can get s

1 1
Φ=– p+ – p–
jωρ0 jωρ 0
p+ p–
s= +
ρ 0 c 2 ρ0 c 2

Review

j ⇒ ej90° ⇒ +90° phase shift

j 2 ⇒ –1 ⇒ 180° phase shift
j3 = –j ⇒ e–j90°⇒ –90° phase shift

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 18

Plots
{ } {
take Re p + = A cos(ωt – kx) = Re Ae j (ω t– kx) }
{ }  jk 
 ρ0 
 jkA j(ωt −kx ) 
then Re a +x = Re  p +  = Re 
 ρ0
e 


kA
=– sin(ω t – kx )
ρ0

versus t for kx = 0
-kA/ρo sin( ωt)

A cos(ωt)

t
T = 1/f = 2 π/ω

versus x for ωt = 0
-kA/ ρo sin(-kx)

A cos(-kx)

x
λ = 2π/k

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 19

Note that for +x going wave the maximum in acceleration in direction of propagation leads the
λ
pressure maximum by T 4 or .
4

The relation will be different for positive and negative going parameters that are vectors.

Summary

p = Ae j (ω t – kx ) + Be j (ωt – kx ) = p + + p –
r p± p±
u± = ± xˆ s± =
ρ0 c ρ0 c2
r kp ± p±
a± = ± j xˆ Φ± = –
ρ0 jωρ0
r p±
ξ± =m j xˆ
ωρ 0c

Back to the 3D acoustic wave:

rr
r % j (ω t−k ⋅r )
p% ( r , t ) = Ae
Looking at the real part:

{ }
rr
r r
p ( r , t ) = Re { p% ( r , t )} = Re A% e jφ e (
j ωt −k ⋅r )

= Re { Ae ( }
r r
j ωt −k ⋅r +φ )
r r
(
= A cos ωt − k ⋅ r + φ )
The phase of the wave is the argument of the cos term. At a given time, t, all points having the same
phase, Ω, obey:
r r
ω t − k ⋅ r +φ = Ω .
So
r r
k ⋅ r = ωt + φ − Ω = const
r
defines an equation of a plane perpendicular tor k . This also means that maximum and minimum
displacements move as a plane perpendicular to k . If we take the derivative of the above relation with
respect to time, t,
∂ r r
∂t
{
k ⋅ r = ωt + φ − Ω }
r ∂rr
k⋅ =ω .
∂t
r
Substituting k = kkˆ and rearranging gives:
r
∂r ω
k⋅ = = c
ˆ
∂t k
Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 20
which tells us the plane wave advances with a speed c along the k̂ component.
(5.8) Energy Density

Energy is generated by the source and transported by the traveling acoustic wave in the direction of
propagation.

Source

The energy in the wave may, at any time and location, have two contributions or forms

(1) Potential energy – fluid is compressed, storing energy

(2) Kinetic energy – particle is moving

Examine kinetic energy first

r
Consider small volume (particle) at mass ρ0 V0 moving with particle velocity u

1 1
Ekinetic = Ek = mass ( speed ) 2 = ρ0V0u 2
2 2

Potential energy

Potential energy is equal to the work done on a volume, which is stored as potential energy.

Negative sign
E potential = E p = – ∫ pdV
V

V0 For positive p the volume is decreased ⇒

positive potential energy
Need relation between p and V.

ρV = ρ0V0 – conservation of mass

 ∂ξ 
We showed earlier that ρ0 = ρ  1 + x  so that
 ∂x 

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 21

  ∂ξ 
ρ/ 1 + x  V0
ρV ∂x
V= 0 0 =  
ρ ρ/
∂ξ x
and from the Equation of State p = Bs = ρ0c 2 s = – ρ0 c2 so that
∂x
 p 
∴V = V 0  1 – 2 
 ρ0 c 
Taking the derivative yields
V
dV = − 0 2 dp
ρ0 c
so that our Potential Energy term is given by:
V p  V  1 V
E p = – ∫V pdV = – ∫0 p  – 0 2  dp = p 2 0 2
0
 ρ0 c  2 ρ0 c

Total Acoustic Energy

1 1 V0 p 2
E = Ek + E p = ρ0V0 u 2 +
2 2 ρ 0c 2
Instantaneous energy density is defined as the energy per unit volume
1  p2 
ε ins tantan eous = ε i = ρ0  u 2 + 2 2 
2  ρ0 c 
Energy density is the time average of the instantaneous energy density over an acoustic cycle
1 T
ε = ε i t = ∫ ε i dt where T is one period of a harmonic wave.
T o
Consider a positive going plane wave
P
p = P cos (ωt – kx ) and ux = cos ( ωt – kx )
ρ0 c
then the instantaneous energy density is given by
1  p2 
ε i = ρ0  u 2 + 2 2 
2  ρ0 c 
.
1  P  
2
P2
= ρ0   cos (ω t – kx ) + 2 2 cos ( ωt – kx ) 
2 2

2  ρ0 c  ρ0 c 
Integrating over the acoustic period gives
2
1  P  1 2π
 cos (ωt – kx ) dt
T
ε= ∫ ρ0  where T = =
2

T 0 ρ
 0 
c f ω

1 P2 J
ε=
2 ρ0 c m 3
2

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 22

Recall that P = ρ0 c U
1 PU 1
∴ε = = ρ0 U 2 .
2 c 2

(5.9) Acoustic Intensity

Intensity is a concept generally used in connection with progressive (traveling) plane waves in a fluid.
Intensity is a vector. It is a measure of power flowing at normal incidence to the specified unit area.
∂ξ
Instantaneous Intensity is defined as: i = p = pu .
∂t
1T
Average Intensity: I = pu t = ∫ pudt
T0
From
ξ ( x , t ) = ξo+ cos ( ωt − kx ) + ξ o− cos (ω t + kx )
u ( x, t ) = −Uo+ sin ( ωt − kx ) − Uo− sin ( ωt + kx )
and since for a positive going wave, ux is in phase with p and for the negative going wave, ux is 180°
out of phase with p so,
p ( x, t ) = − Po+ sin ( ωt − kx ) + Po− sin (ω t + kx ) .
Therefore,
p ( x, t) u (x , t ) = Po+Uo + sin 2 ( ωt − kx ) + Po+Uo− sin (ω t − kx ) sin ( ωt + kx )
− Po −U o+ sin (ωt + kx ) sin ( ωt − kx ) − Po −U o− sin 2 ( ωt + kx )
and the Average Intensity gives:
1T 1T
I = ∫ pudt = ∫ {Po+Uo + sin2 ( ωt − kx ) + Po+Uo− sin (ω t − kx ) sin ( ωt + kx )
T0 T 0
− Po −U o+ sin (ωt + kx ) sin ( ωt − kx ) − Po −U o− sin 2 (ω t + kx )} dt

Using the trigonometric relations:

sin 2 (ω t − kx ) = {1 − cos ( 2ωt − 2kx )}
1
2
sin 2 (ω t + kx ) = {1 − cos ( 2ωt + 2kx )}
1
2
sin ( ωt − kx ) sin (ωt + kx ) = {cos ( 2 kx ) − cos ( 2ωt )}
1
2
then
2π ω
ω
I= ∫
1
2π 0 2 o+ o +
{
P U {1 − cos ( 2ωt − 2kx )} + Po+U o− {cos ( 2kx ) − cos ( 2ωt )}

− Po −U o+ {cos ( 2kx ) − cos ( 2ω t )} − Po −U o− {1− cos ( 2ωt + 2kx )} dt }

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 23
A little rearranging yields:
2π ω
ω
I= ∫
1
{
P U {1 − cos ( 2ωt − 2kx )} − Po −U o− {1− cos ( 2ωt + 2kx )}
2π 0 2 o+ o +
}
+ ( Po +U o− − Po−Uo + ) {cos ( 2kx ) − cos ( 2ωt )} dt

When you do the integration to yield the following expression (why?):

I = {( Po+U o+ − Po−Uo− ) + ( Po +U o− − Po−U o+ ) cos ( 2kx )}
1
2

From (Note: plane waves)

p −P
z + = + = o + = ρ oco , Po+ = ρo c oU o+
u+ −Uo+
p P
z − = − = o− = − ρoco , Po− = ρo coU o−
u− −Uo−
so that,
I = {( ρocoU o+U o+ − ρo c oU o−U o− ) + ( ρo c oU o +U o− − ρocoU o−U o+ ) cos ( 2kx )}
1
2
ρc
{
I = o o (U o2+ − U o2− ) + (U o+U o − − U o−U o+ ) cos ( 2kx )}
2
ρo co
I=
2
{U o2+ − U o2− } =
1
2 ρo co
{ Po2+ − Po2− }

Let’s discuss traveling vs. standing wave

ρ
ε = o {U o2+ + U o2− } (Energy density)
2
ρc
I = o o {U o2+ − U o2− } (PLANE WAVE!)
2
For a progressive, plane wave in the +x direction
ρ
ε = o U o2+
2
ρo co 2
I= Uo +
2

*************************** Example 5.4 ***************************

Consider fresh water at 20°C in which the time-average acoustic intensity is 1 W / cm 2 . Calculate the
peak values ξ o , Uo , Ao and po at the three frequencies of 1, 10 and 100 MHz.

ANSWER:
m kg
For fresh water at 20°C, two important quantities are c0 = 1481 and the density ρ0 = 998 3
s m
(Appendix A10, a very important part of the book!!!)
Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 24
From the energy density equation:
ρc 2I
I = o o U o2+ or U o+ =
2 ρoco
This gives us the value for the velocity:
1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz
U o ( cm/s ) 11.6 11.6 11.6
and it is not frequency dependent. Likewise from the relation Po+ = ρo c oU o+ we have for the pressure:
po ( atm ) 1.72 1.72 1.72
The displacement and acceleration we get from integrating the velocity and taking the derivative of the
velocity, respectively. This makes the values frequency dependent because we merely divide by
U U
(displacement) or multiply by jω. So, ξ o = o = o and Ao = ωUo = 2π fU o . giving
ω 2π f
( )
ξo A & 185 18.5 1.85
A ( µm/s )
o
2
0.731 7.31 73.1
*****************************************************************

*************************** Example 5.5 ***************************

A pulse of frequency 1000 Hz and intensity level of 10-12 W/m2 and is traveling in air at 20°C in the +x
direction. (a) What is the particle displacement amplitude? (b) Give a numerical formula for the
condensation, s, as a function of x?

ANSWER:
( ρocoωξo )
2 2
po ρ c ω 2ξo2 −12
(a) I = = = o o = 10 W / m
2
2ρoc o 2ρ oco 2

ξo =
2I
=
(
2 10− 12 W / m 2 )
(1.21 kg / m )(343 m / s)(2000π / s)2
= 11 pm (peak)
ρ ocoω 2 3

ρ − ρo ∂ξ ∂
(b) s = =− = − ξo cos (ω t − kx )  = kξ o sin (ω t − kx ) , so
ρo ∂x ∂x
(
s = 6.44 × 10
−11
)Sin (2000πt − 5.831πx) (peak)
*****************************************************************

When attempting to quantify (via a measurement process usually) intensity, both time (temporal) and
space (spatial) aspects must be considered.

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 25

 Hydrophone's
response, p(t)

For continuous wave ultrasound at one location in space:

p(t)
po
time

i(t)
ITP
ITA
time

po2 po2
where I TP = and I TA = .
ρ oco 2ρ oco
In some instances you measure over a spatial range (i.e. in the focus of a focused source):

range
spatial peak
spatial average
lateral distance
spatial average
region

I SPTP : Spatial peak temporal peak intensity

I SPTA: Spatial peak temporal average intensity
I SATP: Spatial average temporal peak intensity
I SATA: Spatial average temporal average intensity

Sometimes “spatial peak” refers to a global peak. For pulsed wave ultrasound, and at one location in
space:

p(t)

time
i(t)
ITP
IPA
ITA
time
τ PRP

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 26

I SPTP : Spatial peak temporal peak intensity
I SPPA : Spatial peak pulse average intensity
I SPTA: Spatial peak temporal average intensity
I SATP: Spatial average temporal peak intensity
I SAPA: Spatial average pulse average intensity
I SATA: Spatial average temporal average intensity

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 5 pg 27