Radiographic Film Interpretation

course contents:
01. Radiographic Testing

02. Radiographic Image Quality

03. Orgion of X-rays

04. Fundamentals of processing

OS. Interpretation of Radiographs

06. Radiation Hazards Evaluation and Control

07. Non-Destructive Examination Standard, Specifications and Codes

****
 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
PRINCIPLE radiograph represent the more easily
penetrated parts of the object, while the
When x- rays or Gamma rays are passed lighter regions represent the thicker or
through material, some of the radiation is more dense parts of the object.
absorbed or changed and the amount of
absorption is dependent upon the
thickness of the material, the density of The basic properties of the penetrating
the material and the atomic number of the radiation are
absorber. Some kind of detector such as
film, a fluorescent screen, or a Geiger 1) They travel in straight lines, 2) they
counter is used to record the variations in penetrate materials, 3) they affect
intensity of the efr1erging beam as visual photographic films, 4) th�y int�ract with
images or signals. The image produced body tissues, 5) they ionize gases, 6)
on the film is evaluated for identifying the They cannot be sensed by human sense
discontinuities Industrial radiography is organs.
primarily concerned with recoding images
on film.
The advantage of RT over other NDT
methods is that it presents a permanent
The two types of radiations, X - rays & record, simple to read out, relatively less
Gamma rays, are used in radiography and costly, can be used in sites, and the
have similar characteristics, but differ in system is portable. But it is highly
their origin of their generation. Both of dangerous to handle radiation sources
them are hazardous for human beings if without proper training.
they are not-controlled properly.

SOURCES OF RADIATION
The three basic essentials in producing a
radiograph are: X-RAVS The basic principle on wHich x
ray is generated is that when a stream of
1) source of radiation, 2) object to be high speed electrons is stopped abruptly
tested 3) a cassette containing the film. heat and x radiation are generated. The
Figure 1 illustrates the main features in heat is removed and the x ray is used for
the making of radiograph.. The radiation radiography
travels in a straight line from the source to
the object Some of the rays pass through
the object, -- some are absorbed by the Th� x ray unit consists of
object, and some are scattered in all
directions by the object. The amount of a) filament cathode which produces
radiation reaching the film in the cassette electrons when it is heated by . filament
depends upon the nature of the material current
being tested and its thickness. Suppose b) Anode, made of tungsten embedded in
the object being tested is of steel and it copper and from which the x rays are
· has a gas bubble in the interior, there is a generated. Heat produced is dissipated
reduction in the thickness of the steel through the anode and removed by forced
through the area of the bubble. therefore or natural cooling
more-radiation passes through the section c) focusing cup near the cathode to focus
containing the bubble than through the the electrons emitted towards-the anode
surrounding material. A dark spot d) an evacuated glass container at 10 -
corresponding to the projected spot of the 11 torr. in which the above assembly is
bubble appears on the film when it is
placed.
developed. The darker regions on the
 : CEF139645-

Electrons are produced by the heating of The design of the conventional x ray
the filament by the low voltage current machine as shown in the Figure 2 are
called the filament current. The electrons used upto 550 kV and beyond which
which form• a . cloud at the cathode are special machines are available. Linear
accelerated· by the high voltage imposed accelerators, betatrons and Van de-Graaf
between the anode and the cathode. generator are used for higher voltage
When the stream of electrons reach the radiography.
anode, they are stopped by the solid
metal and all the kinetic energy is
converted into heat ,p.nd x rays. The heat The biggest advantage of x ray over
is removed by either natural air cooling by gamma ray is that by switching off the
suitable design or by water cooling the electric power to the unit, the production of
cathode. Tungsten is chosen for radiation can be cut off. But n the case of
increasing the efficiency of the production gamma ray, the radic:1tion cannot be
of x 'rays and copper for removing· the stopped but only can be contained in th�
heat. lead or uranium container.

GAMMA-RAYS
The area on which the electrons impinge
on the tungsten block is called the actual Gamma rays are produced as
focal spot . The projected area of the spontaneous emission from the nucleus of
actual focal spot perpendicular to the radioactive isotopes.
direGtion of x rays is called the effective
focal spot and plays a vital role in deciding When a radioactive element decays its
the quality of the radiograph. nucleus emits three types of emissions: 1)
alpha particle, 2) beta particle 3) gamma
ray. Alpha particle is a helium ion with two
The important parameters are in x ray neutrons and two protons. Beta particles
testing are are negatively charged ions. Both the
particulate radiations travel very short
1) tube voltage and - the voltage distances and are stopped easily by
between the anode and cathode which is materials. Gamma ray is a radiation,
between 50- 550 kV; the kV decides the highly penetrating in nature and is used in
thickness to which the penetration is radio_graphy.
possible; higher the voltage thicker the
component that can be tested.
2) tube current which is in milli amperes The Roentgen (A) is the unit measure of X
( mA ) . the quantity of x radiation depends or Gamma radiation in air. It is defined as
on the tube current. quantity f radiation that will produce one
3) time of exposure in minutes or seconds electrostatic unit (esu) of charge in one
The image produced on the radiograph is cubic centimeter of air at STP. One
dependent on the quantify of radiation as Roentgen of radiation · approximately
well as :the time to which it is exposed and equals 83 ergs· of radiation energy per
is called the exposure. gram of air.
Exposure = milliampere x minutes and it is
expressed in units of mA - mins
Gamma ray Intensity : This is measured in
roentgens per hour at one meter, a
The basic control in an x ray machine measure of radiation emission over a
consists of the voltage control, Tube period of time at a fixed distance. The
current control and timer control. Safety activity ( amount of radioactive material )
interlocks for avoiding overheating is also of a gamma ray source determines the
provided. intensity of radiation. The measure of
activity is curies ( 1 curie - 3. 7 x 10
disintegrations per second ) .

2
Specific activity is defined as degree of consists of a) base, and b) emulsion. A
concentration of radioactive material cross section of the film is shown in fig 5.
within a gamma ray source. It is
expressed in curies / gm or Curies / cc.
The specific activity decides the The base is a transparent medium made
dimensions of the radiographic source. of polyesters of about 50 microns thick on
Half life is the lengt� of time required for which the sensitive emulsion i$ coated.
the activity of a radioisotope to. decay Emulsion: The emulsion is a suspension
(disintegrate) to one half of its initial of silver salts (chloride or Bromide) in
strength. This depends on the particular gelatin, which is a solid below 50 degree
isotope and is a constant. Earlier naturally C and swells in water to permit processing
radioactive materials. - radium and radon chemicals to react with silver salts. The
gas { filled in charcoal ) were used. coating is on both sides of the base which
However in .the modern industry, artificial increases the quantity of ." radiation
radio isotopes are widely used for their absorbed and hence reduces exposure
convenience. The most common isotopes time. Grain size of the . silver salts have
are Iridium 192 and Cobalt 60. considerable effect on the sensitivity and
speed of the film. The films are graded as
fine, medium and coarse. The speed of
Cobalt 60 is an artificial isotope created by the film is clc!ssified as slow, medium and
neutron bombardment of Cobalt 59 and fast respectively for these film�.
has a half life of 5.3 years. The primary
gamma emission consists of 1.33 and
1.17 MeV which is similar in energy Slow films are fine grain films that need
content to 2 MeV x ray machines. The lon.ger exposure but give greater details
radioisotope is supplied in the form of {sensitivity) in the radiograph. Fast films
capsuled pellet. Because of its penetrating are those having coarser grains' requiring
radiation requires thick shielding for safety less time and produce fadiographs of
purposes and handling is difficult. The lesser sensitivity.
smallest available size is 3 mm.

To protect the delicate emulsion from

Iridium 192 : Also produced by neutron mechanical damage, a thin layer of gelatin
bombardment of Ir 191 has a half life of 75 is given as a protection layer.
days The penetrating capability is equal to
600 kV x ray machine. Its relatively low
energy radiation and high specific activity DENSITY:
makes it an easily shielded strong
radiation source •Of small physical size. The function of emulsion coating is to
Isotope camera·.: ...•Because of the ever produce opaque silver metal deposits
present radiation hazard, . isotope· sources when exposed to light or radiation. The
must be handled with extreme care, degree of darkness is expressed as
stored and locked in adequately shielded density.
containers when not in use. The Density, D= Log 10 .( Ii/ It )
equipment which accomplishes safe Ii= Intensity of Incident light , It= Intensity
handling and storage of isotope sources
together with a source is called a camera. of the transmitted light. .

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM: From this it can be seen that, darker the

film, higher the density. The density of the
Radiographic film is normally used as the radiograph, called the transmission
recording medium .in radiography and density, is measured either by the special
resembles a photog,raphic film. The film instrument called densitometer which
directly gives an electronic readout or
 ;CEF139645P{m

compared with the standard radiograph The film is agitated in a bath of developer
film which has different calibrated for a period 5 to 1O minutes. The exposed
densities The scale for density is O to 15, Grains of Silver Halide get preferentially
while 15 .is almost opaque. Optimum reduced to metallic Silver and a latent
density for .an· industrial radiograph is 2 to image is formed. The alkalirTity of
4. developer is maintained between pH
values 9.5 to · 11.5 for successful
Exposure: It is the product of intensity of preferential reduction.
radiation and duration for which the
energy was acting on the film. To express
radiographic expos·ure, one has to give­ Stop bath Js a 3% solution of Acetic Acid
Kilovoltage, Milliamperes and Time in used to neutralize the developer alkalies
case of X-rays and type of source, its and to stop the developing action. The film
strength in curies and exposure time in after 10 seconds o f agitation in this bath.is
minutes for an isotope source. ready for fixing.

A typical sensitometric also called H - D Fixer is used to dissolve .. away the

Curve for an industrial radiographic film is unreduced Silver Halides and render the.
given in Fig 6 radiograph permanent. Among fixers
ammonium thio-sulphate and sodium thio­
sulphate are the two cl)en,icals popularly
RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESSING: used. Hardening agenf$i"like Potash alum
are added to harden the gelatin which is
Processing involves reduction of exposed very soft until this treatment.
silver halides in th� emulsion to silver
metal by a controlled chemical action.
1. Water 2. Developer 3. Stop bath 4. Thorough _ washing in flowing water
Fixer 5. Rinsing in flowing water. removes the chemicals embedded in the
gelatin. The films are dried in a dust free
chamber at 50 ° C and they are ready for
The temperature of proc�ssing should be evaluation.
maintained at 20°c. The water both soaks
the gelatin and wets ·-the syrface ;;o that
uniform action can take place. The gelatin PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHIC
swells and allows the chemicals to enter EXPOSURE: '.
into its net work so that tl,orough action in
subseq�ent solutions is ensured. The PENETRATION OF RADIATION:
f
duration. o soaking is abo,Jt one minute.
"
The optimulll pene��on capacity to
The dev.eloper contain� the following produce a go� radiograph is that in which
chemicals: a good ratio e�ists between the absorption
�-
and penetration in the particular subject. A
COMPONENT FUNCTION radiation beam having a wide spectrum of
;

[M
----------------
etol & Reducing energies, ther�fore, will have good ratio
iH_ ydroquinone Agents between qbsorption/ penetration.
IPhenidone &
___ ________ :
Preservation
,.,,,

Resulting radiograph will bear darker and

IS odium sulphite lighter shadoY(s for change in thickness
s odium carbonate
-···-----···--
Acceleration f and density of the object. X-ray and
and RH buffer certain isotQpes. like Iridium -192_g_jye_
pottasium Retainer better __ radlogijphs than m�nochromatic
Bromide isotope-forthi�_rei;i_SO!J,____ :'f�--: - ------
Benzo triazole AntiJ_Q_g�ent
••••••-••�M••• •••uuw�--•

4
 Depending on the mA of X-ray unit or Series: DIN 1-7: No 1- 3.2 mm; No 2- 2.5
curie strength (activity) of the isotope, the mm ; No 3-2.0 mm ; No 4-1.6 mm; No 5 -
film can be exposed quickly or slowly. The 1.25 mm ; No 6-1.00 mm; No 7-0.8 mm
radiographic density on a film is produced
· by sufficient quantity of radiation at
various energy levels reaching the film. Series DIN 6-12 No 6-1.00 mm ; No 7-0.8
mm ; No 8-0.63 mm ; No 9-0.5 mm;
No10-0.4 mm; No :11-0.32 mm ;
The size of the focal spot of the X-ray tube No 12 -0.25 mm
and the dimensions . of the isotope pellet
also decide the quality of radiograph.
Since point sources give sharper DIN 10-16: Na 10-0.4 mm; No 11-0.32
shadows, smaller focal spots or pellet size mm ; No 12- 0.25 mm ; No 13-0.2 mm; No
give sharper radiographs. 14-0.16 mm ; No :15- 0.125 mni; No 16-
0.1 mm · •

The distance between the focus or the

source to the film also decides the Standard DIN 54 109 provides one series
sharpness of the image. The longer the for use on steel (Iron) / another for
distance, the sharper. is the image. While aluminium (�nd alloys) and a third for
increasing the distance, intensity drops in copper and zinc (and their allays).
accordance to the "Inverse Square Law".
A workable compromise has to be struck
for productivity and economy. The penetrameters indicate the image
quality and the sensitivity or the
delineation of defect and is expressed in
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS: percentage of the total thickness

As a check on the adequacy of the

radiographic technique, a standard test % Sensitivity = ( Diameter·of Smallest wire
piece, called a penetrameter, or Image visible / thickness of plate ) x 100 · .
Quality is used it:i radiography. The
penetrameter is a simple geometric
shape, made of a material radiographically The wire type penetrameters are to be
similar to the specimen itself, and usually kept.perpendicular to the welds and on the
contains some simple structure such as weld and the thinnest wire should be away
strips or wires. The radiographic technique at the maximum distance from the source.
• r("''"'t\may be considered satisfactory if the
\ -�r \jpenetrameter and its geometric shape are ASTM TYPE WIRE PENETRAMETER

�Jv· sl;lp;vn clearly in the radiograph. Hole.:.type

1
{\ • ,' : /\

': \r"f1Y·' 1
1 f1E¥netrameters, wire-type penetrameter, or ASTM Standards also prescribe different
1 CJ· step-wedge type penetrameters are diameters of wires as per the below
! available as per international standards mentioned sizes . The calculation of
and codes. Normally the penetrameter sensitivity and the rn!3thod of placing the
should be the same material as that of the penetramters are the same as that of DIN
job. However if the penetrameter is not type.
m available for the same material· a
penetrameter of lower atomic number can
be used. SETA : No 1-8.08 mm, 2-0.1,3-0.13 4-
0.16, 5-0.2, 6-0;25 . .
SET B : No 6-0.25, 7-0.33, 8-. 0.4, 9-0.51,
DIN TYPE WIRE PENETRAMETER 10-0�64, 11-0.81
SETC: No 11-0.81, 12-1.02, 13- 1.27,
The DIN 54 109 system provides for a 14-1.6 15-2.03 16-2.5
series of equidistant parallel wires
SET D: No 16-2.5 17- 3.2 18-4.06 19-5.1 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES:
20..:5.4 21 -8
SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE: This is
the technique when the radiation beam
PLATE HOLE TYPE: penetrates through the thickness •of the ·
specimen once and produces the image
ASTM standards provide· for the use of · on the film. This is also called direct
small metal plates with holes as shown in technique. This technique is employed for
figure 7. The image quality is given by the plate welds, drum welds and castings of
smallest hole still visible on the radiograph larger sizes.
and the rectanguiar boundary of the
penetrameter, the contrast being the
governing factor in this system. DOUBLE - WALL; .,DOUBLE IMAGE: The
technique is adopted when either the
source or film cannot: be positione,d
The diameters of the holes are in terms directly in contact with the other side of
are thickness of the penetrameter and is plate as in smaller diameter tubes or
expressed as 1 t , 2 t, 4t where t is castings of smaller sizes. In this ,case the
thickness of penetrameter expressed in radiation beam penetrates twice. the wall
thousandths of an inch and is indicated in thickness before it falls on the film. As the
lead on the penetrameter. diameter of the tube is smaller, it is
possible to get the image)· of both upper
and lower· wall. in the>same film without
At present, the codes giye for a specific any appreciable · loss: of geometric
thickness the penetarmeter to be placed unsharpness or sensitivity. The technique
and the the minimur;n hole size that must is employed while radiographing tubular
be visible. An example i� given in Table II butt welds with diameter less than 89 mm
which gives ASME Sec V requirements.

DOUBLE .. - WALL , SINGLE IMAGE:

It should be remembered that even if a When the di�meter is increased beyond
certain hole in a penetrameter is visiblUIL. 89 mm, the · double wall double image
a radiograph, the · cavity pf the same technique becomes unsuitable as the
·a1ameter and thickness iin .the specim.ea. image of the upper wall undergoes certain
may not 6evisi61e, the penetrameter holes magnification' causing unsharpness in the
liavmg sfiarp 6oundaries·, given an abrupt radiograph. Hence the double wall, single
though small change in metal thickness, image technique is employed.
while a · natural cavity with more or less
roundecl sides given a \gradual. change.
Therefore the image : of· the hole will be In this case, the radiation beam
sharper ."and more e�ily seen in the penetrates twice the wall thickness and
radiograph than the image of the cavity. produce useful image of the lower wall
Similarly, in a fine, long' crack, if the X­ only in the film. Equal number of
rays happen to pass from tube to film segments (say 4 or more) are made for a
normal to the plane of th� crack, its image circumferential weld. Exposure is carried
on the film may not be visible because of out for each of this segment.
the very gradual transition in photographic
density. Thl:JJ> a penetrameter is used to
indicate the quality of . 'the radiographic PANORAMIC RADIOGRAPHY: One of
technique and not as a measure of the the advantages of isotopes using as
� of the cavity which can be shown. source for radiography is that by a single

6
exposure the entire circumference of a method of manufacture, radiographic
weld can be radiographed provided there techniques used, and probable defects
is accessibility to keep the source at the that are likely to occur and the type of
centre of the pipe. Similarly a number of appearance of the discontinuity.
castings can be radiographed by Radiographs are to be checked for their
arranging them in the periphery of a circle sensitivity and must meet the code or
and keeping the source at the centre. product requirements. The density of the
Different techniques .of radiography are radiograph must be checked for the
shown in Fig 8. requirement as per the code or procedure
. If both the requirements are not met then
the test has be repeated with modified
VIEWING METHODS: parameters to m�et the requirement.

The film illuminator used should have

bright back lighting to ensure that the When interpreting weld radiographs, the
indications at the maximum permissible interpreter must be able to explain
density should be readable. The intensity correctly all indications shown by the film.
of the lamp should be variable and the In addition to indications arising from
area of the viewing should be alterable internal discontinuities and external test
according to the size of the radiograph conditions. Indications due to errors in
being viewed. Interpretations should be processing or handling must not be
undertaken in a semi dark room, considered as true indications and hence
preferably a separate room. discontinuities.

Low power magnifying glass can be used While interpreting, the interpreter should
for identifying specific details. be clearly aware of the following aspects
in the radiography : 1) Job shape, 2)
location of source, 3)' direction of radiation
Radiographic film interpretation 4) location of film, 5) location and size of
The interpretation of a radiograph involves penetrameter, t3) area of coverage in
the following stages: radiography
a. Verification that ·. the pattern of the
radiographic image with that of the part
b. Recognition of any spurious effects in INTERNAL DISCONTINUITIES IN BUTT
the radiograph arising from faulty WELDS:
exposure, handling of processing
methods, called film artifacts Figures 9 a & 9 b indicates the shape of
c. Identification of any internal flaws in the the radiographic image · for each · welding
specimen by · their characteristic disGontinuity and the discontinuity is called
appearance in the radiograph a defect only when it goes beyond the
d. A fourth stage is . concerned with the acceptable limits. It must be remembered
assessment of the probable effect of any that surface discontinuities also are also
defect upon the serviceability of the shown in radiographs and whenever any
specimen. This particular aspect of doubt arises the "radiographic image
interpretation is only partly radiographic in should be correlated with both internal and
character because the establishment of external surfaces.
any standard of acceptance or rejection
must be based on the opinion of the
desig'tler of the part, the metallurgist and Internal discontinuities · commonly
the inspector. encountered in · interpreting weld
radiographs include gas inclusions and
porosity, slag inclusions, lack of
Interpretations are to be undertaken with penetration, cracks and lack of fusion.
sufficient knowledge about the product, its
 CEF139645t7Jill

GAS INCLUSIONS: The typical radiographic appearance of

lack of penetration at the root of a weld is
Gas inclusions usually form spherical blow that of continuous or an intermittent dark
holes. Their radiographic images are line usually with a width at the centre of
round dark spots with sharp contours. the weld seam.
Some gas inclusions have an elongated
form known as wormholes or pipe. Their
images depend largely upon the CRACKS:
orientation.
If the welding · parameters or materials
(either parent metal or electrode) are
SLAG INCLUSIONS: inadequat�I then the internal stresses
caused by <shrinka�.e upon cooling of the
Slag inclusions are produced in arc weld may be • so/'higg as to produce
welding due to improper parameters or cracks. In accordance?,with their origii:,,
incorrect welding arc manipulation. cracks are classified as. hot:
· · cracks, cold
Insufficient cleaning between weld cracks etc.
passes, in multi-pass welding can leave
portions of such slag in places to be ·
covered by subsequent passes. Such slag These discontinuities can be either
inclusions are often characterized by t'1eir parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the
location at the edges of the underlying weld seams. In general, cracks are never
metal deposits where they tend to extend straight lines but often have zig-zag
longitudinally along the W(:11d. shapes. Since cracks are the most
dangerous among weld defects particular
attention must be paid to their indications
Slag is a material of lower density and its in checking weld radiographs.
absorption characteristics are between
gas anc;:J metals and produces dark
indications on the radiograph. Slag LACK OF FUSION:
inclusions generally have irregular shapes
whose sizes follow no definite rules. Small As a consequence of insufficient heat or
slag inclusions appear radiographically as the presence of scale on the fusion face of
dark spots with irregular . borders and a weld the deposited metal may remain
sharp pointed ends. Often the image separated from the base metal by a very
density is variable and sometimes even thin layer of oxide. This defect is called
approaching that of the sound metal. lack of fusion.

LACK OF PENETRATION: Radiographic indication of a lack of fusion

is a very narrow, straight dark line, parallel
In butt welding, a root opening is usually to and displaced to one side of the weld
planned at the bottom of the groove (in image. In case of the side wall lack of
one-side welding) or at the centre of the fusion it is very difficult to identify the
weld (in two side welding) and must be indication.
melted and fused by the arc. If the
opening between the two plates is too
narrow compared to the diameter · of TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS:
welding rod and the current, it is difficult to
attain complete penetration and fusion at Tungsten inclusions are characteristics of
the root of the weld; A gap remains in the the TIG welding. If the tungsten electrodes
root area of the weld and will produce an comes into contact with the weld metal,
indication on the radiograph. some tungsten particles can be trapped in
the deposited metal, in the form of small
splinters or even as pieces of the tungsten

8
wire. Because of its high melting point, no OVERLAP:
fusion of the tungsten occurs.
Since it has higher atomic number than If an excessive metal is deposited in the
iron, the radiographic indications take the final pass or if inadequate current or
form of very light marks in the weld image. speed of traveris used in submerged arc
In addition to the weld defects described welds, the deposited metal may overlap
above, the following geometrical defects the base metal. This is indicated in the
are also of great concern. radiograph by an abrupt change of image
density.
INCOMPLETELY FILLED WELD
GROOVES:
EXCESSIVE.PENETRATION:
With excessive speed of travel or too few
passes, or a pooLdistribution of deposited In welds made with excessive penetration
metal, a part of the weld groove may not molten metal runs· through the root
be filled completely. Radiograph will show groove, producing an excessive
this lack of material by increased image reinforcement at the back side of the weld.
density. This condition occurs mostly in pipe-welds
made in the downhand position. without a
cover pass on the root side. The
CONCAVITY AT ROOT OF WELD: radiographic image will be that of the line
· of lowered image density in the centre of
A concave surface at the root of the weld the weld image
can occur particularly in pipe welding. In
overhead welding this condition is a
consequence of gravity which causes the LONGITUDINAL GROOVES:
molten metal to sag away from the
inaccessible upper surface of the weld. It In horizontal multi-pass welds, the last
can also occur in down hand welding with pass may fail to form 'a smooth top surface
a backing strip at the root of the weld and a longitudinal groove- may appear in
groove if slag is trapped between the the surface of tl1e deposited metal. i:hese
molten metal and the backing strip. Since thickness variations produce radiographic
the concave groove is in · the deposited dark lines corresponding to the reduced
metal, the edges . correspond to the root thickness at the grooves.
opening in the weld preparation, . its
radiographic image will consist of a dark
line in the centre of the weld image. It UNDERCUTTING:
cannot be mistaken for lack of penetration,
since the line is broader and lacks sharp During welding of the final or cover pass,
boundaries. the. exposed upper edges of the beveled
weld preparation tend to melt and to run
down into the deposited metal in the weld
EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT: groove. Undercutting occurs when
insufficient filler met�I is deposited to fill
A weld is made with an excessive number the resultant grooves at the edge of the
of passes or with inadequate arc current weld bead. Radiographic images will be a
or speed of travel in submerged arc dark line of varying width and extent,
welding, the weld reinforcement is too readily seen between the lower image
convex and too high. Because of the density zones • corresponding to the
georrretry of the defect (excessive metal reinforcement and the unaffected base
thickness) the weld radiograph will show metal. The indication can appear on both
lowered image density under the sides of the weld bead at the root and top
reinforcement, with an abrupt change in side.
the density at the edge of the
reinforcement adjacent to the base metal.
 CEF13964st'Z'A3

WELD MADE WITH BACKING RINGS: MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE:

Backing rings are -sometimes used in It is impossible and impractical to
circumferential pipe welding where it is safeguard radiographic personnel from
impossible to make cover pass at the root some exposure to radiation. Permissible
of the weld. Such rings are inserted within dose is defined as "the dose of ionising
the pipe at the root of the weld preparation radiation that, in the light of present
before welding. They are partially fused to knowledge is not expected to cause
the deposited metal during the root pass appreciable bodily injury to a person at
and were left inside"the pipe when welding any time during his life time". Maximum
has been completed. The added thickness permissible dose is the numerical value of
of the ring produces well-defined image of the highest permissible dose, under
reduced density, coinciding with the seam, prescribed conditions of exposure, stated
and of a width comparable to that ol the in units of time. The following table may
backing ring. be referred

False indications : Surface roughness, Table 1 DOSE LIMITS FOR ADULT

pits, fettling and grinding marks, sufficient INDIVIDUALS
depth will be recorded on the radiograph, ( As recommended by ICRP*1991)
and may give rise to indications similar to
those of true internal defects. The �pplicat Occupational Public
indications of a rough surface on a casting ion Worker
may closely resemble that of segregation. Whole 20 mSv per year 1 mSv /year
In instances of extreme surface roughness body averaged over 5 averaged
the indications formed may be sufficient to years, with max 50 over 5 years
mark the evidence of internal defects. mSV /year
Spurious indications due to carelessness Skin 500 mSv / year 15 mSv /vear
f
in handling and processing films can Hands 500 mSv / year 50 mSv year
generally be recognised with a little & Feet
experience.
(*International council of radiation
protection)
HAZARDS OF IONISING RADIATION: I. Quarterly dose limit : Half the annual
MPD
It has been established that x rays and II. Cumulative dose is 5 (N-18) rem, where
gamma rays may cause destructive N is the age of the person
effects on the human body. Radiation
safety practices are based on these ..
effects and the characteristics of radiation. PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION:
Since radiation cannot be detected by any
of the tiuman senses and its damaging Three important principles govern safety
effects do not become immediately practices for controlling body exposure to
apparent, personnel protection is radiation - Time. Distance and Shielding.
dependent upon detection devices and Safe radiography techniques and
shielding. The Division of Radiological radiographic installations are designed by
Protection of BARC enforces safety applying these principles.
regulations covering the handling and use
of radioisotopes. These regulations are
designed to limit radiation exposure to ALLOWABLE WORKING TIME:
safe levels and to afford protection for
general public. The radiographer must · The amount of radiation absorbed by the
have sufficient knowledge and comply human body is directly proportional to the
with all pertinent regulations�

10
time the body is exposed. Allowable half- value layers. The half value layer is
working time is calculated by measuring that amount of shielding which will stop
radiation intensity and substituting in the half of the radiation of a given intensity.
following equation. Tenth value layer is the shielding that will
stop 90% of the radiation i.e. one tenth of
Allowing working time in hour I week. = the original radiation will be transmitted
Permissible exposure (mR,Week) / through the layer.
Exposure rate in mR / Week

RADIATION MEASURING DEVICES:

WORKING DISTANCE:
Since radiation cannot be seen or felt, it is
The greater ttie distance from a radiation essential to measure the qu�ntum of
source, lower the. exposure received. The radiation a radiation worker has received
inverse square law is used to calculate the or the quantum present at any particular
radiation intensities at various distances location. For this purpose, radiation
from a source. measuring devices such as TLD · badges,
pocket dosimeters, survey instruments are
used.
TLD Badges ; There are three TL0 discs
fixed on to a metallic card and enclosed
Where 11 and 12 are intensities at 01 and in a plastic cassette containing three
02 distances respectively. different filters. On heating these cards the
discs emitlight. More the energy absorbed
by the disc, more would be the light
SHIELDING: emitted. The TL0 badges can be used to
monitor beta, gamma· and x rays. They
Lead, steel, iron and concrete are can be used to measure dclses from 1 O m
materials commonly used as shieldlng to rem - 10000 rein. The TLD badges are
reduce personnel exposure. Since all the regularly sent to BARC or its authorized
energy of X or Gamma radiation cannot agency for the' evaluation of the doses
be stopped by shielding, it is practical to received.
measure shielding ·efficiency in terms of

Table_ 2 Half Value Thickness and Tenth Layer value Thickness

Concrete Steel Lead Uranium

Source-
HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
Ir 192 4.1 13.5 1.25 4.2 0.5 1.65 0.31 1.0
Co60 6.1 20.3 2.0 6.6 1.2 4.0 0.7 2.2

Concrete Lead
Source - X ray
HVT TVT HVT TVT
100 KV 2.1 7.0 .025 0.078
200kV 2.7 9.0 0.06 0.2
300kV 3.0 10 0.18 0.6
400kV 3.6 12 0.24 0.8.

All dimensions in cm

11
f¥9 ifllil!it-96£ kf3:)
 Table 3 Characteristics of Radiographic sources

SI No Source Symbol Half life Energy in Penetration

MeV capability, mm steel
1
. Radium 226
..
Ra226 1600 Yrs 2.2,
1.1,
1.8,
0.6,
75-200

0.35
2 Cobalt 60 Co60 5.3 Yrs t.33, · 1. 17 . · 50-200
3 Cesium 137 Cs137 33 Yrs 0.662 10-75
4 Thulium170 Tm170 •127 days 0.084 0�25of
' .
AI
5 Iridium 192 lr192 75 days 0.31,0.47, 5to 5 .. · •··
7 ·
0.60

TABLE 4 Selection of IQI

( As per ASME Sec V - 2004 )

SI No Willi
··,
Single Source side IQI Film side ·IQF
thickness, mm Hole type Wire type Hole type Wire type
1. <6.4 , 12 5 10 4
2. >6.4·-9.5- 15 6 12 5
3. >9.5-12.7 17 7 15 6
4. >12.7-19.0 20 8 17 7
5. > 19.0-25.4 25 9 20 8
6. >25.4-38.1 30 10 25 9
7. >38.1-50.8 35 11 30 10
8. >50.8""63.5 40 12 35 11
9. >63.5-101:6 • 50 13 40 12
10. >101.6-152.4 60 14 50 13
11. >152.4-203.2 80 16 60 14
12. >203.2-254.0 100 17 80 16
13. >254.0-304.8 120 18 100 17
14. .·>304�8-4�6;4 160 20 120 18
15. :>406.4-508.0 200· 21 160 20

12
 f:
RADIATION SOllflCE��•• \
;I I ,\
11 I \
// I '
I/ I \
,, I \
II I \
1I I \
/I I \
I I I \
// I \
I I I \
1 I 1 \ SPECIMEN
/ I I \
I I \
I I \
I I
VOID / / I \ FILM
I I 1· \
I I I \
I I I \
, I I \
I I I \
/ / I \

�------ DARKER AREAS

<WHEN PROCESSED>
----="���==-----"" -

Fig 1 Principles of radiography

(+)

Fig 2 Construction of X ray machine

REEL A.SSEU8LV

COIITROL BOX ASSEIIBLY

REEL EXTENSION CABLES

II ARMOURED CABLE
TUIIES
.I � .....'
SHIELD PIG
SHIELD CASE ASSt:IIBLV \ I
I
MICROSWITCHES FOR
"STOIIED" AHO "OPEN"

SOURCE SWITCH ASSEMBLY

Fig 3 Typical Isotope Camera

 , CEF139645C?{m

SHIELD PIG
Source in stored
position in pig
"STORf;:D·"

Source cranked partially out

source no longer shielded
''OPEN"

Source in exposure
position all the way
"ON"

Fig 4 Isotope camera in operation

-11mm M>[ (PJL\'ESTER)

-E1,1.u•_SIO�
� ALKALIA 11\IA!iE LA'i£R:

t t t t t
PR{ll(Cll\·[ UIYH
BilS REDUCIM(

Fig 5 Radiographic film - Cross Section

------- ------- ..., ________

-----1:
/1
2,5

------- ------- ..., _______ -

1/\
0

1.5

/
I I

------- ---�
1.0
D2-­ I I

D1 --
,. ______ ' ,_
I
I
I

I
! I
I
o.5 1.0 1.5 i.o 2.5
EA E
B LOG m.ATM oPosuRE Ee En

Fig 6 H-D Curve ofradiographic film

14
 lotNTiFfCATrOII !llfl8£R

I
.1'1Wf ... ttw._____ 7.....J
':=:!-==-11
ttHtdU�

Fig 7 Hole Type Penetrameter ·

Double wall Single.•image

Single Wall Single Image

, I
,,,,,..
,' I
, I
, I

,
,
. , I
I.
I

+
,

,, , I

,,
I

I
/·
.....I
•�· " • • •-• o • •.• I I • • ■ • • I •�• •.• I •-• I •.•.■-•

. . - .... -·-·-·-•.·-·-"'•"•"•�--.·-·---·-•-·..·-·..-.-.-.-

• Double Wall Double Image

Fig 8 Radiography techniques

·.

15
�96£,�3�
•m·1-m•.
Incomplete Fusion of Root Pass

n
m
.,,
....
w
co
O>
(""dlog•aplllc lmoge) (R.::u:lhJgrapt,14; !magi?) .,..
j,iiiiaj
---------
�
Hollow Bead Incomplete Fusion (Cold lap) Slag Lines
- b

r­ Tungsten lnctuslo11s
Mlsallgnmenl (Hlgh•LOWJ

Fig 9 (a) Weld Defects and RT indications

 Undercut Inadequate PenetraUon of Weld Groove
-- ,..
lnadequale Penetration Due to High-Low
--
n
m
"Tl
.....
w
(RadM>graphk: Image)
CD
O>
..

1- -= • I ' ' ! '

-_tsS;��-rA't:+rs,./ 'Ft
lncl,,io:t.wl Clusl"r '{l',:.nr�-.:l-.,
::>;:,,rQ�ly
t+.;,1.,111
81:'1�
P'l:otri Porc!!Jly

I
_J �•----�

I
-
f I I I I 1 11 I
�f -,;:i_;tmm} I
1r��t9tl

Fig 9 ( b) Weld Defects and RT indications

 Radiographic Image Quality
INTRODUCTION the sensitivity. Radiographic sensitivity is
affected by two factors namely contrast and
The main objective of the radiographic definition.
inspection is to examine a product for
inhomog·eneties. To achieve this purpose, Radiographic contrast is the differen� in the
radiographs are produi;ed. It is the quality of densities from one area to another. Any
the radiographs that. decipes the efficiency of shadow or detaii in the radiograph is visible
flaw detection. The quality of a radiograph is by reason of the contrast between it and its
determined by two factors viz..density and surrounding area. Within the appropriate
sensitivity. limits, the greater the contrast or density
differences in radiograph, the more definitely
DENSITY various details are seen and better is the
quality of the radiograph.
Density of a radiograph refers to its ·opacity
or darkness. When a radiographer interprets Radiographic contrast can again be divided
a radiograph, he is viewing the details of the into subject contrast and film contrast and
specimen image in terms of the amount of the overall contrast depends upon both the
light passing through the processed film. subject contrast and film contrast.
Areas exposed to relatively large amount of
radiation are known as areas of high density SUBJECT CONTRAST affected by
and areas exposed to less radiation are
known as areas of light qensity. High density A. Thickness difference in
areas will appear as dark grey and light specimen
density areas will appear as light grey. The
density is usually expressed in J-t & D figures · Higher the thickness difference,_the more will
and is expressed as common logrtthm of the· be the contrast.
ratio of light incident upon · one side of a
radiograph to the light transmitted through a B. Radiation Quality
radiograph. Expressed mathematically,
D = Log10 IJlt Sensitivity of a radiograph is better with X­
wl)ere D is the film density ray radiation than with Gamma radiation.
0 is the intensity of the incident Also a low energy higher wavelength
light radiation can give better contrast. For
It is the intensity of the transmitted example, radiograph produced with an Ir 192
light source will be better in quality than one with
a Co00 source.
For quality radiograph, the density should be
adequate, normally a minimum density of 2 C. Scattered Radiation
is specified in most of the specifications. The
maximum density depends upon the viewing The higher the scattered radiation, the lower
facilities available, but normally restricted to is the contrast.
4.
Scattered radiation are due to secondary X­
SENSITIVITY rays produced by the three processes
namely, photoelectric absorption, compton
Radiographic Sensitivity is defined as the scattering and pair production. These
.§bility to view the discontinuity or flaw in the secondary radiations are of low level energy
radiograph exactly as present in the content and of longer wavelength in random
speicmen. The more the exactness, better is
 ,\
..
orientation. Scattered radiation can be D. Activity of Developer
classified into three categories.
1. Internal Scatter: This is due to the Fresher the developer, the contrast is more.
scattering -that occurs in the specimen
itself. fresher the d�veloper, the contra,t i• �ore,
2. Side Scatter: This is from the walls and Radiograp'hif. Send tivity
objects in the vicinity of the specimen or from Con{i-ast Ddinjtion
the ·p01tions· of the. specimen '..like central Subject ,J;trast l!'D,n tontrast GcCMtlic f.sctors C:a�ineBS factor�
· Affectedt by •Affected f by _+
Affecteil f
by Affected by
hotes which · allows. the X-rays · to pass
I. Thickueaa l. Type of film l.Focal Spot l. Type of Film
through it dir.ectly. This scatter is known as differ:ence in
radiation undercutting. s;,ecimens
2.Dendty 2.Proc.,,,dng 2 •.rni 2. Type of screen
3. Back Gcatter: This J.s scattering of the Difference
ray� from the surface or objects beneath or 3.Radiation 3.Denaity 3.Spec:Lmen fila 3.Ha:diograph
Quality distance Quality
behind the specimen. 4. Scattered 4.Activity of the 4.Abruptness 0£ 4;Dcvelopment
radiation developer

l
thickness
l change ill
Scattering can be reduced by u5ing masks specimen
or diaphragms. Also by using fil!ers, back !i. Screen Fila
Contact
scattering: aod. soft rays can b e reduced. 6.Vibration
Lead screehs Rbsorb the IOWfff wavc-length Reduced !!I
�cattered radiation less • than 1-1rimary a .Masks & Diaphragm
..b.l'ilters,
radiation. · c. tead Screens

Film contrast refers to the ability of the film to IQI PENETRAMEiERS

detect and record c;fifferent radiation
exposures as differences in density. It is It is already known that the quality of the
: i.isLtall{ . , eY.prP,ssed in the .Jorrn of radiograph is determined by \ts sensitivity.
--�h�r�cterisOc r.u:-ves. The higher the sensitivity, the better the
quality. The flaw sensitivity of a radiogra'ph is
FILM CONTRAST affected by the relation between the dimension of the
smallest flaw that can be seen on the
A. Type of Film radiograph to the thickness of the specimen.

Fine grain_ film _will glve high . contrast. I.e. =

% f=law Sensitivity Dimension of
Medium grain film will give medium C0'1trac;t. the smallest flaw that can be seen
Coarse grain film will give low contrast. on the radiograph /Thickness of the
specimen x 100
B. Dev�lopment Time, Tempernture
and Agitation But in practice, it is not possible to obfam a
uniform value· because factors· such as the
location of the' flaw,·:·th�· nature of the fl�w
. Filni processing upto a certain limit with
: · incr11Jased degree of development, contrast and its orientation affect the value .
. increases but ·if the development. is carried
too far, the fog increases and h�nce the Hence to ensure that . the . radiographic
, contrast decreas.es •. technique adopted is satisfactory, normally
Image Quality Indicators . (also known as
C. Density penetrameters) are used.

At higher' density the contrast is more. The IOI or Penny is of a simple geometric
form and is made of the same material or
'

2
 1
CEF1396451#®

---
, .;•·,,

similar material as the· specimen being DIN 54109 provi�es . one serie� .for . Steel
..
. e�mi. ne�. Th_e dimensions .of the IQI bear (Iron) on� for Aluminium.. (Al �Jl9y). aod third
\

some numerical relation to the thickness of for Cu. and Z,ii:ic and-,Ni all�ys.. . . ,_:·.. ,
the· part being tested. The image of the IQI
on·the r�diograph'is permaRenf evidence :· :fh� -isnage quaI�¥- _\s !!'lcii�t�c;tby the-Jhinnest
�hat ·_;-�he · ·radiographic· .examination was wire vi�i.b_le .on ;th.� . rnPipgr-aph.. :B,S ... _3971
..
. conducted und�r pro.per ponditfor1s. . · w.t,ich also g�s. wire type, h_as a series of
-dlame10111 '(in .mml •
1 · :i ll ·s· 'B 4
aJ!O. tJIO 2!9(1. I.Ill) 1.25 1.00.. 0.111! 0.63
·7 · ·
·
. The fo llowing.are the requirements of a good
correspond. numbOrS a

'- ;j\,;�,;. Ill\ mm)·.- . 0.5G 0.40 d 0.25 020 0.1il'-0.125'1UIIO

IQI, correspond. numbers 9 _ 1\1_.• }.�:-, ��; •. 1.� _,. I� . 1�.. · ;1'
·
Tlla se,19!1 ara made up as lalklw!I : •
• · i.nc11cetors ·: :. , , ., , . • '. •. �'19· pr .ilrlra1

• It must b� small SQ. th�l it can· be piaced . Dl"I 1n.. ,. 1 II, .3 . '4 fl... 8 . 7

-
"7 • : 8 ·. 10' -·
11 . -��� ,1_3 ... ,. _.14.. '\ ��:, ,,_ '.16
U i •:, 12
• 10
on the· specimen without absorbing the
9 :
DIN 1Q/16
- OIN 6/12 - 6

· • ·' . ··-� .
details. · · .. · �-. ·-b' / ..'AlU
, .. � ,
I ►

• Must . be sensitive to change in

.-....,...�\
:e� ;-� ,• ';•!"ll-•-,-•i

i· ·'�l.)t.,./�:::·...:�i.
rr
.,. 1rt ·:1�\1,i;j
technique_.
•

•
. Must fie available in a range of sizes and
materials 'so as to suitable for a -range of
applications.
Method o f evaluation mu�t.
.. . . .. :·. _1·:.·_.;
-� ·-:�inipie
..::
·
..
-;,m· ·
. �•
...........
,.
·
F·: •
.; . .. ·· ,.-!.L .�,
1
'"li1. : .. ;.. �� �i ,.·.�
. '·

........
- ·- ·-- - .· ..· ·· f· ��-·- . �"!:; .-,:_._if:>:
. '."'· · -·· - ·
i
u
:· ·and unambiguo s ,, ·=== 7f,;J· \!_;!oh r =-;J·· '··. • '? ...
• Sensitivity data ..must-be
�· ... '·.a '"-,vailable.-.
. � ··- . ." .,,. �.
.. Ba�ep_gr).jhe
. .
. -.. . "· � above,
. .
tnr�e
. ··�·· basic...types_of.{QI
- .. .
. �r�:�yaHable...' · : ....•. -�;,,,• ' ...•., J.."';-•.. ...•. .. . ,·! .,.·-..• . #,, .••.
: '

. . 21 wires arrangeifin gedrn'elnc· progtessiOn .

. � ... . -· . • ... :•.•;... ·: ·.·.·1··· ...
. ·- : . , �� ··•. • ; ·

While in DIN, as the fitnnt'jef�lnefeases;the

they'.
':

i �Je_�
r "l • • ' ..•� .. dimension decreases, in B.S. it is the
reverse. IS·· 3657 �'-1978 ·.13151, · -permits- wire
• ·�.

,.?'; ... -:; .:. : ,...

.• •. Wir�Jype .. ... .., . .. , _
. •.. .:.. ··. •·•. � ;�

type IQ indicator. With wired in geometric

. -• . , step; Wedge type ·.... progression, 3 series' ·tor i Iron and ·-Steel( Al
• St�p -·Hole type.
and Al alloys and Cu . and its alloys are
provided. Each ·have ·.·5 'mdde1s•: and · each.
W�i'.t�-i�r;·1�1.·. :·: . . ;_· ._·•._ .. ·rnodel"having·7wir&s: · · ·. '-�;.-,•, ·:'·
. .. � ,• ' ' . • . . .
:� . ' .- ; . . . . : . .. :!

The most · widely . usJil;t _ Wire type

penetr�meter is of.the DIN type· (German). It Thickness
is __mad�.- aP,COrcUng__.to �tancta� . [?IN ..5-1-.1.09
or! iil� :. test
.._an� ··1s.·.:_�ppro�� -; by_ · (§0, ·. syst�m -�rtie�- . Diece

. . consists of a. set �otthree parameters .each 0-12mm o.� o.oa 0.J0 . 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25
-., ... •;' • -... .• • • .. • •• " • ;.. ,• J ••••

• _;.�,•I .....;': I�=::.- ,:�.\, •• f"�:, •�:, •:•• ",::�:•:,.: ••,'• •1 •,.,., ,•,•;,
Fe

1
• ; f•_ • ,t ·• ' ' ' , ": I- , , .,
•�

containing ?. _eq4i,dist.aot progre�o 1 -Each

• •• ' .. ·• . • ., , .

- _.:j-:-;·:·: : '·.::
diameter is represent�d a wh ol� 'num.be;. by 0.32 OAO 0.50

:�. !Jlree..-·•-�·=.�ets
�. :"-� ·._:_ :/r.·:t'1e .:.. -: .:-•..
� :•,_..-ar,e
...

°
;.��>-. -·.... ,.
·:25-50,r;�. ��
-.,
o.25 ··o.i2" ;o.J o.50 · o:� b.so 1.00
•.1 •• :�· *. •
. .....
·
Thus • ,I ' �� ;,•: .. � •• • ',\ •• , ....:::�-: : t• _: ••
• • • .,, • • •• •• • I • � • •,

1 - 7 50-100mm Fe o.50 0.84 o.so 1.00 1.25 1.e,o 2.00

·-� :, I •

6 - 12
. ·.:•: · .. ,!

10 - .. 16 Over Fe 0,.�. 1.p() . �-� . 1.60 2.�.. 2,50 3.15

100mm 5

BS 3971

,.
 -•
·cEF139645 .

WIRE DIAMETERS FOR IQI thickness in .0.010 . inch increments and

Wire Diameter Wire Diameter containing 1/20 inch holes.
number (mmt number (mmt
: ·' 1 · ..
0.032 12 0.400 As per BS 3971 - 3 Model of Penetramete.s
·2 0.040 13 0.500·- are used.
3 0.050 14 0.630
4 0.063 15 0.8.0 MODEL Step ·and Hole Sizes
5 0.080 16 . 1.00
6 0.100 17 A 1 to 6 inclusive
1.2�
B 7 to 12. inclusive.
.. 7 0.125 18 1.60
C 13 to 18 inclusive
8 0.160 19 2.00
9 0.200 20 2.50
IS 3657 - 1978 also pennits step-hole type
10 0.250 21 3.20
penetrameter and there are five models and
11 0.320
3 series (Fe, Al & Cu).
·--
MOD
The tole.ranee on t:1e wire dia is +l-5%
ELS
There a.re p Models
1 o.16 0.20 0.25 · 0.32 0.40
2 . 0.32 0.40 0.50 o:a3 0.80
Moc;lel \'Vires·. .

3 0.63 0.80 1.00' ·1_s25 1.60

'
4 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.20
- ·1 4 to 10 _inclusive Cori,monly
5 2.50 3.20 4.00 -5.00 ._(?.30
used
2 9 to 1.S inclusive Commonly
.. Both in IS an� BS penetrarrJete_rs, . th_e_ hole
. ·-;
used
dia. is equal to the step thickness .
3 15 to 21 -do- Commonly
" used
Frenc�1 Navy (AFNOR) penetrarneter is cilso
4 1 to 21 -do- Special for low
a step type having triangular steps in linear
thickness
or hexagonal arrangement.
5 . 1 to 7 -do- Sf?ecial for low
thickness The steps increase in thickness by · a
constant ratio rnther than by a constant
increment. Each step contains one hole. In
Step-Wedge Type the sase of tninnesf step�,. it is . .two, th_e
diameter of the hole being e�ual to.the step
In tliis typ� of penetrameter, commonly used thickness.
in U.K. ijnd France, sma_ll steps, whose
tl:\ickness�s · incr�ase in ae·ometric Hole and step dimensions as per BS 3971.
progression, are used. One or two holes
. eith�r with ·particular ·diameter as in the case Step· H.oJ�_dia. Step HQle.dia.
o�Penny -.or -a : relatiorf to the number &step numt, .•_And �•P
_ ,., _ � _.
·· thick11ess �f the -step as m BS 3.::7·1 · are -thickness
\.,

er
"')'

·thickness
drilled in steps. (mm,a (mm)'
1 0.125 10 .1.00
As per BWRA, 2 penetrameters are specified
2 0.160 11 1.25
with thickness of 0.005, 0.010, 0.020, 0.030
3 0.200 12· 1.60
and 0.040 inch., each hole 1/40 inch in dia.
4 0.250 13 2.00
And ·the/ -other from 0.40 -to 0.80 inch

4
 , CEF139645C'.t!f

.....
5
6
- .. ..
0.3?9.
0.400
.
14 ..
15
2.50
3.20
-- Tf'le. . rhost c.omrtjon · . a.Rd widelY:i used
7 " . 0.50_0, -16· · . 4,00_ pen�tramet�� of_ thfs ty.p_{-1s AStM)penily.
8 . 5.00 Thi's consists,.·of a srfiallreqtangularpiece·'of
.
0.630 17
' 9 ·metal of··appropriate··m;ateri�l· With ·a··holes, .
0.800 18 6.30 . ·. � .
��it?�
.
·\he diamete�_ of··
.

".... a . The tolerance

. ..· .· on these dimensions
. is .:�r� �lated,,to ·1h.e
+/- 5". thickne�s -of. the·• pene.mmieter: Th�y are
multiple�-of thicknesi•narile·ly 1T, 2T 'and 4T
where T is 'tl'le. th)ckn��s ·__ of 'Penny. Th;e
penny is . ·flat: ·with - a unifor:m .. thickness· of
about 2% :.Qf. the spe'�lme� - thickness.
Different pene-frame1e�. are i_used for Varying
thicknes��s . an_!,1 )s·, id�_ritified by:· theJr.
designation number, i.e�\ the thickness of • • � • •

All dimensions in millimetres: Penny in thousands of an inch .

• � •• ·- • < • - • • • �..

. _The .... -A$J"M · :�erietrarheter,- . -permits· :, the

speqification of a number ; of.. levels · of
radiographic sensitivity Q�pending _ on . the
:,,.exampi� ::,
.:\,'-,.J,6'--,......... 2 ._,,

requirements ·of job'.. ·Far th�

·,.:.
·o.•:i·:.
specifications . m.�Y·' )oi' �.
�i! ;adiogr�phic
si:i'nsiUvity' Jeyel if2��r::· f11e:-firsi" �y�'bo�2
indicates that
. the penetrameter shall. • be' 2%
of . ttiickness· ·o($peoi�n� the., .second •·2T
• • �- . ...... ...; . . - I, • • ,

indicate�. "that '.the hol� havi�g � diam�te'r

twice ·1h� 'peneframeter·:ili(ckness... sha11 -�be. :
ttie
visible· �n� fi�ished ;�diog�aph. .:
...... . ,, �
F'l&U,. � •-Fr.-r,cl1, Standard .CAFNOR) .·pen•t,,.ffleter. · DI•

. ·. . ., ..
mansions In rnill(rne�ni.. _ •
. ·-.��.-�. .: . �. . .. .
;. '
. "'••
l • '< • ,

. ··.:: �--.' ,•.·.;

·• ·f' ':." .

, o-oao·
·Y
."f-

:_ .: ., ; ,··:

.... -�. ... . . '... ( .... � :..... '

. . S9me- f:iints .in Sele�i.on of Penetram&�r

.
J's.a.
. �'•J. .., %QI. -
,"' _.
a.v.J1.A.

. j) .. : ,:- Peoetrameter •.-.. ;, :Material·.•.;:•,:,-:, -

• 1_Xi� +?:1:31,l:��S-
• • {. : ; , : � •• 41 1;2•
.P�netram.ete.r sll�.11 b.e made:up of. Ute'-::sarne
.material · _m; that of.:· -the, speolme� ·or
radiographically similar material� Thus� - -::::,.-..
I
Flsure -_ . 1-Brltlsh W•ld.:�. R�•-••C:� .�:.octatlon (SWRA)
,:,enetra·njeter. · . . .' . · . ..'C1 Steel-P,cnny.. ,-..'C\Ste,.el &-Low:Alloy
.. .. ..
....... ·
, .. ·,. • · �eei ·- ·,.···
. . . .. .
.
-�- '

Stainless Steel .Penny -High ;alloy ·steel &

STRIP HOLE TYPE stainless steel
 "\
HOW TO CALCULATE IQI SENSITIVITY
Aluminium Penny -Aluminium &
Aluminium Alloy A penetrameter in general is used to indicate
the quality of radiographic technique and not
Cu Pen�y- .. -Cu & Cu Alloy to measure the size of a defect that is
shown.. •
.. .. -
2) Location of_the'Penny
Wire type IQI
The penny should be placed as far as
possible on_ the source side of the radiation. % of Sensitivity = Dia. Of the thinnest wire
When it is . not possible to do so, as in the visible/thickness o( the object x 100
case of double wall single image
radiography, the. penny can be kept on the Step hole type IQI
film side in which case a lead letter 'F.' shall
be placed such that it must be in the most % of Sensitivity . = Dia. Of the smallest
unfavourable location with respe� to . visible hole/Thickness of the object x 100
radiation beam.
Strip Hole Type
3) In the· case of welds, wire type
penny shall be kept across the_ weld and step In this type, the penetrarrieter image and the
wedge, and strip hole type parallel to the specified hole are the essential indications of
· weld 1/8" away from the weld edge. sensitivity. The thickness of the
. ..
penetrameter and the hole dia.: To be see·n is
4) Minimum o( _on_e IQI per radiograph generally specified in the code. Normally the
is necessary. However if a ·circumferential image of 2T hole shall be .visible. in the
·.·weld is covered by pa·noramic technique,
. -4 radiograph. Critical components required a
.· Permys 90� apart is sufficient. level of 1-2T or 1-1T. Less critical
components may need only a quality level of
5) When .there is a difference in 2.:4T or 4-4T. The more critical the
tbickoess · and · if this diff�rerice exceeds the radiographic examinatiQn is;• the·· hig_her the
range of one ·101, more than one IQI is level of- radiographic sensitivity requir ed- and
,
required .. �he lower the numerical designation ;for the
quality level.
6)'. .. tn the case of welds with backing
ring 9r.:.wtth excessive reinforcement/excess . The followjng are. the. different • sensitivity_
penetration, while .using step wedgeistrip levels of inspection . with., strip . hole type
hole type of penny, a �him has to be used. Pennies.

7) . When the· density of the rac;Jioqraph 1-1T 2-1T 4-1T

.. varies from the 10.�tion of IQI by more �han - f-2T 2-2T 4-2T
15% to +30%, then another I.Oris required 1-4T 2-4T · 4-4T
for the second denstt:y:. ·
Sensitivity Criteria
�) y\llJen. it is. !10t possible to place the
Penetrameter on the specimen, then it In the case of wire type or step hole type, the
can be placed on a separate block of the lower in the percentage of sensitivity, better
radiographically similar material and of is the quality of radiograph. In case of strip
sanie thickness. hole type, the lower is the value of strip and

6
 'CEF139645- · .•

hole, the better is the quality of the

radiograph. The. strip hole type pennies is in a sense a
Visibility Index 'go-no-go' gauge. That is, it indicates
whether or not a specified quality level has
SensitM~y may als·o be detennined on the been attained· or not. But it does Q0t show
indexd of visibility wbich is given by the the actual quality lev~I of the radiograph i.e.
following formula: by what amount the requirements have been
exceeded.
N = a-b
where _N .. = Index of visibility The DiN p~n-~trameter on the other hand is
a = Number of holes or ~ series of seven penetrameters in a sing.le
wires visible on radiograph unit.· As such ·the .actual quality level
b = Number of holes or achieved is measured in the radiograph.
wires whose diameters are
equal to or larger than 5 QUALITY LEVELS OF INSPECTION
percent of the thickness in (ASTM)
the case of step type
indicator and .2% of the I Level of Penetram Minimum Equivalent
thickness in the case of wire
· type indicator.
I Inspection eter
thickness
Percepti Penetraineter
' ·
ble Hole . Sensitivity
, .. ,

. ..
D,ia. percent
The image quality is consider~d to be better 2/1T 1/50 (2%) 1T 1.4
With higher _values of 'N' . . of
. ' .
specimen..
VISIBIL.ITY..INDEX · thickness .. .... •, .

2/2T 2T ,2.0
. '
Sensitivity Percent
-
I 2/4T 4T 2.8
Visibility ·. Wire Type Step hole
Index (1) (2) Type (3) SPECIAL LEVe:LS OF i'NSPECTION '._,,.:
~ -..... .•

-1 2.5 to 3.2 6.3 to 8.0 Level of Penetra Mil;lim~m.- Equr',alen_t

"-

0 2.0 to 2.5· 5.0to 6.3 Inspection meter Percepti pe!}t!tramet

...
+1 1.6 to 2.0 4.0 to 5.0 · thickness ble Hole er
+2 1.25 to 1.6 3.2 to 4.0 pja. . sensitivity
.+3 1.0 to 1.25 2.5 to 3.2, ' pei::-cent._,.._
+4. r 0,8to 1.0
·-
2.0 to 2.5. · •' 111T 1/HX' (1
~ .............
n 0.7
·.,
.
..,.
'
perce1 it} ··of: c~·
. ~-- '

Comparision of Different IQI Values specimen

'•
thickness: '
Wire IOI sensitivity _is taken as the basis. To 1/2T· . .·•
·,,.•·:2T '. 1
convert step hole .or strip hole into equivalent 4/2T f/25' ('4 · ,.2T 4
sensitivity, percent) or
specimen
s = 100/X ✓ (TH/2) thickness

Where X = Thickness of
specimen in inches
T ..... Step/Strip thickn~ss
in inches
H = Hole dia. in inches

..,
 . I
i
I
I .

ARTICLE 2 - RADIOGRAPHlC EXAMINATION T-271.I-T-272.J

TABLE i-262.2
M.ATERIAL THICKNESS, PENETRAMETER DES(GNAT!ONS, AND ESSENTIAL I
HOLES FOR SINGLE-WALL .RAD(OGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE ! '
I
Pen,trametef

Nominal Source Side Film Side

Singlt;Wall
Material Thickness · · C'Ssentiat E.ssential
Range, in. .. Designation . Hole 0esi911ation Hole

IJp to 0.25 incl. 10 4T 7 4T

Over 0.25 thru o:)75 12 4T 10 4T
Over 0.)75 thru 0.50 15 4T 12 4T
Over 0.50 thru 0.625 . 15 4T 12 4T.
Over 0.625 th.ru o. 75 17 4T 15 4T
4T
•t:
·f'ytt 0.75 thru 0.875 20
20 4T
17
17
4T
4T

!tr
0.875 thru 1.00
, r 1.00 thru 1.25 25 4T 20 4T
1.25 tnru 1.50 30 2T 25 2T
! r 1.50 thru. 2.00 )!, 2T JO 2T
· tr 2.00 thru 2.50 · 40 2T. J~ 2T
Over 2.50 thru 3.00 4~ H 40. 2T
Over 3.00 thru 4.00 . so·, H 45 2T
Ovtr 4.00 thru &.00 bO 2T' 50 2T
Over 6.oo thru a.oo 80 · 2T 60 2T
Over 8.00 thru 10.00 100 2T 80 7.T
lmr 10.0Q. thru 12.00 120 21" 100 2T
~ 12.00 th1i1 l&,00 J.60 2T 120 2T
0wr 16.00 thro 20.00 . 200 2T 160 2T

------·------·-----------.
TABLE T-272
MATERIAL THICKNESS, PENETRAMETER
DESIGNATIONS, AND ESSENTIAL. HOLES FOR
DOUBLE-WALL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE.
-----·-- ·-·------
Penetrameter

Nominal Single-Wall
Material Thickne55 Essential
· ·. Range, _in. Designation Hole

0 lhru 0.375 10 4T
Over 0,375 thru 0.625 12 1T
Oi,•er 0.625 thru 0.. 875 15 4T
01:cr 0.875 thru LOO 17 4T
Over 1.00 thru 1.50 25 2T
Over 1.50 thru 2.00 -30 2T
Over 2.00 thru 2.50. 35 2T
Ovi:r 2.50 thru 3.00 40 ·2T
Over 3.00 !hr'u 4.00. 4 :> 2t
Over 4.00 thru &.00 50 F

8
 ORIGIN OF X-RAYS
Discovery of X-rays
On 8 November 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered a new
kind of radiation, which he called X-rays. The rays_ were
produced when high energy electrons were suddenly stopped by
striking a metal target and were generated inside a vacuum
tube - the x-ray tube.
Generation of X-rays:
X-rays are generated when a free high speed ·electron gives up
some of its-- energy during interaction with the orbital
electrons or nucleus of the atom. The higher the veloc·i_ty of
the electrons., the higher the energy of the X-ray� that are
produced. A special target is embedded into the anode to
recaive the impact of the electrons.
Continuous and.Characteristic X-rays are both produced as a
result of high speed electrons striking trre target material
in an X-ray tube.
Continuous X-rays
When an _electron of sufficient energy interacts with the
nuclei of X-ray -tube target atoms ,{bremsstrarahlung}
continuous X-rays are generated. There is a transfqrmation of
energy when. an electron h·aving kinetic energy . hits the
target. Because of its small mass the electron is
decelerated in the electric field of the, nucleus and the
kinetic energy of the electron is transformed into a quantum
of radiation called II bremsstrahlung (break-up) radiation 11 •
or continuous X-rays.
If the accelerated athode elect'..ons may also interact witr
free- electro�s of the tar��t�atom ,they lose part .o
their energy. Th� difference i� energy is converted into
either in producing heat or radiation of low frequency
giving rise to a spectrum of continuous X-rays.
The c�aracteristics_of co�tinuous s�ectrum are in�ePendent-ou
the target and are ctetarmined
· by the voltage applied to the
X-ray tube. . · �.: . . .
The intensity of the continuo·us spectrum is dependent on· the­
tube current;target material,target thickness and _�h 7 appl�
volt'age. .

.,
 ·
,, CEF139645-

.•

ee e e eee
( -) eee e 0 e ee e 9099
e
600 8eee ee

WINDO'N

e
e-
e
' 200 KEV ELECTRON
LEAVING

e e
e
e e e
e
e �­
, ·

0""---..._..,_
8 '---
e 200 KEV
X-RAY

.
- -
·----- - :;:::::.
----::::;::::.

I- -- #- - ----
1( r� 11
·1 I··
ACTUAL FOCAL SPOT II
I l

EFFECTIVE FOCAL SPOT bt

Characteristic X-rays
When an electron of sufficient energy interacts with the
orbital electron of an· atom , characteristic X-rays are
gen·erated. If the cathode electrons may knock-out an electron
from inner orbit-K,L 6r.M, the atom i� in.excited state .
The electron from the outer orbit jumps . and fills-up the
vacancy, emittihg energy in the process and the atom returns
to normal state of energy. The emitted energy h�s a definite
fr�guency (longer wavelengths) and is characteristic of the
target material and are called as "characteristic X-rays".
In industrial radiography except in specialised 'low energy
applications ,the characteristic x�rays have rio f)ractical
importance.
X-ray generation requirements
1) Electron source :
All matter is composed of negatively charged particles called
electron. The source of electrons known as · cathode is a
heated-filament in an X-ray tube .,a- sealed�off glass
envelope, evacuated to the highest· attainable vacuum When
the filament is heated its electrons gets agitated and escape
the material as free electrons and surround it as an electron
cloud . When a voltage is applied across the filament·· , the
resultant current-flow heats the coil of wire {£�lament) to
electron emission temperatures.
2) Electron Target :
X-rays are generated when high velocity electrons collide
with any form of mattP� ,be it sol�d,liquid or gas� The
greater the atomic r�mber of the target material , the
greater the efficiency of X-ray generation due to greater
number of X-ray generating collisions. Tungsten ,a solid high
atomic No material is usually chosen as target ,that forms a
portion of tube-anode. This also must .be· in vacuum and is· an
intrinsic part of an X-ray tube.
3) Electron acceleration
The electrons emitted at the cathode of an X-ray tube are
negatively cha£ged and are attracted to positively charged
objects due to fundamental laws of electricity.By placing a
positive charge on the anode and negative 'charge on the
cathode, free electrons are speeded-up from cathode to anode.
To get i::hese electrons traveling at a high speed, a· .high
positive charge is placed on the anode.

3
 CEF139645- .•.

X-ray intensity :
The generation of x-rays is a very inefficient process and-
only a fraction of the electrons striking the· target will
actua.lly produce X-rays. Most of the energy of the high
spe�d electron is converted into heat at �he target area.
This heat must be removed by proper cooling and observing the
duty cycle o� the unit. The effectiveness of cooling system
that determines the extent to which an X-ray unit can be
operated continuously is ref erred as "Duty cycle" ..
..
The number of X-rays generated by electrons striking the
target is one maasure of "intensity" of tr:ie X-ray beam.
If al� factors· remain constant, an increase in current
through the filament of the x-ray tube, iricreases the
cathode temperature and causes emission of more electrons and
increases the intensity of an X· �ay beam.
An increase in the positive charge applied to tube anode
,will attract more of the available electrons at the cathode,
to collide with the target and the X-ray beam intensity w(!l
also increase·although to a lesser degree.
The intensity of generated X-ray beam is directly
proportional to the flow of electrons towards anode in the
X-ray tube.
The flow of electrons between the cathode and cathode under
the influence of high accelerating voltage is called as
11
tube-current 11 and is expressed in milli-amperes.
Intensity of the X-ray beam is thus changed when either the
voltage on the anode or the current on the filamer�.. · is
cha�ged ..

X-ray quality Characteristics

Radiation from an X-ray tube contains X-rays of a number of
wa_vele"ngths, · in the form ·of continuous spectrum and superim­
posed spectral line3 of characteristi9 spectrtim .
The shortest wavelength of the spectrum is give by Duane••Hunt
formula
1.234
Wavelengt� =-
V
where wavelength is in 1�-9 metre; V= in kilo-volts.

4
 HEUISPHERICAL ANNULAR &AM LATERAL CONICAL
BEAU BEAM

X-ray spectrum - intensity/

\i,,avelength distribution.
The small peaks are the
characteristic K and L
radiation of the
target material.

wavelength

Figure .
. •.• arnper�-ge- C urves rllustratrng th1:: effect of a change
_. in milli• Figure · .-Curves illustrating the effect of a change in kilo­
on the inten sity of an X•ray beam. (After Ulrey.) voltage on the composition and intensity of an x-ray beam.
(After Ulrey.)

IJJJf1!;t96t��3j
 CEF139645- _..,

The shape of the X-ray spectrum depends ·chiefly on the

Voltage waveform of the High-tension generator and the
inher�nt fil�ration in the X-ray tube-window.
An increase in. applied voltage will produce• X-rays of•shorter
wavelength, at tne same time increases "the intensity
(quantity o1 x�rays) generating higher energy rays with
greater penetrating power known as HA.RD X--rays.
Chanqe of tube-current varies the intensity of X-rav beam
but the soectrum of wavelengths produced remains
unchanged. There is no change in penetrating power.
-Low kv Low mA >>>�>>>> Low intensity soft X-rays
High mA >>>>>>>> High intensity soft X-rays

High kv - Low mA >>>>>>>> Low intensity hard X-rays

High mA >>>>>>>> Higl intensity hard X-rays
 "

X·-RAY EQUIPMENT

X-ray tube :
The �-ray tube may be made up of borosilicate�glass envelope
evacuated to a high vacuum which ensures better insulation
for electrodes, uniformity of tube-current without causing
ionisation of gases or electrodes and aids the filament to
reach high temperature. The anode and cathode are separated
by a small distance and sealed insite it. In metal ceramic
X-ray tubes the body of X-ray tube is a steel cylinder
instead and alumina insulators are brazed to each end of the
cylinder. Two shi�lding electrodes are attached �o the metal
body and one to the anode.
The cathode is thoriated tungsten filament wound spirally is
heated by a few. amperes of (5-8 Amps.} current at low
voltages (12-15 V) to produce electrons on its surfade. This
'filament current 1 should not be confused with 'tube
current' whose magnitude is in the order of a few
milli-amperes only and is the number of electrons flowing
towards· anode under the influence of high-voltage. The
filament is surrounded by a shaped metal electrode -a focuss-
ing cup which acts as an electro-static lens and controls the
shape of electron-beam Bmitted by the filament.
The anode target is made-up of tungsten embedded into a block
of copper.The tungsten is chosen because of its high .atomic
number ,high melting point,high thermal condJctivity and low
vapour pressure build-up on the inner surface of X-ray· tube.
The anode also may be hooded with a metal body with a small
aperture to permit electron beam to reach the target and
another one that limits the X-ray emission outside.t he useful
beam by absorption.
The target surface-area ov1r which the electron beam strikes
is· called 11 the true focal spot". The projected size of the
bombarding araa in forward direction of x-ray beam {which is
smaller than the true focal spot) is known as _"effective
focal spot". The size of the true focal spot is limited by
the heat generated in the target bombardment. Various
arrangement are made to dissipate the heat gener�ted.
The target surface is usually inclined at an angle of 20· to
the axis of X-ray beam. The purpose of this tilt is to ensure
maximum intensity distribution of X-rays is closer to the
centr�l x-ray beam, as ·x-rays are not emitted·with the same
intensity in all directions from the focal spot and �o. limit
the 'effective·focal spot size' than the 'true·focal · spot'.
The absorption of X-rays along the inclined plane of the
target surface is called 'heel effect'.
rays can be generated that will radiate in almost any
rection. The direction is determined by t-he target
positionJng in the anode and the placement of lead shielding
about th'\e tube. •-•svsstt.J3" ·'
,n ,n .;J ..,
 Figure·~ Basic X-Ray Tube

Fig. .•. . X-ray tubes:

A • position of target

· .. a. Bipolar tube

.b. Unipolar tube

. ·. c. Hallow anode
~--;
-u
ih~""~.,,
a~ .. -isl·! -- -tlfl.l-Ji- - - -
,. i-
. I tubegiving
--i - 7 - annular beam
- ~ , 11U ~\~ ,JU,, l
~-~~ -
8
 EB ffi
~\\\\\ll II //111/4
'~ ~
a

© L.

EB €B 9. EB

INDICATOR ON

(Q) ma Kv
@
0 0
LIGHT
OFF

- CONTROL

X~RAY CONTROL PANEL

\
\ ,,..
. I •
. \..A._),._J
-- t'r\

TRANSFORMER
~ECTIFYING
TUBE . ,
'HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION .

X-RAY TUBE.

I
FILAMENT·
TRANSFORMER
_'-f ti IGH VOLT AGE
TRANSFORMER

.i
•,

I
I
I

q
 CEF139645- ·

X-:-ray Generator Circuits--:

X-ray equipment·uses step-up high tension transformers and
rectifiers. Depending upon the manner in which the terminals
of transformers are connected to t~be terminals ,X-ray units;
are ~lassif~ed as unipoalr and Bi-polar.
Unipoalr· tube~ - Anode/cathode grounded. Portable units ·are
light weight and fall under the category of cathode grounded.
Anode ground t6bes are relativeli heavier.Short ~node or long
rod anode units are of this type.
Bipolar tubes - Centre tap grounded. In bipolar units ,the
centre tap of high-voltage transformer is grounded. Cathode
or anode have a voltage with respect to the centre half of
that between cathode and anode. The insulation requirements
are half of similar end-ground system.
Rectifiers :
In X-ray generation there are two main methods of rectifica-
tion of alternating current
1. Self - rectification 2.The rectifying tube
The self rectification is the simplest method of
rectification and can be used with x-ray tubes having anode
·that is much cooler than the cathode. Electrons· .will be
accelerpted from the hot cathode during the half cycle when
the cqrrent on the anode is positive. During the other half
cycle when'the anode is negative, no electrons are emitted
therefore x-rays are produced only half of the time.
Self rectified x-ray tubes are usually the tank- type units.
The rectifying tube utilizes either half - wave rectification.
or full -wave rectification. Half - wave rectification, is
mo~e effidient than self-re6tification, but still has the
disadvantage· of' :.:he current flowing only half of the timE"
Full- wave rect~fication uses a symmetrical ·arrangement of
two diodes and a transformer .This provides continuous
current flow in one direction.
Equipment controls:
.. ..
A typical x--ray · control unit consists of the following
controls:
1.Filament current control and meter calibrated in
milliamperes to control filament current~
2.High voltage· control and meter Calibrated in kilovolts
and permits adjusting-voltage between cathode and anode.
3.Exposure timer - Usually calibrated in minutes and controls
the length of exposure.
4.Power on - off switch - controls application o~power to. X-
ray unit.
5.Indicator Lamp - Usually indicates when the equipment is
emerged and x-rays are being produced.
 "..,
CEF139645-

----0----7

.tyYV\.C\
DIODE
1 :1 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATlOM

-
- -

Fil.AMENT
TP.AHSFORMER

Al.I METER-

(3)
- 230
VOLT
LINE
l
I , e.~~
RH(.QSTAT

AUTO KVP
TRANSFQRMER • SELECTOR
·To AUTO-
l d D - - - - - , o SWITCH
TRANSFORMER

230 {l)
rI VOLT
' LINE
·
 i
.\ '
...·.·

From this spectral data it will b~ seen that Co-60, Ir-192,

Cs-137 are all high energy sources; Yb-169 is a low energy
source and therefore more suitable for the radiography of
thin specimens; Tm-170 can be either high energy or low
energy, depending on the intensity of the bremsstrahlung, but
usually this higher energy radiation is predominant.

All gamma - ray sources are purchased as sealed source~ in

which the radioactive material is encapsulated by the Atomic
Energy Authority of the supplying country. The sealed source
cannot of course be handled with impunity, because it is
emitting radiation continuously, and for transportation and
use it must be surrounded by a volume of absorbing material -
the storage or exposure or handled by remote manipulation.
Transport and exposure containers are available which can
either be opened to emit a controlled beam of gamma rays, or
from which a source is moved from a storage site to an expo- a.,
sure position by, for exa·mple, a Teleflex cable. An exposure
container must be robust and preferably "fail/safe" in
design, and there are national and international regulations
on container design

Exposure devices /Isotope Cameras

Exposure devices permit remote operation of the radioactive

sou~ce to reduce radiation exposu~e to the 6perator.~ Equip-
ment to accomplish safe handling and storage of isotope
sources,to~ether with an ~ctive source ,is called a camera. A
typical c~mera consists of a shield ca~e assem~ly,Reel assem-
bly and source capsule assembly.

Shield Case assembly {Projector):

· Heave. gauge steel case containing a block of lead .or Uranium

238 c~~orage pig) which shields·the source when .iot in use.
One e~d of the~~a~e has a connector for th~ con~rol cable-to
crank extension .;_nd the other a connector for extended sou· . ..:e
position cable. ~hen the cable is moved
by turning the-, crank, the source moves out of the shield ...
through a guide tube to a position where the exposure has to
be made.Collimators made of tungsten or depleted uranium ,may
be attached to the end of guide tubes to provide radiation
exposu+e in a ·limited area.

Reel assembly

The reel assembly is comprised a storage reel tor the flexi- n

ble armoured cables, a crank to extend and draw back the
source.

Source capsule assembly:

To prevent the loss of radioactive material to the working

environment, the radioactive material is ·encapsul-ated. The
radioactive source is placed into a cavity of a small stain-
less steel cylinder and covered with a stainless steel lid
that remains welded.

IS
 : :~

. -:~ '- ,,;

. -, ~EF139645CUQ

,
' /~

-.

"STORED"
SOURCE STORED IN SHIELDED PIG.

"OPEN" -----.:....:::_ _
-==:::";:l
__
SOURCE CRANKED PARTLY OUT.
SOURCE NO LONGER SHIELDED.

"ON"_
_.- SOURCE All TH[ WAY OUT TO
EXPOSURE POSITION. "ON"
SWITCH IN ;IP IS ACTIVATED.

CONTAINER
.,.,,-

--·--- --~- --·- RESTRICTED BEAM

19
 \
Cs 137 sources are doubly encapsulated, sealed ·inside a SS .'
capsule which is sealed inside another 8S capsule. The outer.
SS cylinder is attached (before source fabri~ation} to a
flexible short length cable having a coupling/connector on
the opposite end. The connector/coupling allows a longer
cabl~ to be .attached to the source so that it can be manipu-
lated remotely.
.
Advantages -of using gamma rays
.
1. They need no electric power supply and no cooling system,
so that they are very easy to use on a work site.
2. They can be obtained in a range of source ·diameters, so
that if necessary a very short source - to film distance
with a small diameter source can be used, for example,
inside a pipe.
3. Some radio-·isotopes have a veryhigh penetrating. power,
which makes it possible to obtain satisfactory radiographs .·, \ .
of very thick metal specimens. I

Disadvantages of using gamma rays:

I·

1. The most commonly-used radio - isotopes (Co-60, Ir-192)

gives less contrast images on most specimens than the
appro~riatj energy of x-rays, because of their high
energy radration; this makes the radiographs less
sensitive and more difficult to interpret;
2. The only gamma ray source which will give good radiographs I
on thin steel specimens is Yb-169, which has rather a
short half-life.
3. As it is impossible to switch off the radiation emitted by
r~jioactive sources; they have to be effectively shielded.
fith·sources whose radiation is ·very pene~rating and/or
intense, tJ0 shielding needed may be quite heavy;
4. The radiation from radioactive sources cannot be ac..justed ~ 1'.
J.
in en.ergy.
The principle application of ytterbium - 169 sources_, which ·: I.
~re a· relatively new development, has been for the
examination of circumferential welds in small-bore steel
pipes.By using a very small diameter source (0.3 or 0.5mm)
and insertin~ it along the centre line of the ~ipe, with a
film wrapped round the out side, the whole w~ld can be
examined in one exposure. Because the source .. is small, an
acceptable geometric unsharpness can be obtained, and because
the source to film distance is very small the exposure time
is short, in spite of the low st.rength of the source. Because
of the relatively low energy of ytterbium -169 radiation-,
containers for ti1ese sources can be Yery small and light in
weight.

,, .
FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESSING

In the.processing procedure, the invisible image pro­ work is limited to putting the unprocessed film into
duced in the film by exposure to x-rays, gamma rays, the processor or automatic film feeder, and_ removing
•or light is made visible and permanent. Processing is the processed radiographs from the receiving bin.
carried out under subdued light of a color to which
the 61m is relatively insensitive. The film is first im­ General Conslderati�ns
mersed in a developer solution which causes the areas
exposed to radiation to become dark, the amount of Cleanliness
darkening for a given degree of development de­ In handling x-ray films, .cleanliness is a prime- essen- ' .
pending on the degr� of exposure. After develop­ tial. The processing room, as well as the accessories : . ' .: .:
ment, and sometimes after a treatment designed to and equipment, must be kept scrupulously clean and ·_ • :· i':
halt the developer reaction abruptly, the film passes used only for the purposes for which they are in- ! : .,
into a fixing bath. The function of the fixer is to dis­ tended. Any solutions that are spilled should be\·. ·
solve the undarkened portions of the sensitive salt. wiped up at Ol)�e;·;otherwise, on evaporation, the , ·,
The Blm is then washed to remove the fixing chemi­ chemicals may get into the air and later settle·on film
cals and solubilized salts, and finally is dried. surfaces, causing spots. The thermometer and such
rrocessmg techniques can be divided into two accessories as film hangers should be thoroughly
general "classes-manual processing (see pages 81 to washed in clea;n water immediately after being used,4
88 and Supplement) and �utomatic processing (see so that processing solutions will not dry on th_em and
pages 88 to 90 and Supplement). possibly cause_contamination of solutions� streaked r _
If the volw.ne of work is smalJ, .or if time is of rela­ radiographs when used again 1
; ..
tively little importance,.;r�giogr!l_p� .may \>e pro.: All tanks should be ···cleaned tho.-oughly before L •
cessed by hand. The most; ;common method of man­ putting fresh solutions into th� (see page 81).
ual processing of industrial radiographs is lmown as
the tank method. In this system, the processing solu­ Mixing Processing SolU,ions
tions and wash water are contained in tanks deep Processing solutions should be mixed according to : ..
enough for the &Im to be hung vertically. Thus, the the directions on- the labels; the instructions as to : ·-• .-_
processing solutions have free access to both sides of water temperature and order of addition of chemi- , · · ·
the 61m, and both emulsiou surfaces are uniformly cals should be followed carefully, as should the safe- : - '. ·,
processed to the same degree. The all-important fac­ handling precautions for chemicals given on labe1s � : -· '. ·
·
tor of temperature can be controlled by regulating or instruction sheets. . ··
the temperature of the W$ter in which the processing The necessary vessels or pails should be made of i : . ··
tanks are immersed. (See Figure. 77.) AISI Type 316 stainless steel with 2 to 3 percent i
Where the volume of the work is large or the hold­ molybdenum, or of enamelware, glass, plastic, hard ; ·.
ing �e is important, au�matic processors are used. rubber, or glazed earthenware. (Meta1s such as alu-(
These reduce the darkroom manpower required, minum, galvanized k.on, tin, copper, and zinc cause ..
drastically shorten the interval between completion contamination and result in fog in the radiograph.) ·
· of the exposure and the availability of a dry radio­ Paddles or plunger-type agitators are practical for _
graph ready for interpretation, an�. rel�se. the mate­ stirring solutions. They should be made of hard rulJ.;, ,
rial being inspected much faster. Automatic pro­ her, stainless steel, or some other material-that does:·
cessors move Sims through the various solutions not absorb or r�ct with processing solutions. Sepa- , . ·_· ..
according to a predetermined schedule. Manual rate paddles or agitaton should be provided for the ! ., /, ,
i •. ·" �

80
 ...,,.,,..
CEF1396451iiiMaiii

Figure 76-:-Method of fast•

ening film on a developing
hanger. Bottom clips are
fastened first, followed .by
top clips.

4I developer and fi��r. If toe paddles are washed thor­ of the deve1oper. solution must be kept constant by
oughly and hung upto dry immediately after use the addirig replenisher. This addition is necessary to res
danger of contamination when they are employed place the solution carried out of the developer tank
again will be virtually nil. A motor-driven stirrer by the films and hangers, and to keep the activity of
with a stainless steel propeller is a convenient aid in the �eveloper constant throughout its life.
mixing solutions. In any event, the agitation used in Special precautions are needed in the manual pro­
mixing processing solutions should be vigorous and cessing of industrial x-ray films in roll form. These
complete, but not violent. are usually processed on the commercially available
spiral stainless-steel reels. The space between the
Manual Processing turns of film on such a reel is small, and loading must
When tank processing is used, the routine is, first, to be done carefully lest the turns of film touch one an­
mount the exposed film on a hanger immediately af­ other. The loaded reel should be placed in the devel­
ter it is taken from "the cass�tte or film holder; or re­ oper so that the film is vertical-that is, the plane of
moved from the factory-sealed envelope. (See Figure the reel itself is horizontal.. Agitation in the developer
76.) Then the film "can be conveniently immersed in should not be so vigorous as to pull the edges of the
the develop.er solution, stop bath, fixer solution, and film out of the spiral . recesses in the reel. The reel
wash water for the predetermined intervals, and it is must be carefully cleaned with a brush to remove
held securely and kept taut throughout the course of any emulsion or dried chemicals that may collect
the prc:>cedure. within the film-retaining grooves.
At ,frequent intervals during processing, radio­
graphic films must be agitated. Otherwise, the solu­ Cleanliness
tionin contact with the emulsion becomes exhausted Processing tanks should be scrubbed thoroughly and
locally, affecting the rate and evenness of develop­ then well rinsed with fresh water before fresh solu­
ment or fixation. tions are put into them. In warm weather especially,
Another precaution must be observed: The level it is advisable to sterilize the developer tanks occa-

81
 CEF13964sP'«P

�- ..-::---
••
•
•

\!}·. I
►

WATER INlEr DRAIN

..,
DRAIN WATER INLET

Figure 77-Schematic diagram of tank processing unit. On the left are the tanks for the processing solutions and on the right
is the cascade (two-compartment, counter-flow) wash tank.

sionally. The growth of fungi can be minimized by the rate of development increases. Thus, when the
filli,ng the tank with an approximately 0.1 percent developer temperature is low, the reaction is slow,
solution of sodium hypqchlorite (Clorox, "101," and the development time recommended for the nor-
Sunny Sol bleaches, etc., diluted 1:30), allowing it to . mal temperature would result in underdevelopment.
stand several· hours o:r overnight, and then thorough­ When the temperature is high, the reaction is fast,
ly rinsing the tank. During this procedure, rooms and the same time would result in.overdevelopment.
should be well ventilated to avoid corrosion of metal Within certain limits, these changes in the rate of ._
equipment and instruments by the small concentra­ development can be compensated for by increasing •1
tions of chlorine in the air. Another method is to em­ or decreasing the time of development.
ploy a solution of Dowicide G fungicide (sodium The time-temperature system of development
pentachlorphenate) at a strength of 1 part in 1,000 should be used in all radiographic work. In this sys­
parts of water. This solution has the advantage that tem, the developer temperature is always kept within
no volatile substance is present and it will not corJ a small range and the time of development is ad­
rode metals. In preparing tire solution, care should justed according to the temperature in such a way
be taken to avoid breathing tlie dust ancl to avoid that the degree of development remains the same. If
contact with the skin, eyes, or clotliing. this procedure is not carefully observed, the effects
of even the most accurate exposure technique will be
Development nullified. Films cannot withstand the effects of errors
-
DEVELOPER SOLUTIONS
Prepared developers· that are made ready for use by
resulting from guesswork in processing.· A time-tem­
perature chart is giveQ in the Supplement.
dissolving in wafer or by dilution with water insure a In particular, •:sight development" should not be·
carefully compounded fQrmula and uniformity of used. That is, the-development time for a radiograph
results. Kodak products and their uses are described should not be decided by examining the film under
in the Supplement. safelight illumination at intervals d�ring the course
When the exposed film is placed in the developer of development. It is extremely difficult to judge
the solution penetrates the emulsion and begins to from the appearance of a developed but unfixed ra­
transform the exposed silver halide crystals to metal­ diograph what its appearance will be in the dried
lic silver. The longer the development is carried on, state. Even though the final'radiograph so processed
the more silver is formed and hence the denser the is apparently satisfactory, there is no a_ssurance that
image becomes. development had been carried far enough to give the
The rate of development is affected by the tem­ desired degree of film contrast. (See page 129.) Fur­
perature of the solution-as the temperature rises, ther, "sight development" can easily lead to a high

82
 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS

The basic purpose of radiographic inspection experience in scrutinising a wide range of

is to obtain information about the nature and specimens, radiographed and correlated with
extent of discontinuities, if any, in the sectioned and broken�down samples.
specimen. Thus interpretation plays a vital
role in the radiographic process. GENERAL ASPECTS:
Interpretation involves the following
important stages: Radiographic interpretation is much
dependent upon the manner _and conditions
1) Verification of the radiograph that it in which the radi.ograph is studied. A good
corresponds to the specimen or part of viewing illuminator so as to read radiographs
the specimen under examination. of varying densities (1 to 4 normally) with
adjustable intensity is preferable.
2) Verificationwhether proper technique Interpretation is to be done in a calm,
has been used by following codes of darkened· area preferably in a separate
good practice, IOI sensitivity, density, room and eye adaptation to the darkness is
contrast requirements. a prerequisite. Hence, when viewing the
radiographs through an illuminator, the glare
3) Identification of artefacts which would be emanating from the film edge has to be
confused with the discontinuities in the masked properly.
specimen.
Even before the actual interpretation of the
4) Identification of any defects' in the radiographs: first the radiograph itself has to
specimen, evaluation, reporting the be qualified and found fit for interpretation.
findings and documentation. This means, the radiograph should have the
requisite density or darkness. If the
As far as the detection of defects in welds, radiograph is too light or of low density,
castings etc.. the fourth stage involves every chance is there, a minute defect may
identifying the nature of defect, (crack, gas not be appearing in the radiograph. If the.
hole, shrinkage etc) estimating its radiograph is too dark or of high density,
dimensions and determining its location in · even a .high intensity powerful illuminator
the specimen. It is also required on the part may not be able to reveal the defects.
of the interpreter to possess a basic
knowledge of all the aspects of the specimen The another demanding factor to qualify the
being examined (e.g.: material, process of radiograph is the requirement of sensitivity
manufacture or welding process involved, as stipulated in the acceptable code or
geometry and design aspects, types of is ensured only if a proper
.
specification. This
defects likely
.
to. arise etc.). A wide
'
radiographic ·technique is _applied usiog a
knowledge of the characteristic appearance proper film-screen combination, correct
of the various discontinuities is also one of processing methods etc. If the proper
the essential basis for interpretation. The sensitivity, which is detennined from the
theoretical explanation cannot be substituted
.
appearance of the IQI (or penny), is not met,
.
for long practicai experience in interpreting the radiograph is not considered · frt for
the radiographs and it can be gained from interpretation.
 Tile radiographic film is subjected to a like tiny pore, porosity, gas hole, blow hole,
numper qt artefacts (spurious images). Most ' '
gas cavrtv,
- �·
elongated or . worm hole �tc. The
, . "'; - .- ..
ofthese are fairly easy to recognise and are radlogrnphic image of tha .porosity will be .
'

be
. ' . '. ' ·,·;,· ...... ,J: . ....

Cinlikefy to .. confused ·with genuine normally round dark spo!� with. smooth
. _
.. specimen defects, but occasionally cause edges. Some of them may be elongc!ted and ·
' confusion and may lead to wrong worm like appearance· in, dusted . or in
· .... interpretation. Majority of artefacts are due to random fashion.
faulty processing or careless handling. The
interpreter, on his µa rt, should be able to · B) Slag inclusion •
·
identify them propei1y and see those
artefacts do not ma,; the dclfect images in the Non-metallic solid ·material ·. entrapped• into
radiograph. lrt t:1!s case, the raui.ograph has the weld or between the · weld and base
to be retaken ar.i:I r-.oniparert with the original metal. The trapped inate:riai tends to occur in
for a judicious decision. the welding direction and therefore appears
ir c: liriear fclshic,:1. Al' th0 WP,fding proc.csses
. The.. radiographic appearaF?ce of a defect involving flux can exhibit slag inclusions. The
, .,image.
·-
is cetennir1ed
.
by
-
a) .the physical mdioqraphic :mages . .wiil. be de:rk_ indi<-..ation
density of the material forming the defect b) c1nd r.,lVe irregula,· shPpes. They may appear
tt:ie physical density of the. parent material, c) singly or be linear1y distributed or scattered
the shape and form of the defect, d) the throughout the. wf?ldment.
orientation �f. the. ldefect in. the beam of
radiation· io s9me instances. Here are some C) Tungsten inclusions
of the-common weld defects and their typical
radiographic appearances given.. If the tungsten electrode which suppo�� the
electric arc, comes into contact with tlie ·weld
A) Gas lnch.,sion metal, some tungsten panlcles . are tr.fpped
' in th� deposited materiai. These m�y· be in
Gas may be developed during fusion welding the form of smail splinten, or even a�· pieces
for various reasons, including the quality of of the tungsten wire. Since it has a higher
the parent metal, the electrodes used, poor atomic number than the parent · metal
regulation of the arc current, or operator (viz.iron) the radiographic indications are
technique and also due t9 too much moisture very light marks in the weld image.
on the base or fillei metal or improper
cleaning or • preheating. Ex�ssive gas D) Lack of penetration or Incomplete
-evoh.Jtion may prevent its escape from the Penetration
molten pool before solidification. These ·
gases sometimes get entrapped in the Lack of penetration in the root of the weld or
molten pool and form gas inclusions. Some a gap left by failure of the weld metal to fill
gas inclusions have an elongated form the root. A straight dark continuous or
known as worm holes or piping. Their intermittent line in the middle of the weld is
ir:nages largely depend upon the orientation the radiographic image.
of the elongated r.a\liry with respect to the
incident x-ray beam. Depending on the
physical size of the gas inclusion in the
ra_!Jiograph, it is denoted by different names

2
 . E) Lack of fusion CONCLUSION

.,. ; lfisc· haracfefited hfunbotirlded

zones in a·.·'.�_:. ·,·,-here '·is .·,:a·:-:,-;i.riliititud� :,,ti{· 'structures •
;,wetcftB 'rusf¥
tompletely'with tliibase metal. ; : . as�embiies· .• arid \ \mJtJrial� ·-..th�i. can be
;:;::,or prJ;6edihg'"beaa1 ·L�ck "tjf' · 'fusion c an ·.· ... · e��ciive_ly'radi��phecCtnt���t�tion, ifit is·
•

. •.•:�:oci�(!P. .,�,It typ��- of ,}u�i�� \v�i�s. The_.,:".. . to)>� :���ni�g_f�l,'m��f"o��:�i.�·�-mitted with

. 'radiographic ·appeatanc · e . usually is a thin_. . . a CQmpl�te understanding of th,e .following:
dark line with s harp1�/ctefin�· edges.·.:·...
·· .·_.... ··.·,·.-:: :: .::·:·/,\
Depending upon the orientation of the defe.ct .. . i. '. . Part. dimensi
� ' ... . o ns. . & configuratlc_
• . .. ;m
,� • .'. i • .. • • ... • • . .. , . .

with respect to the x-ray beam the line may . �,. it_. M.ateriaMype_.�- · •:.:'·.. ,,. :.,:;._,
teod .to .be wa.v.y .and �iffuse. -,. • iii.:.· Radiograf)hiclpctmique.used
. ;: ! . ... ·, � .-. '". -:; iv., Processing techniques -·-'} r:··•. •.
•,: .:-f:L ._,i, C@ck� ... _· .. (,: .- . · v/· Applicable oochr. ,-�, _,.. ,. �-- - .
• vi. Acceptance standtm1s · :. ;, � ": ·
.. : • ·A ,discontinuity produced by: fiactu in the vii. Other information desired from the
; · metal. is called crack. The •typicai crsck in a examinafion. Aiso the ;interpreter as an
.·--.·•radiagraph,-·\vill ·appear as···a·fine · dark zig-·.··· individual ''has· i f ''Jcey; roie· 1 =to play in
,�::'.•'·iai;f·itre{tOlar·· rine:. Some of the external interpretation··,_. \vith; ·, ·.·his:� .. thorough
c- ' 7discoritinu·ities··"•fo ·welds are excessive knowledge on the obj radiographic
.• � . • ,• ' -:. .. '··1 ,·i :-· � . '•• ·: 1

reinforcement, undercut, 'roof,;• concavity, .. _, .. . proce�s :·· :

,.-:.
p
;� ':.. �---·��-.•' f. .·
cdG tea· '• 'ijjtttt ·-\ ::.
:·--,i f: _.,: ..· •::-:
extensive
-
excess penetration, spatters, arc strikes etc. experience and.training. •··
If accessibility .·is: 'tfi�rJ� .. viS�ai . examination : '. �::· r�::".°' : ,;··.: ,,'
.
.
::, : ... , _·

will deliver a lot of information about such

(.f i1} � ;·;-. ·: �t; ;- . " - .:- • ; : •. • �
r, . , ._, ,..

,./, .i��e.rrjal a�q . �xt�mal. s4rfa� i.�1:1.larilies.

' • . • ,t • ;

'"·· -��. imerpr.�!ation . i::-_ qomplet.e. ao<t-.� better

.... � ._ � • • I • • • � • •• • • • I • • •• • •
• •

coi;i.clusion .is af(ived. at.. Qnly. pfter.. through

•• �- � ,.,J • • • • •• ", • .., I • • • • - '
.•

1:1
• ., • ••

.... ,N,isual exa.rninatio.o-o(the.. pa·rt. , 1

•• I • � • , • , • • • .• .

�-; .. ,t ', • • • ' .• , . • . • • • ' • • ... .

 RADIATION HAZARDS EVALUATION AND CONTROL

An element M can be designated with its Radiation Hazards:

mass number 'A' and atomic number Z aSz
A
zM . The mass no is the sum of nucleonsi.e Radiation produces biological effects in
protons & neutrons in the nucleus where as body. The biological effects associated with
the atomic number is the number of protons radiation are:
in the nucleus or the number of electrons in
the orbits. Isotopes are elements having 1. Destructive skin changes
same Atomic number but different mass · 2. Damage to blood forming organs
number. An _ example is. : Hydrogen is 3. Reduction in life span and infertility
1
represented as H and the isotopes are 4. Production of malignancies
deuterium and tritium represented as 1H 2 5. Genetic effects.
and 1H 3• These isotopes possess an
incremental energy above its normal stable Biological effects in general can be
· state E. The incremental energy is emitted classified as
in the form of radiation to come to the
ground state. a) Somatic effect
b) Genetic effect
The radiation can be of oc, 13, y, and neutron
type. oc radiation can be stopped by a Somatic effect is one produced in the body
column of air where as 13 is stopped by thin during the life time of the individual. Genetic
sheet of Al foil and y can only be stopped by effect is the effect, passed on to the future
high Z material. Radiation is being used in generation of the individ.ual. Again somatic
industrial radiography. The isotope effect can be' classified as immediate effect
commonly used are : Ir 192, Co60, Cs 137 and late effect. The skin changes, blood
& Tm170 . The characteristics of some of effect, LD sOJoo (defined as the lethal dose
them are required to damage 50% of the ensemble
within 60 days) - ( the value is 400-600 rem
Energy Half RHM Pene-- for man) are the immediate effects . Late
Life trating effects are cataract and cancer.
thicknes
s The biological effects can be detected with
lr192 0.5 Mev 74 0.SR/hr 12 to the help of blood checkup. Reduction in
(avg} days 60mm of lymphocyte count check lip in WBC of
steel blood will give a picture about the amount of
Co eo
1.25 5.3 yrs 1.3R/hr 60-200 radiation received by the individual. Hence
Mev mm of this is called the biological dosimeter.
(avg) steel
• Radiation can' be evaluateQ by the dose
The penetration of the y radiation is decided measurement. Dose measurement can be
by its energy level which is constant for a done with the help of GM counter or
partic.ular isotope. ionisation chamber. The radiation produces
ionisation in the chamber of these counters
and the ionisation current produces the

1
 proportionate reading iri the meter The shielding aspect of radiation level is that
corresponding to the radiation received. HVL and TVLs are defined. HVL is defined
Gene�lly the monitoring can be of area as the thickness of material required to
monitoring and personnel monitoring. Area reduce the intensity to half of itli original
monitoring can be done by zone monitors value. TVL is the thickness of material
and portable survey melers - portable survey ·required to reduce the intensity to 1110th of
meters have different ranges like 0-10 its original value. This is constant for
mR/hr, 0-100 mR/hr, 0-1000 mR/hr etc. particular material and isotope.

Personnel monitoring is done by pocket Steel Lead

dosimeters, film· badges and TLD badges. (cm) (cm)
Pocket dosimeter are worn in poc'kets and HVL TVL HVL TVL
gives the amount of radiation received by the
individual during a particu_lar period. lr192 1.25 4.2 0.5 1.65
Personnel monitoring devices give the
amount of cumulative radiation received for Co60 2.0 6.6 1.2 4.0
a particular period. Film badges have filters
like pb, cu-I, cu-11, Cd and plastic. These are
• used to have its response uniformly over a TVLs and HVLs are used to reduce the
wide energy range. TCDs have material like radiation level to the required value.
CaS04 and Dysprosium material and gives
light output when heated at a particular Control:
temperature after receiving radiation. These
are used to knO'N radiation level received by The radiation standards and instrumentation
the indMdual for a particular period, division of BARC, Bombay takes control of
radiation user institutions. · It governs the
RHMs are defined as radiation received per supply of isotope, construction of
hour at 1 M for 1 Ci. Th� is constant for a -Radiographic hall, personnel monitQring of
particular isotope. user institutions, proper work practices etc.
Permissible levels are prescribed for
1) This· is linearly proportional to activity radiation worker. 2R per year is the level for
used. J<nOW!ng the activity used, RHM radiation worker in a year. When a person is
can be used to measure radiation level. not monitored by filni badge service, he is
called a non radiation worker and he is
2) This is linearly proportional to the time permitted to receive 1120th of the dose, a
for which radiation or dose is received. radiation worker can receive.

3) The intensity is inversely proportional to

square of the distanc�.

Thus 5 Ci of lr192 at 4M will give out 156.25

mR/hr.

2
 ASME SECTION "". V
NON DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES

SCOPE

This section of the code contains 100% ultrasonic examination of a 45 mm

requirements and methods for non­ thick FRP (Fibre Reintorced Plastic) to be
destructive examination which are code used in the generator of the Magneto Hydro
requirements to the extent they are Dynamics (MHD) power conversion system.
specifically referenced and required by other
Code Sections. These non-destructive Manufacturer's Responsibility
examination methods are intended to defect When an examination to the requirements of
surface and internal discontinuities in this Code Section is required by any other
materials, welds, and fabricated parts and referencing code section, it shall be the
components. They include radiographic responsibility of the manufacturer, fabricator,
examination, magnetic particle examination. or installer to establish suitable examination
eddy current examination, visual examination producers and to have the examination
and leak testing. performed by qualified personnel in
accordance with the requirements of the
Sub Section-A describe$ the methods of referencing code section. Any limitations or
NOE to be used if �eferenced by other code restrictions placed on a qualified person's
sections while Sub Section-B lists standards certification shall be described in the written
covering NDE methods which have been practice and on the certification record.
accepted as standards. These standards are .
intended to be intorrnative only and are non­ Qualification of NDF Personnel
mandatory unless specifically referenced in
whole or in part in sub-section-A or as Non-destructive Examination Personnel shall
indicated in other Code Sections. The be qualified in accordance with the
acceptance standards for these methods requirements of the referencing Code
shall · be as stated in the referencing code Section. Qualification of personnel, under
section. reference this section ·shall be in accordance
with SNT-TC-IA (1988): •Recommended
The NOE methods. included in this section Practice for Non-destrudive Testing
are �pplicable to most geometric Personnel Qualificatior1' an� Certification·
configurations and materials encountered in published by the American Society for Non•
fabrication under materials may require Destructive Testing, 4153, Arlingate Plaza,
modified methods and techniques, in which Cellar 28518, Columbus, Ohio•43228-0518,
case the manufacturer shall develop special . U.S.A., or an alternate system specifically
procedures which are equivalent or superior accepted by the referring code .section.
to th� methods and techniques described in When the referencing code section does not
this code section and capable of producing specify qualifications, qualification may
interpretable examination results under the simply involve demonstration in routine
special conditions (e.g. 100% ultrasonic - manufacturing operations that the personnel
examination of a stainless steel plate - 2 mm performing the NDE are competent to do so
to 20 mm in different thicknesses) for in accordance with the Manufacturer's
specific application in a Nuclear power boiler, established procedures.

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Scope and Duty of the Authorised
Inspector

The lnsp�ctor concerned with the fabrication

of the vessel or pressur� part shall hav� the
d�ty of verifying to his satisfaction that all
examinations required by the referencing
Code Section have been made to the
requirements of •· this section and the
reference Code Section. He shall have the
right to witness any of these examinations to
the extent stated in the referencing Code
Section.

Procedures

When required by the referencing Code

Section, all non-destructive examinations
performed under this code section shall be
d9ne to a written procedure and this
procedure shall . be demonstrated to the
satisfaction_ of the Inspector.

Inspection and Examination

The term inspection, as far as this and other

· referencing Code Sections concerned,
applies to the functions performed by the
Authorised Inspector but the term
examination applies to tho!ie quality control
functions performed by personnel employed
by the manufacturer. In the ASTM standard
methods and recommended practice
incorporated Jn this code section, the word
'Inspection 'or ··inspector' may actually
describe what the code calls examination or
examiner. This situation exists because
ASTM has no occasion to be concerned with
the distinction which the code makes
between Inspection and examination since
ASTM activities and documents do not
involve the Authorised Inspector described in
the Code Section.

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 CEF139645h:+16ff \,

AMERICAN STANDARDS :
ASTM E.113 Ultrasonic Testing by Resonance Method.
E.114. Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Straight Beam Testing by the Contact Method.
E.127 Fabricating and Checking of Aluminium Alloy Ultrasonic Reference Blocks.
E.164
. Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldment.
E.213 Ultrasonic Inspection of Metal Pipe and Tubing.
E.214 Immersed Ultrasonic Testing by the Reflection Method, using Pulsed
Longitudinal Waves.
E.273 Ultrasonic Inspection of Longitudinal and Spiral Welds of Welded Pipes
.. and Tubing.
E.317 Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Pulse Echo Ultrasonic Testing
Systems.
E.428 Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks used in Ultrasonic
Inspection.
E.494 Ultrasonic Velocity in Materials, Measuring.
E.500 Definition of Terms relating to Ultrasonic Testing.
E.587 Ultrasonic Angle Beam Examination by the Contact Method.
E.588 Large Inclusions in Bearing Quality Steel by the Ultrasonic M~thod,
Detection Of.
A.418 Ultrasonic Testing and Inspection of Turbine and Generator Steel Rotor
Forgings.
A.435 Specifications for Straight Beam Ultrasonic Examination of Steel Plates for

. A.503
Pressure Vessels.
Specifications for Ultrasonic Examination of Large Forged Crank Shafts.
A.531 j
Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic Inspection of Turbine Generators
Steel Retaining Rings.
A.578 Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasonic Examina!ion of Plain and Clad
'· Steel Plates for Special Applications.
B.594 Ultrasonic Inspection of Aluminium Alloy Wrought Product for Aerospace
Applications.
E.745 Ultrasonic Testing Practices of Austenitic Stainless Steel Forgings by
Straight/Angle Beam Techniques.
E.804 Standard Practice for Calibration of an Ultrasonic Test System by extra
polation between Flat-bottom Hole Sizes.
E.1001 UT Practices for Detection and Evaluation of Discontinuities by Immersed
Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Test Method Longitudinal Wave.
ASNT Recommended Ultrasonic Acceptance Standards for Air Frame Aluminium
Alloy Plates, Forgings and Extrusions.
AMS 2630A - Ultrasonic Inspection - Product Over 12.5 mm Thick.
1980
A.609 Specification for Carbon and Low Alloy Steels by Longitudinal Beam
Technique.
A.797 Practices of Ultrasonic Testing of Thickness (of materials) by Normal
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method.
2631 Ultrasonic Inspection of Titanium Alloys.
2632 Ultrasonic Inspection of Thin Material - 13 mm and Thinner.
2633 Ultrasonic Inspection - Centrifugally Cast, Corrosion Resistant Steel,
Tubular Products.
2634 Ultrasonic Inspection, Thin Wall Metal Tubing.
AS 1355 Ultrasonic Transducer, Immersion and Contact Performance Parameters.

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ASME BOILER SPECIFICATIONS :
SA 388 Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic Testing and Inspection of Heavy Steel
(ASTM.A.388) Forgings.
sn- Ultrasonic Angle Beam Inspection of Steel Plates.
{ASTM.A.577) .
578 Straight Beam Ultrasonic Examination of Plain and Clad Steel Plates for
(ASTM.A.578) Special Applications.
SB 548 Standard Method for Ultrasonic Inspection of Aluminium Alloy Plate for
Pressure Vessels.
SA 213 Ultrasonic Inspection of Metal Pipe and Tubing for Longitudinal Discontinuities.
(ASTM.A.213)
PW 52 Acceptance Standard for Ultrasonic Examination of Boilers Fabricated by
Welding.
SEC.Ill 2532 Ultrasonic Examination Procedure for Plates.
NB
NB 2542 Ultrasonic Examination of Forgings and Bars,
2552 Ultrasonic Examination of Seamless and Welded Tubular Products and
Fittings.
2560 Examination and Repair of Tubular Products and Fittings Welded with Filler
Metal.
2572 Ultrasonic Examination of Statically and Centrifugally Cast Products (Ferritic
Steel Casting).
2584 Ultrasonic Examination of Bolts, Studs and Nuts of Sizes greater than 2·.
2585 Ultrasonic Examination of Bolts, Studs and Nuts of Sizes greater than 4".
5330 Ultrasonic Acceptance Standard for Welds.

ASME SEC. Ill : •

uw 11 Radiographic and Ultrasonic Examination .of Pressure Vessels Fabricated
' by Welding.
UF 53 Technique for Ultrasonic Examination of Welded Joints in Pneumatically
Tested Pressure Vessels.
55 Ultrasonic Examination of Pressure Vessels Fabricated by Forgings.

SEC. VIII:
Appendix VII Mandatory appendix: Examination of Steel Castings
Appendix u Non-mandatory Appendix: Ultrasonic Examination of Welds.
AM 203 Ultrasonic Examination of All Product Form of Ferrous Materials.
252-2 Ultrasonic Examination of Steel Castings
402 Ultrasonic Examination of All Product Forms Non-Ferrous Materials
AF 703 Ultrasonic Examination of Forged Fabrications.

SEC. XI:
I.W.A. 2232 In-service Ultrasonic Examination of Nuclear Power Plant Components
Appendix. Ill Mandatory Appendix: In-service Ultrasonic Examination of Class 1 and 2,
Ferritic Steel Piping Systems for Nuclear Power Plants.

FRENCH SPECIFICATIONS:

NF.A 04.305 Ultrasonic Testing of Steel Plates, Method of Testing, Definition of

Qualities
04.311 Ultrasonic Testing, Calibration Blocks, Ferrous Products and Steel Pieces
49.200 Seamless Steels Tubes for Higher Temperature and Pressure Application,
Testing by Ultrasonics, Classification according to Quality and Various
Applications.
49.870 Seamless Steel Tubes for High Temperature and Pressure Application,
Testing by Ultrasonics for Detection of Longitudinal Defects.

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 CEF139645Wlill \-•

GERMAN SPECIFICATIONS :
DIN 54119 Non-Destructive Testing - Ultrasonic Definitions
54120 Non-Destructive Testing, Reference Blocks and Its Use for the Adjustment
and Control of Ultrasonic Echo Equipment .
54122 Non-Destructive Testing - Reference Block. 2 and Its Use for the
.
Adjustment and Control of Echo Equipment

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ORGANISATION :

ISO 2400 Reference Blocks for the Calibration of Equipment of Ultrasonic Testing of
Welds in Steel.

MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS:
MIL STD 770 Military Standard - Ultrasonic Inspection of Lead.
l-6870E Military Standard - Inspection Requirements, Non-Destructive, for Aircraft
Materials and Parts
I..a950E Inspection of Ultrasonic, Wrought Metals, Process For
S-230080 Military Specification for Steel Castings, Alloy, High Yield Strength (HY-80
and HY-100).
S-81055 Ultrasonic Inspection - Immersion, of Wrought Metal, General Specification
For.
MIL STD 2710 Military Standard, Non-Destructive Testing Requirements for Metals.
U-85067 Ultrasonic Evaluation of Housing Welds for the Mark 7 Mod.O.Warhead.

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