Engineering Review, Vol. 39, Issue 1, 29-36, 2019.

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THE CASTING PROCESS AND HIGH TEMPERATURE

OXIDATION RESISTANCE
OF HIGH CHROMIUM CAST IRON GRATE BAR
Chen Zhiru1 - Xu Lei1∗ - Zhao Linwei2 - Wang Youchao1 - Li Changyun1 - Mi Guofa1

1
The School of Material Science and Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000 China;
2
Zhongyuan Special Steel Co., LTD, Jiyuan 454150, China

ARTICLE INFO Abstract:

Article history: The solidification process of a high chromium cast
Received: 29.06.2016. iron grate bar used for sinter machine was
Received in revised form: 03.10.2016. simulated, and high temperature oxidation
Accepted: 18.10.2016. resistance was also investigated. The simulation
Keywords: result shows that sequence solidification can be
High chromium cast iron achieved and no shrinkage cavity and porosity
Grate bar were observed. Based on the analysis of the
Oxidation resistance microstructure, it could be known that the grate
Oxide films bar was well protected by the Fe3O4、Fe2O3 and
DOI: http://doi.org/10.30765/er.39.1.4 Cr2O3 oxide films at temperatures lower than
800°C.

1 Introduction good thermal stability and oxidation resistance [6].

Ramírez-Ramírez et al. [7] did investigation on high
A grate bar is an important part of sintering machine. temperature oxidation behavior of high-chromium
When used, it usually has to bear very complex white cast iron in atmospheres that include dry air
working conditions like strong impact force, high and a mixture of dry air and water vapor. They
temperature and severe wear, which make it easier pointed out that the presence of water vapor and the
to get damaged [1-3]. In the past, the grate bar was chromium content has an obvious effect on
widely manufactured by common gray cast iron, oxidation rate by a mechanism that involved
which was found to have many quality problems chromium depletion of oxide as a result of
such as poor high temperature oxidization hydroxide formation. Efremenko et al. [8] studied
resistance, short service life, and high consumption, the oxidation and decarburization behavior of 14.55
etc. In order to improve the quality, a lot of research wt pct Cr-cast iron at 1000°C to 1150°C in a dry
work has been done on the grate bar materials. atmosphere, and decarburization phenomenon
Many kinds of cast iron have been developed, such appeared with the form of secondary and eutectic
as silicon nodular iron, high chromium cast iron, carbide dissolution accompanying oxidizing heating.
and multi-elementally alloyed high chromium cast Zhang et al. [9] deemed that the oxide type in high-
iron [4]. Among the irons, high chromium cast iron chromium cast iron depends on chromium content,
is considered to be the most excellent wear resistant and best oxidation resistance can be obtained with
and high temperature oxidation resistance material chromium content of 15wt.%.
[5]. For the high content of chromium, Cr2O3 A kind of high chromium cast iron was designed
membrane will be formed on the surface, which can and used for a grate bar. The grate bar was
help to prevent or delay the oxidation. Therefore, manufactured by lost foam casting, because it can
high chromium cast iron grate bars usually present promote surface smoothness and reduce subsequent

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: 0086-391-3987472;
E-mail address: xulei_80@126.com
30 C. Zhiru, X. Lei et al.: The casting process and high...
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machining. To prolong the working life of the bar, and φ40 mm. The pouring temperature is controlled
casting process was simulated to eliminate the to be 1570°C.
defects using View-cast software, and effect factors
of high temperature oxidation were also discussed.

2 Numerical simulation of casting and

solidification

2.1 The chemical composition design

Chromium is the main alloy element, which forms

Cr2O3 membrane on the surface at high temperature
to improve the heat and oxidation resistance of the
casting. It is also worthwhile to mention that the
ratio of Cr/C has an effect on the type of carbide.
When the content of Cr is higher than 11% and rate
of Cr/C is higher than 3.5%, M7C3 carbide forms in
the high chromium iron [10]. The hardness of M7C3 Figure 1. Three-dimensional figure of the Grating
carbide is as high as 1300HV-1800HV, which is system.
useful for improving strength and wear resistance of
the iron. Therefore, appropriate content of Cr and 2.3 Simulation of casting and solidification of the
ration of Cr/C are expected to get more M7C3 bar
carbide.
The designed chemical composition of high View Cast is useful software that is effective to
chromium iron used for the grate bar is shown in simulate the solidification temperature field, solidus
Table 1. fraction, mould-filling time and velocity field
during the filling process. Usually, it is also used to
Table 1. The designed chemical composition of high predict casting defects and optimize gating system
chromium iron [12, 13]. Before simulation, three-dimensional
model is generated by Pro/E and is exported in *stl
Element C Cr Si Mn P S file format. The casting and gating system are
Content 1.6- 1.5- divided into 2 million grids. The initial and gating
15-18 ≤1.0 ≤0.1 ≤0.05 temperatures are set at 25°C and 1570°C
(wt.%) 2.4 2.2
respectively, and negative pressure is -400 KPa. The
simulation results of mould-filling and solidification
2.2 Casting process design of the grate bar are represented respectively in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.
Figure 2 presents the six stages of the mould-filling.
Grate bar is a small and simple-structure casting. It The diagram demonstrated that the gating process is
weighs about 3.7 Kg with the average thickness of smooth and there is not turbulence in the pouring
about 15 mm. Considering the requirement of batch process.
production, high dimension accuracy, high quality As shown in Fig. 3, when the solidification time
and integrated performance, lost foam casting was was 135 seconds, both sides of the casting began to
used to take place of the traditional sand casting solidify. After 335 seconds, the solidification area
[11]. expanded from lateral to internal gradually. As the
In order to improve the production efficiency, three- size of the casting is small with very thin thickness,
layer modeling of castings was adopted for this case. the solidification rate was very fast, and complete
The castings were connected with the ingratesand solidification in the castings was obtained after 415
six ingrates with the section diameter of 40 mm seconds. However, there was still incomplete
were settled. The gating system is shown in Fig. 1. solidification in the middlesprue, ingrate and runner,
42 castings are arranged evenly on the six ingrates. which led to more easily feeding.
The size of the sprue and ingrate are 40 mm×40 mm
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Figure 2. The simulation results of mould-filling after different times.

Figure 3. The simulation results of solidification after different times.

The simulation prediction of defects distribution in the metal content is above 95% and that these parts
the castings solidified is completely illustrated in are deemed as non-defective. It can also be found
Fig. 4. The transparency in the figure indicates that that large scale of shrinkages exists in the ingrate
32 C. Zhiru, X. Lei et al.: The casting process and high...
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and sprue cup, while none in the casting. Therefore, 3 High temperature oxidation resistance of
the designed casting process is suitable for the bar
manufacture of the grate bar. Fig. 5 shows the grate
bar produced by the designed casting process. It can 3.1 High temperature oxidation test method
be observed that surface smoothness of the casting
is excellent. While sintering machine is working, the grate bars
are in the alternating hot and cold working
environment. The bar may be heated to the
temperature in range of 700°C to 900°C, which
requires well high temperature oxidation resistance.
Thus, the temperature of high temperature oxidation
test was set between 700°C and 900°C.
Before the test, samples cut from the bar were
firstly ground into the size of 4 mm × l0 mm × 20
mm. All samples were cleaned by ultrasonic with
acetone solution and anhydrous ethanol orderly.
Then these samples were divided into 8 groups, and
each group had three samples. Second, the crucible
roasted for 1 hour at 150°C for holding samples.
The crucible and the sample were numbered
Figure 4. The simulation forecast map of defects in together and weighted using an analytical balance
grate bar. with the accuracy of 0.0001 g. At last, the crucible
containing a sample was put into a furnace to be
tested. Four groups were respectively heated to
600°C, 700°C, 800°C and 900°C, inside a high
temperature resistance furnace protected by argon
gas, while the other four without the protected gas.
After being kept for 5 hours, the crucibles were
taken out and were air cooled to room temperature.
Again the crucibles with the sample were weighted
together.
According to the national standard (GB/T 13303-
91), the oxidation rate would be calculated as the
following formula.

ml − mo
K= (1)
so · t

Where K is weight gain on per square meter at per

hour, ml is the weight of the crucible containing
sample after tested, m0 is the weight of that before
tested, So is the superficial area of sample and t is
the keeping time at the tested temperature. Based on
the test data, average weight gains of the samples on
per square meter at per hour are calculated, shown
in Table 2.
Figure 5. Morphology of grate bar casted by the
designed process.
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Table 2. Average weight gains of the samples tested

at different temperatures with or without
protected gas

Test Average weight

Experimental Temperature gain on per square
conditions meter at per hour
°C g/m2•h
600 0.67076
Non protected 700 0.56127
800 0.90679
900 3.45811
600 0.08990
Protected by 700 0.07425 Figure 6. Oxidation rates of the tested samples with
argon gas 800 0.13708 or without protection by argon gas under
900 0.69240 different temperatures.

3.2 The analysis of high temperature oxidation Moreover, chromium content of the experimental
resistance grate bar was very high, Cr atoms would also
combine with oxygen atoms, then Cr2O3 oxide film
It is obvious to see from Table 2 and Figure 6 that formed. Cr2O3 oxide film firmly combined with the
the weight gain on per square meter at per hour is casting and prevented the diffusion of oxygen atoms.
0.67076 g after being kept at 600°C for 6 h and Furthermore, Cr element raised the formation
cooled to room temperature without argon temperature of FeO. As a result, the oxidation
protection. When the temperature was raised to resistance temperature was promoted. By the
700°C, the oxidation rate is slightly decreased to be corporate protection of Fe3O4, Fe2O3, Cr2O3 films,
0.56127 g/m2•h. When the test temperature reached the sample had well oxidation resistance at
800°C, oxidation rate is 0.90679 g/m2•h, which is temperature in range of 600°C to 800°C, without
about 35% higher than that at 600°C. The oxidation protected argon gas. The oxidation rate of the
rate is sharply increased to be 3.45811 g/m2•h, about sample was delayed to be only about 0.56127
5 times of that at 600°C, with raising the test g/m2•h to 0.90679 g/m2•h, as shown in Fig. 6.
temperature to 900°C. SEM was used to investigate the oxide film formed
At high temperature, iron is easily oxidized on the at 800°C, shown in Fig. 7. It can be observed that
surface of the sample. And the formation of FeO, the content of Cr sharply increases in the area where
Fe3O4 or Fe2O3 oxide is related to the temperature. the scanning distance is 1.6 μm, while the content of
Below the temperature of 560°C, the oxide film Fe is less. When the scanning distance reaches
mainly consists of Fe3O4 and Fe2O3, which have about 7.2 μm, the content of Cr decreases rapidly,
higher density and small lattice constant. The film while that of Fe increases sharply. It is obvious that
can prevent the diffusion of oxygen atoms and then a 5.6μm-thick oxidation layer exited between resin
delay the oxidation of iron. When the temperature is and matrix of the sample. Variations of the
over 560°C, FeO layer will be formed under the concentrations of Cr, Fe and O indicate that the
oxide films of Fe3O4 and Fe2O3. FeO layer has a outer and the inner layer of the oxide film were
simple lattice structure, which is the omission solid consisted of equivalent amount of iron oxide and
solution of iron atoms. It is easier for oxygen atoms chromium oxide. However, in the middle layer, the
to diffuse through FeO layer combining with iron film was mainly chromium oxide, considered as
atoms and aggravate iron oxidation [14]. Cr2O3, while that of the iron oxide was few. It is
thought that this kind of middle layer of the oxide
film is conductive to delay the diffusion of oxygen
and improve high temperature oxidation resistance
of the sample.
34 C. Zhiru, X. Lei et al.: The casting process and high...
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(a) (b)

Matrix
Resin

Oxide layer

Figure 7. Linear SEM-EDS scanning of the oxide layer formed on the sample tested at 800℃ without
protected gas.

The result of Linear SEM-EDS scanning of the forming element, it will dissolve in cementite to
oxide film formed at 900°C is shown in Fig. 8. It form alloy cementite with the sample heated at
can be seen that the thickness of the oxide film is 900°C. As a result, Cr2O3 membrane reduced and
about 11.5 μm (scanning distance from 1.5 μm to 13 broke gradually, then oxygen atoms diffused inside,
μm), much thicker than that formed at 800°C. It has leading to rapid oxidation and consequent
also been found that the concentration of iron is significant increase of the weight gain. When
about equal to that of chromium in the majority of oxidation temperature was high, the frequent
the oxide film, which reduces the compactness. In contact, collision, and friction between the grate bar
the inner layer close to the matrix, the concentration and sintering material result in the fast growth,
of iron is higher than that of chromium, which is abscission, and sprout of oxide film on the surface
considered to be mainly consist of FeO. This kind of the grate bar. At last, the grate bar breaks down.
of oxide film can not prevent the diffusion of In order to improve the service life of the grate bar,
oxygen, leading to severe oxidation of the bar. This working temperature must be controlled strictly.
phenomenon is analyzed to be caused by dissolution
of chromium. Since chromium is a strong carbide

Figure 8. Linear SEM-EDS scanning of the oxide layer formed on the sample tested at 900℃ protected by
argon gas.
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In the test, it has also been found that the weight argon gas. From the line scanning, about 1.8μm-
gain is lower by near an order of magnitude on thick oxide film containing much Cr can be
the sample protected by argon gas, compared with observed. The variations of concentrations Fe, Cr
the non-protected, shown in Fig. 6(b). Only when and O in the oxide film are similar as that in the
the test temperature was raised to 800°C, the film, formed at 900°C without the protected gas.
oxidation rate increased gradually. The oxidation Hence, it is apparent that the oxidation mainly
rate at 900°C increased substantially, similar to occurred in heating and insulation process, while
that at air atmosphere, and reached 0.69240 rarely existed in the cooling. The oxidation is
g/m2•h. Fig. 9 is the linear SEM-EDS scanning of notably affected by temperature and the
the oxide layer cross section under 900°C with consequent constitute of the oxide film.

Figure 9. Linear SEM-EDS scanning of the oxide layer formed on the sample tested at 900℃ without
protected gas.

Conclusion sharply at temperature of 900°C. Oxidation mainly

occurs in heating and insulation process and is
A kind of high chromium cast iron was designed notably affected by temperature and the consequent
and used for grate bar. In order to reduce or constitute of the oxide film.
eliminate the cast defects, casting process was
designed and simulated. High temperature oxidation Acknowledgments
resistance of the manufactured bar was also
investigated according to the working conditions. The work has been performed by the financial
The main results are shown as follows: support of the National Natural Science Foundation
(1) Chemical composition of the grate bar was of China (Grant No. 51401077) and Key research
shown as follow: 1.6%~2.4% carbon, 15%~18% Program for Higher Education Henan Province
chromium, 1.8%~2.2% silicon, ≤1.0% manganese， (Grant No. 16A450002). In addition, thanks are
≤0.01 phosphorus，≤0.05 sulphur. given to the faculty of the Materials Science and
(2) The simulation results show that the casting Engineering of Henan Polytechnic University.
process parameters and pouring system size can
satisfy the requirement of a high chromium grate References
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