Electromagnetic-Compatibility David A.Weston PDF

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Electromagnetic
Compatibility
Principles and Applications
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
David A. Weston
EMC Consulting Inc.
Merrickville, Ontario, Canada
m
M A R C E L
MARCELDEKKER,
INC. NEWYORK BASEL
D E K K E R
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Weston, David A.
Electromagnetic compatibility : principles and applications I David A. Weston.-2nd
ed., rev. and expanded.
p. cm.-(Electrical and computer engineering ; 112)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8247-8889-3 (alk. paper)
1. Electromagnetic compatibility. 2. Electronic apparatus and appliances-Design and
construction. I. Title. 11. Electricalengineeringandelectronics ; 112.
TK7867.2.W46 2000
621.382’24-dc21
00-04759 1
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Preface
This second, revised and updated, edition of the book contains approximately 65% more infor-
mation than the first edition. This includes a review of computer modeling programs, a new
chapter on PCB layout, and additional cotnmercial and military EM1 test methods. New data
on cable radiation and coupling to cables is included, extending out to 12 GHz, and on EM1
enclosure shielding.
All electronic and electricalequipment is a potential source of electromagnetic interference
(EMI). Similarly, such equipment will not function as designed at some level of electromagnetic
ambient. The problems associated with EM1 can range from simple annoyance (e.g., static on
telecommunications equipment or increased bit error rates on digital equipment) to catastrophe
(e.g., inadvertent detonation of explosive devices).
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) can be achieved by evaluating the electromagnetic
environment (often characterized by standards or requirements) to which equipmendsystems is
exposed and then designing and building equipmendsystems to function correctly in the opera-
tional environment without itself creating EMI.
This book is written for the desigdsystems engineer, technologist, technician, or engi-
neering manager who designs, maintains, or specifies equipment either to meet an electromag-
netic compatibility requirement specification or to function safely in a given electromagnetic
environment.
Many engineers donot have, or need, radio frequency(RF)experience. However, in opera-
tion, digital control or switching power equipment functions as an RF system. Therefore, an
understanding of the high-frequency characteristics of components, simple radiators, and wave
theory is imperative in achieving an understanding of EMC.
One aim of the book is to teach EM1 prediction and enable the reader to build EMC into
equipment and systems without overdesign. By achieving EMC, the designer averts the program
delay and additional cost of fixing EM1 after the equipment is built. With the recognition that
EM1 problems exist, we present EM1 diagnostic techniques and cost effective solutions with
practical implementation and options.
The book discusses typical sources of EM1 and characteristics of the radiated and con-
ducted emissions that might be expected in a given electromagnetic environment and reviews
ways of decreasing electromagnetic emissions as well as the susceptibility of equipment to EMI.
Some books on EMVEMC contain equations that are theoretically sound but may not be useful
in practical EMVEMC problems. All equations in this book have been found to be invaluable
in EM1 prediction and EMC design.In most instances, theory is substantiated by measured data,
and where anomalies exist most probable reasons are offered. Where the reader may wish to
pursue a given subject area further, numerous references are provided. Worked examples of the
equations are given in predictions and case studiesthroughout the book. Physical geometry and
frequency limitations exist in the application of all wave or circuit theory, including the effect
of parasitic components, and these limits are discussed.
iii
iv Preface
The apparent anomalies that have given EMC a reputation for “black magic” are ex-
plained. For example, the case where the addition of shielding, a filter, or grounding increases
either the level of EM1 emissions orthe susceptibility during EMC tests is examined. Themajor
reason these results are apparently inexplicable is that the underlying theory is not well under-
stood. The approach used in the book is to provide an understanding of the theory with an
emphasis on its applicability in the practical realization of EMC design and EM1 solutions,
including implementation and maintenance.
The intent is that information contained herein have a practical application or be required
for an understanding of the principles of EMC. For example, calculated or published data on
attenuation or shielding effectiveness is of little use unless its applicationis explained. Therefore,
it must be used in conjunction with the worst-case levels of radiated or conducted noise that
may be expected in a given environment. Any practical limitation on the achievable attenuation
or shielding must then be accounted for, after which the noise levels applied to the system or
circuit and its immunity may be predicted. The aim has been to avoid the overly simplistic
cookbook approach with its inherent errors, and yet to limit the mathematics to that used by
the practicing engineer or technician.
Simple measurement techniques that are possible with standard electronic measurement
equipment are described. These are useful for EM1 diagnostic measurements as well as a “quick
look” at equipment that must meet EMC requirements such as the commercial FCC, DO-160,
VCE, and EN, and the military/aerospace MIL-STD-461. Also, the correct measurement tech-
niques and possible errors encountered using more sophisticated equipment required for certifi-
cation and qualification EMC testing are introduced.
The book is based on experience gained in EMC consulting and on the course notes of
one- to four-day EMC seminars presented over a 12-year period. Many questions posed by
attendees of the seminars and clients have been answered in this book.
I am very grateful to David Viljoen, who madea significant contributionto the preparation
of the contents of the first edition of the book (i.e., the layout of the book, drafting the majority
of the figures, editing Chapters1 to 5 , and writing the computerprograms). Without theattention
to detail, hard work, and high-quality effort of Mr. Viljoen, this book would not have been
possible in its present form.
I am also indebted to the late Mr. Jabez Whelpton, of Canadian Astronautics Ltd., who
was of great assistance in reading and correcting the content of those chapters that contain
information on wave theory and antennas.
For the second edition of the book I wish to thank Mr. Chris Ceelen, who made many of
the additional EM1 measurements, and Ms. Lianne Boulet, who helped prepare the text and
figures.
Finally, I wish to thank the organizations specifically acknowledged beneath figures and
in the text, especially the Canadian Space Agency.
David A. Wesron
Contents
...
Preface 111
Chapter 1 Introduction to EM1 and the Electromagnetic Environment 1

1.1 Introduction to electromagneticinterference(EMI) 1
1.2Introduction to electromagneticinterferenceregulations 4
Electromagnetic
1.3 environment 5
References 17
Chapter 2 Introduction to E and H, Near and Far Fields, Radiators,

Receptors, and Antennas 19
2.1
Static and quasi-static
fields 20
2.2Electricwavesonwires and in freespace 26
Radiated
2.3 power 42
2.4
Units of measurement 45
2.5 Receivingproperties of anantenna 46
2.6Simple,easilyconstructedEand H field antennas 62
2.7 Nonionizingelectromagnetic field exposuresafetylimits 75
2.8 Computer
programs 84
References 93
Chapter 3 Typical Sources and Characteristics of Radiated and

Conducted Emissions 95
3.1
Introduction to noise sources 95
3.2Fouriertransformmethods and computerprograms 106
3.3CaseStudy3.1:Noiselevelsgenerated by dc-to-dcconverters 107
Transmitter-generated
3.4 noise 118
References 119
Chapter 4 Crosstalk and Electromagnetic Coupling Between PCB Tracks,

Wires, and Cables 121
4.1 Introduction to crosstalkandelectromagneticcoupling 121

4.2Capacitivecrosstalkandelectric field couplingbetween wires and cables 123
4.3Inductivecrosstalkandmagnetic field couplingbetween wires and cables 131
4.4Combinedinductiveandcapacitivecrosstalk 141
References 169
V
vi Contents
Chapter 5 Components, Emission Reduction Techniques, and Noise Immunity 171
5.1 Components 171

5.2 Emission
reduction
techniques 228
5.3 Noise
immunity 232
Transient
5.4 protection 269
Addresses of manufacturers mentioned in this Chapter 28 1
References 282
Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Shielding 283
6.1
Reflection,absorption,
andshielding
effectiveness 283
Shielding
6.2 effectiveness 289
6.3 Newshieldingmaterials:conductivepaintsandthermoplastics,plastic
coatings, and glue 297
6.4Seams,joints, ventilation, andother apertures 304
6.5Gasketingtheory,gaskettransferimpedance,gaskettype,andsurface finish 328
6.6Practicalshielding and limitation on effectiveness 348
Compartmentalization
6.7 349
6.8 Shielding effectiveness of buildings 349
6.9Computer program for evaluatingshieldingeffectiveness 352
References 354
Chapter 7 Cable Shielding, Coupling from E and H Fields, and Cable

Emissions 357
7.1Introduction to cablecouplingandemissions 357

7.2
Cable shielding effectivenesshransfer impedance 357
7.3 Shieldtermination effectson transferredvoltage 385
7.4Couplingfrom E and H fields 387
7.5 Shield termination 398
7.6 Emissions fromcables andwires 403
7.7Reductionin theemissions of E and H fields fromcables 415
7.8 Shielded connectors, backshells,and other shieldterminationtechniques 415
7.9Practicallevel of shieldingrequired to meet MIL-STDDO-160C or
commercial radiated emission requirements 426
References 430
Chapter 8 GroundingandBonding 433
8.1 Introduction to grounding 433

8.2Safetygrounds,earth grounds, andlarge-system grounding 434
8.3 Signalgroundand
power ground 443
8.4 Guidelinesfor
signal
grounding 453
8.5 Power
and grounding diagrams 454
8.6
Grounding for lightning
protection 454
Bonding
8.7 465
References 476
Contents vii
Chapter 9 EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements, and Test Methods 477
9.1 Introduction 477

Test
9.2 equipment 478
Diagnostic
9.3 measurements 495
9.4
Commercial EM1 requirements and measurement 502
9.5 Shieldedrooms,anechoicchambers,transmissionlines,andcellantennas 567
9.6 Military EM1 requirementsandmeasurementtechniques 589
9.7
RTCA/DO- 160
requirements 635
References 638
Chapter 10 Systems EMC and AntennaCoupling 639
10.1 System-level EMC 639

10.2
Antenna-coupled EM1 648
10.3Ambientsitepredictionsandsurveys 67 1
10.4 Case Study10.3: Coupling into HV aclinefrom HF phased-arrayradar 678
References 68 I
Chapter 11 Printed Circuit Boards 683
1 1.1 Introduction 683

11.2Principles of radiationfromprintedcircuitboards 683
11.3Low-levelradiationPCBlayout 685
11.4Comparison of logictypes 705
1 1.5Circuit-levelreductiontechniques 710
11.6
PCBgrounding 7 l4
11.7Shielding a printedcircuitboard 724
11.8PCBradiation,crosstalkprediction,and CAD programs 729
11.9PCBlayoutcasestudies 737
11.10Increasedprintedcircuitboardimmunity 746
References 747
Chapter 12 EM1 and EMC Control, Case Studies, EMC Prediction

Techniques, and Computational Electromagnetic Modeling 749
12.1 EMC
control 749
12.2 EM1 investigations 753
12.3EMCpredictions:generalapproach 762
12.4 EMC, computationalelectromagneticmodeling, and field solvercomputer
programs 786
References 812
Appendix 1 CharacteristicImpedance of Conductors,Wires,andCables 813
Appendix2UnitsandConversionFactors 817
viii Contents
Appendix 3 Electric Field Strength to Magnetic Field to Power Density

Conversions 819
Appendix 4 Commonly Used Related Formulas 82 1
Appendix 5 Data on Bare Solid Copper Wire (Dimensions, Weight, and
Resistance) 825
Index 827
Introduction to EM1 and the
Electromagnetic Environment
1.l INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)

This chapter introduces a few of the important coupling modes involved in electromagnetic
interference (EMI) as well as some EM1 regulations. Both of these topics will be addressed in
more detail in subsequent chapters. In addition, this chapter presents data on averageand worst-
case electromagnetic emissions found in the environment. This data is useful in evaluating the
seventy of a given electromagnetic environment andin predicting electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) for equipment operated in these environments.
1.l .l Effects of Electromagnetic Interference

The effects of EM1 are extremely variable in character and magnitude, ranging from simple
annoyance to catastrophe. Some examples of the potential effects of EM1 are
Interference to television and radio reception

Loss of data in digital systems or in transmission of data
Delays in production of equipment exhibiting intraunit, subsystem, or system-level
EM1
Malfunction of medical electronic equipment (e.g., neonatal monitor, heart pacemaker)
Malfunction of automotive microprocessor control systems (e.g., braking or truck anti-
jackknife systems)
Malfunction of navigation equipment
Inadvertent detonation of explosive devices
Malfunction of critical process-control functions (e.g., oil or chemical industry)
To correct EM1 problems that occur after equipment is designed and in production is
usually expensive and results in program delays, which may adversely affect the acceptance of
a new product. It is preferable to follow good EMC engineering practice during the equipment
design and development phases.Our goal should beto produce equipment capableof functioning
in the predicted or specified electromagnetic environment and that does not interfere with other
equipment or unduly pollute the environment-that is, to achieve EMC.
The techniques of EMC prediction described in subsequent chapters will aid in meeting
the goal of EMC whenapplied at thedesignstage. These same techniques of analysis and
modeling are applicable to EM1 control and problem solving or in the location of out-of-specifi-
cation emissions. It is in the area of emission reduction where analysis is most likely to be
supplemented by measurement and diagnostic intervention. However, the value of simple EM1
1
2 Chapter 1
Ignition noise
""""""
Conducted interference
Radiated interference
Figure 1 .l Possible sources of ambient noise and how they may be coupled into a receiver.
Conducted Interference
Figure 1.2 Some of the possible interference coupling modes within a system.
Introduction 3
measurements made as early as feasible in the design, breadboard, and prototype phases cannot
be emphasized enough.
1.l .2 Electromagnetic Interference Coupling Modes

For EM1 to exist there must be a source of emission, a path for the coupling of the emission,
and a circuit, unit, or system sensitive to the received noise. Figures 1.1 - 1.3 illustrate that two
modes of coupling, radiated and conducted, can exist. In the near field, the radiated coupling
may be either a predominantly magnetic (H) field coupling or an electric (E) field coupling,
whereas the coupling in the far field will be via electromagnetic waves exhibiting a fixed ratio
of the E to H field strengths. A more rigorous definition of near and far field is presented in
Section 2.2.1. Suffice it to say here that the near field is in close proximity to a source and the
far field is beyond some determined distance from the source.
For circuits and conductors in close proximity we consider the coupling, or crosstalk, to
beviamutualinductanceandintercircuit capacitance, although one of thesemodesusually
predominates. The source of noise may be power lines, signal lines, logic (especially clocks
and data lines), or current-carrying ground connections. The conducted path may be resistive
or contain inductance or capacitance, intentional or otherwise, and it is often a combination of
these. The reactive components often result in resonances, with their concomitant increase or
decrease in current at the resonant frequencies.
CHASSIS
Common Impedance
Figure 1.3 A few of the intraequipment (unit) coupling modes.

4 Chapter 1
1.2INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC
INTERFERENCE REGULATIONS
The level of immunity built into equipment depends on how critical the correct functioning of
the equipment is and on the electromagnetic environment in which it is designed to operate.
Many EM1 requirements take the criticality and environment into account by classifying equip-
ment and by imposing different susceptibility test levels on the different classes.
EM1 can be considered a form of environmental pollution; in order to reduce the impact
of this pollution, some control on the environmental level of conducted and radiated emissions
of noise is necessary.
Many countries impose commercial regulations on the emissions from data-processing
equipment; industrial,scientific,andmedical (ISM)equipment; vehicles;appliances; etc. In
some instances standards are developed by anongovernmental agency, such as theSociety
of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and are not necessarily mandatory. The majority of military
regulations and standards, and some commercial specifications, also require that equipment be
demonstrated immune to susceptibility test levels.
Chapter 9 describes the typical EM1 regulations and requirements and EM1 measurement
techniques.
1.2.1
Military
Regulations
The options are limited for manufacturers of equipment that must meet specified requirements.
The military requirements are intendedto be tailored to the specific electromagnetic environment
by the procuring agency; however, this is seldom implemented. Should equipment fail specified
military requirements and, after analysis ormeasurement, the environment befound more benign
than the specified levels indicate, then the possibility exists for the procuring agency to grant
a waiver on the specification limit. A more satisfactory approach is to specify realistic limits
in the first place. The difficulty here is that the requirements are location dependent. That is,
the proximity of equipment to transmitting antennas or other equipment orthe number of units
connected to the same power supply varies from case to case. Where equipment isintended for
operation in a known location, the limits may be readily tailored to the environment.
1.2.2 CommercialRegulations
The manufacturers of equipment that must meet commercial requirements are seldom if ever
awarded a waiver, and the limits are inflexible. To date only the countries of the European
Union (EU) requireimmunitytesting. Some manufacturers who want to market in non-EU
countries may consider this an advantage until the equipment is found to be susceptible in a
typical environment.
1.2.3UnregulatedEquipment
For the manufacturers of equipment to which no regulations apply but who want to achieve
EMC either for the sake of customer satisfaction or safety or to minimize the risk of a lawsuit,
the choice is either to design for a realistic worst-case environment or to define the environment
with an existing EM1 standard. We define a realistic worst case as either a measured maximum
environment in a large sample of similar environments or a predicted maximum where all the
mitigating factors have been considered.
In an ideal world, specified limits would be close to the realistic worst-case environment,
whereas, as we shall see in Section 1.3, this is not always true.
Introduction 5
1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

The information in this section is intended to provide a comparison of the various worst-case
environments and to provide guidelines to equipment designers and those writing procurement
specifications.
Sources of EM1 can be divided into natural and manmade, with, in most cases, the natural
sources of radiation present at a much lower level than the manmade. The majority of uninten-
tional emissions occupy a wide range of frequencies, which we may call broadband in a nonstrict
sense of the term. Intentional emissions, such as radio and television transmissions, are termed
narrowband and in the strictest sense of the term are emissions that occur at a single frequency
or are accompanied by a few frequencies at the sidebands. The strict definitions of narrowband
and broadband, as used in EM1 measurements, and addressed in Chapter 9, are dependent on
both receiver bandwidth and the pulse repetition rate of the source.
Electric field strength is measured in volts/m, as described in Section 2.1. Another unit of
measurement is the dBpV/m. The unit of broadband field strength as used in military standards is
dBpV/m/MHz. Here the reference bandwidth of 1 MHz is included in the unit. Another unit
is the dBpV/m/kHz, where the reference bandwidth is 1 kHz.
For the sake of comparison to other sources of broadband noise, we will arbitrarily use
the military MIL-STD 461 RE02 limit for broadband emission from equipment measured at a
distance of 1 meter from the source. Figure 1.4 is a reproduction of the RE02 limit for spacecraft.
The RE02 limit is more stringent than commercial limits on broadband noise. For example, the
West German Commercial Regulation contained in VDE 0875 for broadband limits, when scaled
to a I-meter measuring distance and converted to the 1-MHz reference bandwidth, imposes a
limit of 78.5 dBpV/m/MHz from 30 to 300 MHz. This limit is 13.5 dB above RE02 at 200
MHz and 4 dB and 8.5 dB above at 30 MHz and 300 MHz, respectively. These limits are
presented in greater detail in Section 9.4.
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

(1 0 kHz) Frequency (MHz) (1 GHz)
Figure 1.4 RE02 broadband emission limits for spacecraft.

6 Chapter 1
The remainder of this chapter deals with radiated and conducted components of the electro-
magnetic environment. The radiated electromagnetic environment is treated in Sections 1.3.1-
1.3.3 and the conducted electromagnetic environment in Section 1.3.4.
1.3.1 Natural Sources of Electromagnetic Noise

Natural sources of electromagnetic noise are
0 Atmospheric noise produced by electrical discharges occurring during thunderstorms
0 Cosmic noise from the Sun, Moon, stars, planets, and galaxy
Atmospheric noise is produced predominantly by local thunderstorms in the summer and
by tropical-region thunderstorms in the winter. The electromagnetic emissions from thunder-
storms are propagated over distances of several thousand kilometers by an ionospheric skywave,
and thus potential EM1 effects are not localized. In the time domain, atmospheric noise is com-
plex, but it may be characterized by large spikes on a background of short random pulses or
smaller pulses on a higher continuous background.
Upper and lower limits for atmospheric radio noise displayed in the frequency domain
are shown in Figure 1.5(D), ranging in level from a maximum of 108 dBpV (0.25 V)/m/MHz
1000 60
100 40
10 20
P
1
0 >
2
a
m
0.1 -20 =
0.01 -40
0.001 -60
0.0001
10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100
(kH4 (MHz) (GW
Frequency
A Average daily upper and lower limits of normal cosmic radio noise lield intensities
B Noise lield intensities corresponding to internal noise of well-designed receiver
C Noise lield intensities (in one plane of polarization) produced by "black-body'' radiation at 300 K
D Upper and lower limits 01 atmosphere noise intensities (Nat. Bureau 01 Standards Circ. No 462)
Also radio propagation unit report RPU-5.
E Atmospheric radio noise intensities measured in the Arctic
Figure 1.5 Atmospheric, cosmic, and thermal noise levels. (From Ref. 2.)
Introduction 7
to a minimum of -6 dBpV (0.5 pV)/m/MHz at 100 kHz. Figure 1.5(E) also plots the atmo-
spheric noise measured in the Arctic, which describes a yearly variation of approximately 7 dB
as well as a systematic daily and seasonal variation. From measurements in Canada, the daily
and seasonal variation is from 91 dBpV/m/MHz to 106 dBpV/m/MHz. Compared to our arbi-
trarily chosen RE02 broadband reference limit, the upper-limit atmospheric noise may be close
to the RE02 limit at 100 kHz and 20 dB below the limit at 10 MHz.
Cosmic noise is a composite of noise sources comprised of sky background radio noise,
which is caused by ionization and synchrotron radiation (which undergoes daily variation), and
solar radio noise, which increases dramatically with an increase in solar activity and the genera-
tion of solar flares. Secondary cosmic noise sources are the Moon, Jupiter, and Cassiopeia-A.
At 30 MHz, the average cosmic noise is 34 dB below the RE02 limit.
A comparison of the relative intensities of atmospheric and cosmic sources and the fre-
quency range of emissions are shown in Figure 1.6. The average daily upper and lower limits
of the nonnal cosmic noise are shown in Figure 1.5(A). Additional sources of emissions exist
at lower levels, including the thermal background. The theoretical thermal background from the
Earth’s surface is shown in Figure 1 3 C ) with the internal thennal noise of a well-designed
receiver for comparison purposes.
The EM1 effect on radio communications is often described as “static” due to the impul-
sive nature of atmospheric noise. A second source of transient EMI, which may be incorrectly
attributed to atmospheric noise, is precipitation static discharge in the proximity of the receiving
antenna. Static discharge on the ground is caused by a buildup of charge onthe surface, resulting
in a corona discharge. Correct grounding and bonding of conductive elements, use of high-
breakdown-voltage dielectrics, static discharge coating, and transient suppression devices are
some of the methods used to avoid static charge buildup and protect the receiver input circuit.
Because of the wide frequency span over which natural emissions occur, they may cause
EM1 in HF/VHF/UHF/SHF transmissions.
-1 60
N
F
N -180
E
3
m
P
v) -200
.-cS
U)
C
Q
a
X -220
-
3
U
-240
10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 1.6 Comparativelevels of cosmicnoisesources.(FromRef. 1, 0 1969 IEEE.)

a Chapter 1
1.3.2 ManmadeElectromagneticNoise
Some of the major sources of manmade electromagnetic noise are
e Arc welders
e RF heaters
e Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) equipment
e AC high-voltage transmission line
e Automotive ignition
e Fluorescent lamps
e Microwave ovens
e Hospital equipment
e Diathermy equipment
e Communication transmitter intentional and spurious radiation
e Electric motors
Each of these sources will be discussed with reference to the RE02 specification limit.
Heliarc welders use an RF arc at a typical fundamental frequency of 2.6 MHz. The spec-
trum occupancy of the heliarc welder emission covers the frequency range from 3 kHz to 120
MHz and thus contains frequencies lower than 2.6 MHz. The typical EM1 effect on radio is a
“frying” noise. Representative levels of radiation from a substantial populationof RF-stabilized
arc welders measured at a distance of 305 m are (1)
level Radiation
Frequency
0.7 75
MHz dBFV/m/MHz
25 MHz 82 dBpV/m/MHz and
80 dBpV/m/MHz (10 mV/m/MHz)
30 MHz 70 dBpV/m/MHz
The level is 4 dB above the RE02 limit at 30 MHz and is naturally much higher at distances
closer than 305 m. For example, at a distance of 2 m from an arc welder, the E field level at
30 MHz is approximately 124 dBpV/m/MHz (1.5 V/m), which is 50 dB (3 16 times) above
the RE02 limit. In extrapolating for distance at these frequencies, either a I / d or l / d ’ . 5law
is used (d = distance), depending on frequency and other criteria. From measurements at 14
manufacturing plants, the peak level of emission from arc welders was found to be 0.1 V/m at
a measuring distance of 1-3 m (5). Unfortunately, the bandwidth of the measuring instrument
was not given, so it is not possible to convert the measured level to a broadband unit of measure-
ment.
In measurements described in Ref. 3, a heliarc welder exhibited significant emissionsfrom
14 kHzto 240 MHz. However,when measured at a distance of a few miles, only the fundamental
frequency of 2.6-3 MHz remained at a significant level. In measurements at different locations
on 152 welders, comprising 54 different models, the highest emission measured at 305 m was
64 dBpV/m. Of the 152 welders, 31 produced emissions above 40 dBpV/mand only 6 above
54dBpV/m.Some weldersgeneratedlevels aslowas 0 dBpV (1 pV)/m.The low-level
emitters were characterized by one ormore of the following: short welding leads; low-impedance
ground; shieldedwiring,including supply; andenclosureinashieldedbuilding.High-level
emitters, in contrast, were characterized by one or more of the following: poor grounding; un-
introduction 9
shielded wires; and proximity to power lines, which picked up the emissions and reradiated
them.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), in Document 47 CFR Part 18, place
a limit of 10 pV/m at 1600 m on industrial heaters and RF-stabilized arc welders below 5.725
MHz. Converting this to the 305-m distance used in the preceding survey and applying a lld
law results in a limit of 34.4 dBpV/m. From the survey it is clear that many existing arc welder
installations do not comply with the FCC limit.
The fields generated by induction and dielectric-type RF heaters are principallynar-
rowband, with peaks extending up to about the ninth harmonic. Induction heaters are used for
forging, case hardening, soldering, annealing, float zone refining, etc., while dielectric-type heat-
ers are typically used to seal plastic packages. The fundamental operating frequency for induc-
tion heaters is from 1 kHz to 1 MHz, and for dielectric heaters is from 13 MHz to 5.8 GHz.
In measurements on 36 induction heaters, the minimum and maximum emissions at a distance
of 30 m varied from 30 dBpV (31.6 yV)/m to 114 dBpV (0.75 V)/m (4). Sincethese emissions
are narrowband (NB), the l-MHz reference bandwidth is omitted in the measurement unit used.
We have so far used the relatively low-level military broadband radiated emission limit
(RE02) as a reference when comparing natural and manmade emission levels. To continue to
use this comparison for narrowband noise, the narrowband RE02 limit may be used.
The emissionsfrom four differentmanufacturersand10differentmodels of dielec-
tric heater when measuredatadistance of 30 mranged from a maximum of 98.8 dBpV
(87 mV)/m and a minimum of 75 dByV/m (5.6 mV) at the fundamental (27 MHz) and reduced
to a maximum of 84 dBpV(15.8 mV) and a minimum of 38 dBpV (79 pV) at the sixth harmonic
(162 MHz).
No measurements of the conducted noise placed on the power line by these devices are
available. However, the radiated emissions at 30 m were found to be above the typical ambient
levels of 0.15-0.9 mV/m measured in offices, electronic laboratories, and computer facilities,
but they do not pose a severe EM1 threat. This is illustrated by a cursory survey of the 35,434
complaints of interference with radio communication lodged with the UK regulatory authority
over a 1%month period. This survey reveals that 143 complaints were attributed to ISM sources,
1 1 to medical apparatus, and 66 to RF devices not tuned to designated frequencies, but not one
complaint was attributed to induction or dielectric heating equipment.
The levels of noise measured at 14 manufacturing sites from a variety of ISM equipment
is shown in Figure 1.7. The 14 manufacturing plants included discrete and continuous production
plants, an automotive tool and die shop, a chemical plant, a heavy equipment manufacturer, an
aerospace manufacturing plant, newspaper printers, paper and pulp plants, and metal smelting
plants. The levels are given in volts per meter, with no information as to the bandwidth of the
measuring instrument. Assuming the bandwidth used was narrow enough to capture only one
of the spectral lines of emission, then the electromagnetic field levels contained in Figure 1.7
will have the same magnitude as a narrowbandemitter of the same field strength, at the specified
frequency of maximum emission.
When a broadband field is expressed in broadband units, the magnitude is invariably higher
than the samefield expressed in a narrowband unit. Here we use the term broadbandfield loosely
to indicate a field comprised of a number of frequencies. A broadband unit of measurement uses
areferencebandwidth,typically 1 MHz(e.g.,dBpV/m/MHz), whereasanarrowband unit
does not specify a bandwidth (e.g., dBpV/m). However, the bandwidth used in a narrowband
measurement is always lessthan 1 MHz. In a broadband measurement of broadband noise, many
of the random or harmonically related spectral lines are captured in the receiver bandwidth. In
a narrowband measurement, only one of the spectral lines iscaptured in the receiver bandwidth.
10 Chapter 1
lL I
L
E!
c)
v)
‘D
0) -
,I
Relay controlled
ii devlce
j
Conlrol room 2
(metal smelling):
0.01 I I llllli I I I I I1111

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
(1 GHz)
(10 kHz) Frequency (MHz)
Figure 1.7 Peak field measurements from ISM sources. (From Ref. 4.)
For example, assume a broadband signal source generating harmonically related spectral lines
at 1 kHz intervals apart with a constant amplitude over a 1-MHz span. Assume the field strength
at some distance from the source, for the sake of our example, is 50 dBpV/m/MHz. If we were
to make a narrowband measurement with a l-kHz measuring bandwidth, then only one spectral
line is measured and the field amplitude is reduced to - 10 dBpV/m, expressed in narrowband
terms. In this way, coherent broadband noise decreases as a function of 20 dB/decade of band-
width. It is therefore incorrect to directly compare the magnitude of narrowband sources, for
example, those “intentional emitters” contained in Section 1.3.3, to broadband sources. The
subject of broadband and narrowband measurements are dealt with in Chapter 9 and sources
of broadband noise in Chapter 3.
The susceptibility of equipment and cables to an impinging broadband or narrowband
field is dependent, among other factors, on cable and enclosure resonance effects, the bandwidth
of the equipment (including signal interfaces), and the transient response of the cable and struc-
ture. These factors are considered in subsequent chapters.
It is common to experience EMI to AM reception in cars that are driven in close proximity
to, or under, high-voltage transmission lines. Figure 1.8 illustrates the spectrum occupancy of
transmission line noise with, as expected, a maximum at the power line frequency of either 50
or 60 Hz.The curves in Figure 1.8 are from several sources, and the numbers in brackets indicate
the distance (meters) from the line at which measurements were made.
Ignition noise level is dependent on traffic density and proximity. In the time domain,
ignition noise is characterized by bursts of short- (ns) duration pulses with a burst duration of
from a microsecond to milliseconds. The repetition rate of the bursts is dependent on the RPM,
the number of cylinders of the motor, and the number of cars. When measured in close proximity
to the road, these bursts vary in amplitude and direction with traffic flow. In cosmopolitan
areas, ignition noise is a major contributor to the electromagnetic environment. The average of
measurements taken in three cities at a roadside location for a traffic flow of 30 autos per minute
are 60 dBpV/m/MHz at 100 MHz decreasing to 50 dBpV/m/MHz at 1 GHz. Ignition noise is
Introduction 11
200
160
120
80
40
-40
Observation point location relativeto the sources in feet <25>, <50s,etc. , <pbeneath conductor
Figure 1.8 Transmission line noise (numbers in brackets are measuring distances in meters). (From
Ref. 1, 0 1969 IEEE.)
also present from 10 kHz upwards, andlevels as high as 80 dBpV/m/MHz have been measured
at 10 kHz.
Fluorescent and gaseous discharge tubes produce impulsive radio noise similar to power
line noise in its waveform characteristics. The level of noise from 10 kHz to 1 MHz was mea-
sured in a shielded roomwith the lights on and the ambient noisewith the lights off.The highest
fluorescent light emission was at 300 kHz, measured at 89 dBpV/m/MHz, and the RE02 BB
limit at 300 kHz is 98 dBpV/m/MHz. Thus,although the ambient is just below the specification
limit, all subsequent measurements were made with the fluorescentlights off. For MIL STD461
measurements, the ambient should be at least 6 dB below the specification limit. The remaining
incandescent lamps in the shielded room did not add tothe electromagnetic ambient.The average
level of radiation from fluorescent lamp fittings measured at a distance of 1 meter is shown in
Figure 1.9.
Field-strength measurements of microwave ovens operating in the ISM band at 9 15 MHz
were measured in the laboratory at distances of 3.05 m and 305 m. Measurements were also
made outside a large condominium containing 385 ovens. The measurements were made on
one make of oven and similar models. The maximum field strength measured in the laboratory
was 1.5 V/m at 3.05 m and 1 l mV/m at 305 m. The field strength measured outside the condo-
minium building would have been altered by some shielding due to the building structure and
reflections from the ground and nearby buildings. The maximum field strength measured was
8.9 mV/m at 920 MHz at a measuring distance of 152 m from the two buildings comprising
the condominium (6).
The electromagnetic environment in hospitals has been of growing concern as the number
of EM1 problems experienced in hospitals has increased. Measurements have been made in
ten Americanhospitals in anumber of locations,includingoperating rooms, intensive care
12 Chapter 1
160
140 Average at a distance of 1 m
120
100
80
60
40 v
.01 1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 1.9 Average level of radiation from fluorescentlamps.
units, chemistry labs, special procedure rooms, and physical therapy facilities. In the majority
of locations, E fields as high as 3 V/m/MHz were measured. It should be emphasized that the
measurementresults are displayed in broadbandunits. If themeasurementshadbeen made
with a narrowband bandwidth and displayed in narrowband units, the majority of emissions
would have reduced in amplitude but with peaks at 70 kHz and 1-5 MHz remaining at approxi-
mately 3 V/m. These peak emissions are from diathermy or electrosurgical units, which use
high-frequency currents to achieve bloodless surgery and are generators of narrowband noise.
Figure 1 . I O is a composite of the worst-case field levels measured in all locations at the 10
hospitals surveyed (7).
When these unintentional manmade high-level sources of radiation are compared to our
standard RE02 level, the sources may have intensities of 60 dB above (i.e., 1,000 times) the
RE02 limit.
In addition to RF electromagnetic fields, magnetic fields at power line frequencies are
ever-present. Due to the concern for the potential health hazard of magnetic fields, a number
of measurements were made in a home and in an office building. The magnetic field strength
in one room on the 1st floor in the office building was sufficient to result in distortion of com-
puter monitor displays. The displays were susceptible to magnetic fields with magnitudes of
1.3-3 A/m. The magnetic fields in this 1st floor varied from a low 0.016 A/m to the maximum
of 3 A/m at 60 Hz. On the 5th floor of the same building, the magnetic field varied from 0.00485
A/m to 0.0428 A/m. The highest magnetic fields measuredin the basement of the same building
was 1.63 A/m, close to a power transformer. A survey was also conducted at several locations
in a home; the result of these measurements are shown in Table 1.1.
One technique for reducing 60-Hz magnetic fields from wiring is to keep line and neutral
in any two-phase circuit or the A, B, C, and neutral conductors in close proximity or preferably
Introduction 13
2 4 6 8
170
150
130
1z
m
110
90 I
U
70
I
50 -1
30 J
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

(1 0 kHz) Frequency (MHz) (1 GHz)
Figure 1.l 0 Composite worst-case field levels in hospitals. (From Ref. 2. 0 1975 IEEE.)
twisted together. Section 2.1.3 discusses the reduction effect seen with twisted-pair cable in
detail. An alternative is to run the cables in a high-permeability conduit. Measurements were
made on a galvanized cold-rolled-steel seamless conduit with a wall thickness of approximately
1.2 mm (15/32”), and an attenuation of approximately 16 dB at 60 Hz was seen. Section 6.2
describes low-frequency magnetic field shielding in detail.
1.3.3 IntentionalEmitters
The electromagnetic environment is also crowded with the intentional emissions from radio,
television, and radar transmitters, all of which can interfere with equipment that is not intended
for any form of reception as well as receivers tuned to a different frequency. One of the most
frequent causes of EM1 is electromagnetic fields produced by radio transmitters. The EM1 effect
may be confined to annoyance, for example, due to the spurious operation of a garage door
Table 1.1 MagnitudeofMagneticFieldsMeasuredin a Home

Location of magnetic field Magnetic
measurements in a home field (A/m)
20 cm from top of stove 4.86
20 cm from oven door 0.4
20 cm from electric food mixer 4
20 cm from electrical panel 0.82
20 cm from 120-250-V autotransformer 46.2
2 m from hi-fi setup 0.1
Center of kitchen; all appliances off except 0.1
for refrigerator
20 cm from toaster 0.8 1
14 Chapter 1
caused by the use of a CB radio. There also exists documentation of far more serious effects,
such as the destruction of a warship attributed indirectly to EM1 (due to interference with com-
munication) or the crash of an aircraft as the direct result of EM1 (flying in close proximity to
a high-power transmitter).
Radio transmissions are narrowband, with limited emissions at the harmonics of the funda-
mental continuous wave (CW). If these waves are modulated, then the resulting sidebands are
also transmitted. In addition to frequencies related to the fundamental, a transmitter may radiate
the local oscillator frequency and broadband noise generated within the stages of the transmitter.
The composite of spurious, broadband, and harmonically related noise from a transmitter is
typically at least 70 dB downfrom the fundamental. The radiated fields from transmitting anten-
nas are dependent on proximity, transmitter output power, directivity of the antenna, relative
height between antenna and measuring point, and proximity of reflecting or intervening ab-
sorbing material or structures, etc. Measurements have been made in two major urban centers
in Canada (Montreal and Toronto, Ref. 7). From a large number of measurements made close
to ground level, a typical field-strength value developed at usual transmitter-receiver distances
was computed. The results are shown in Table 1.2. The maximum typical E field at a fixed
distance of 100 m is shown in Figure 1.1 1.
An electromagnetic RF ambient survey is often made before erecting a receiving antenna
or before the installation of potentially susceptible equipment. Examples of peak emitters en-
countered in such measurements are a radar signal measured at a site in Goosebay, Labrador,
that exhibited a frequency of 1280 MHz and a level of -21 dB-W/m? (i.e., an E field of 1.73
V/mj; an AM radio transmitter in Alice Springs, Australia, generated E fields of 4 V/m at 4.83
MHz incident on nearby receiving equipment; and, at a proposed site in Hong Kong, E fields
of 3.75 V/m at 12 MHz were measured at the proposed location of receiving equipment. Many
apartment and office buildings have antennas mounted on the roof. In one apartment building,
Bell cellular antennas were mounted on the roof, and the E fields, at 880 MHz, measured in
two apartments were 7.86 V/m and 6.48 V/m, respectively. On the balconies of these same
apartments, the maximum E field was at 12 Vlm and 12.9 V/m, respectively. The ambient inside
a household that contains an amateur radio transmitter with the antenna mounted on the roof
was measured at 30 V/m inside the home. Transceivers (walkie-talkies) can generate fields as
high as 55 V/m at 823 MHz at a distance of 12 cm from a 5-W transceiver (8). The power
generated by a cellular phone at a distance of 2.5 cm from the human head is absorbed by the
head at the same rate as an incident field of 41 V/m(IO). In Ref. 10, ambient measurements were
made on apartment buildings in 15 different cities in the United States. The median exposure for
Table 1.2 TypicalAmbientField

Strengths (Ref. 8)
Frequency Field strength

(MHz) (V/m)
0.5-1.6
<0. 26.9-27.4 1
54-88
88-108
108-174
174-216
"Typical field strength m major urbancenters

from broadcast transmitters.
Sortrce: Ref. 8.
Introduction 15
Figure 1.1 1 Averageandpeakfields from radiotransmittersat a distance of 100 m.
the inhabitants of all cities was 0.137 V/m, and 99.9% of the inhabitants were exposed to fields
of less than l .94 V/m. Thus we can conclude that ambients with magnitudes of volts per meter
are uncommon, but are increasingly the cause of EM1 in apartment and office buildings. Electric
fields having volts-per-meter magnitudes are potential sources of interference to equipment even
when the passband of the equipment is far from the interfering frequency. Case studies for this
type of EM1 are contained in Chapter 12.
The preceding summary of measured spectrum occupancy and radiated emission levels
from unintentional and intentional sources is intended to provide guidelines to manufacturers
whose equipment must achieve EMCin these harsh environments. One important piece of infor-
mation presented with the data is the measuring distance from the source. In measurements it
has been observed that the low-frequency component falls more rapidly with increasingdistance
than those at VHF and UHF. The mechanism for E field reduction with distance and frequency
is discussed in Chapter 2. When predicting the electromagnetic ambient level at a given location,
not only is the distance from potential sources of EM1 an important consideration but also the
presence of conductive structures close to the emission source, such as walls, buildings, and
ground topology. When structures are behind or to the side of the source, they act as reflectors;
they act as shields when the structures are intervening. Chapter 6 discusses the shielding effec-
tiveness of structures and soil.
1.3.4 Conducted Noise on PowerLines

The electromagneticenvironment is confinednotonly to electromagneticfieldsbut also to
signaldnoise existing in a transmission medium. Thus the noise conducted on equipment power
lines must be accounted for when characterizing an electromagnetic ambient. For example, a
computer on a machine shop floor, located at some distance from numerical control machines,
may be immune to the radiated field levels but susceptible to conducted noise. Therefore, in
addition to immunity to electromagnetic fields, achieving EMC entails immunity to conducted
16 Chapter 1
noise, present predominantly on power lines but also on signal interfaces and grounds. To predict
susceptibility for equipment on which no EMC requirements are placed, data on expected maxi-
mum amplitude, frequency content, and waveform type (e.g., CW or spike) that may exist on
the power supply in a given electromagnetic environment is required.
The conducted noise currents flowing out of medical equipment into a known load con-
nected to the power line was measured in the survey made in 10 hospitals. The impedance of
the load is not given in Ref. 11; however, a typical value is 50 R. A 400-Hz highpass filter
was included in the measurement setup to reduce the magnitude of load current measured at
60 Hz and its harmonics by the current probe. Figure 1.12 is a composite of the maximum
conducted noise currents measured in all locations at the 10 hospitals (7). In other measurements
in a hospital environment, voltage spikes as high as 3,000 V have been measured on the AC
power line.
Unfortunately, the amount of data available from measurements of conducted noise current
or voltage is limited. An alternative approach is to use the specified susceptibility test levels
described in Chapter 9 for the relevant type of equipment (i.e., military, ISM, or vehicle-mounted
equipment). Where susceptibility test levels have not been developed for the equipment type,
then the regulations concerning conducted emission limits for equipment such as digital, house-
hold appliance, portable tools, etc. may be used to predict the conducted power line noise level.
When using emission limits in a prediction, some correction must be made for the specific or
worst-case power line impedance and the number of devices sharing the same power line. For
example, in a laboratory environment, several computers, hand tools, RF sources, and a refrigera-
tor may share a common power line. A worst case AC, 120-V, 60-Hz power line source imped-
ance plotted against frequency is shown in Figure 5.28a. Taking a composite of the noise currents
from all sources, a composite noise voltage developed across the worst-case source impedance
may be calculated, to arrive at susceptibility test/design levels.
2 4 68
170
150
130
N
!i
=L
m
'lo
TI 90
70
50
30
0.0001 0 001 0 01 0.1 1 10 100
(100 Hz) Frequency (MHz)
Figure 1.12 Composite of conducted AC power line noise currents measured at I0 hospitals. (From
Ref. 2. 0 1975 IEEE.)
Introduction 17
REFERENCES
1. E.N. Skomal. The dimension of radio noise. 1969 IEEE Symposium on EMC, Vol. 69, C3-EMC,
June 17- 19.
2. H.V. Cottony. Radio noise of ionospheric origin. Science, Vol. 11 I , No. 2872, p. 41; January, 19.50.
3. H.V. Cottony, J. R. Johler. Cosmic radio noise intensities in the VHF band. Proceeding of the IRE,
September 1952, pp. 1050- 1060.
4. R. Nielson. Ethernet performance in harsh industrial environments. Control Engineering 1988. Vol.
3.5. No.IO.
5. A.S. McLachlan. Radio frequency heating apparatus as a valuable tool of industry and a potential
source of radio interference. 7th International Zurich Symposium and Technical Exhibition on Elec-
tromagnetic Compatibility, Zurich, 1987.
6. A. Tell. Field strength measurements of microwave oven leakage at 915 MHz. IEEE Transactions
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, May 1978, Vol. EMC-20, No. 2.
7. Government of Canada Department of Communications. EMCAB I , Issue 2.
8. John Adams. Electric field strength measured near personal transceivers. National Institute of Stan-
dards and Technology. IEEE EMC Symposium record 1993.
9. Paolo Bernardi, Marta Cavagnaro, Stefan0 Pisa. Evaluation of the SAR distribution in the human
head for cellular phones used in a partially closed environment. IEEE transactions on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, August 1996, Volume 38, Number 3.
10. Daniel D. Holihan. A technical analysis of the United States environmental protection agency’s pro-
posed alternatives for controlling public exposure to radiofrequency radiation. IEEE EMC Sympo-
sium record 1987.
11. R.J. Hoff. EMC measurementsin hospitals. 1975 IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility.
Introduction to E and H, Near and Far
Fields, Radiators, Receptors, and Antennas
Judging by the response from attendees of seminars, this chapter may be the least popular with
design and system engineers.
The concept of radiation from, and coupling to, interface cables, PCB tracks, wiring, etc.
is generally foreign to engineers, despiteinvolvement with equipment containing digital, analog,
RF, and control circuits. The reason may be that it is difficult to envisage interconnections as
antennas, or circuit elements, or to see the potential for crosstalk between conductors. This is
particularly true when equipment exhibits EM1 or fails an EMC requirement and the engineer
is under the pressure of schedule to find the quick fix usually demanded by management. In
order to make simple EMC predictions or solve an EM1 problem efficiently, an understanding
of the principles of radiation and coupling, including frequency dependency and resonance ef-
fects, is essential.
Even the choice of an effective diagnostic test or the evaluation of a problem for either
a radiated or a conducted source aredifficult without this understanding. The title of this chapter
may appear to imply that radiators and receptors aresomehow different from antennas. Of course
this is not true. One antenna engineer, when asked to define an antenna, replied, “What is not
an antenna?” It used to be said by TV repair technicians, not totally in jest, of a high-field-
strength location that a piece of wet string would serve as an antenna.
One investigator has examined the resonant frequency and receiving properties of leaves
and fir cones,modeledas log periodic antennas, andquestionedthe effects of RF currents
flowing, as a result of electromagnetic fields, on their surfaces. The differentiation made in this
chapter between radiators, receptors, and antennas is merely to distinguish between structures
intentionally designed to radiate and receive and those not. It will be seen that much of the
antenna theory is applicable to nonintentional antennas, for example,in investigating the magni-
tude of current flow caused by an incident field on a structure and the radiation from a current-
carrying conductor. Many good books exist on the subject of wave theory and antennas. Then
why the need for this chapter? Themagnitude of an electromagnetic field at some distance from
an AC source varies with time. In the measurement and prediction of field magnitude for EM1
analysis or in meeting a limit, it is the peak magnitude that is required. Therefore it has been
possible to simplify the field equations presented in this book by eliminating the time-dependent
terms. In EMC we are interested both in highly efficient resonant antennas and in the noninten-
tional radiation and coupling, to nonresonant structures, with impedances not matched to the
termination impedance. Most antenna books are confined to the analysis of antennas that are
highly efficient and relatively narrowband.However, many of the equations developed for anten-
nas are quite applicable to any conductive structures.
The formulascontained in this chapter areused in the predictions contained in subsequent
chapters and are presented as magnitudes (i.e., they may be used directly). Derivations for the
19
20 Chapter 2
equations are omitted andmay be found i n the reference material. In order to make life as simple
as possible, the equations for coupling toand radiation from wires and cables as well as crosstalk
between cables have been incorporated into computer programs written in BASIC and provided
at the end of this and other chapters. However, an understanding of the correct model to use
and the limits on its applicability is still required.
In addition, this chapter will enable the reader to make, calibrate, and correctly use simple
magnetic field probes and E field antennas, and it introduces the meaning of terms, such as guin
and m e t m a fcrctor., used with EM1 measuring antennas.
2.1 STATICANDQUASI-STATICFIELDS
In order to understand electromagnetic waves in proxinlity to current-carrying conductors as
well as i n free space, it is helpful to examine static electric and magnetic fields. In addition, at
low frequency and at close distances to the source, it is often the reactive near field or quasi-
static field that couples strongly,andthese fields can be computed using the following DC
analyses.
2.1.1 DCElectricField
An electric field exists between the plates of a capacitor to which a potential V,, is applied
(Figure 2.1). The electric field intensity is
where h is the distance between the plates, measured in meters. Thus E is a magnitude per unit
length. For example, if I O V were applied to plates 10 cm apart, the field strength between the
plates would be 100 V/m. The electric field has electric lines of force associated with it that
are tangent to the electric field and are proportional in strength to the electric field strength.
The electric field intensity can be measured by inserting a small dipole into the field (Figure
2.1). The component of the electric force tangential to the two conductive arms of the probe
moves electrons i n the conductors, and a voltage appears across the arms.
The voltage induced intoa thin probe is substantially independent of the radius and propor-
tional to the length of the probe. In practice, the conductive wires connected to the probe would
disturb the electric field and Eq. (2.1) would not bestrictlycorrect. The field betweentwo
infinite parallel plates is uniform, and in the field between the plates we find
where
E = electric field strength [V/m]
/I,/ = effective dipole length
/ ........................... 4
\ """ h
Figure 2.1 A crosssectionbetweenparallelplates.

E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 21
In a nonuniform field, the electric probe measures the average intensity of the field occupied
by the probe; hence h,, should be as small as possible. The electric field probe described is the
simplest example of a receiving antenna. Electric field lines may start on a positive charge and
end on a negative charge, as shown in Figure 2.1, or they may start on a positive charge and
end at infinity or start at infinity and end on a negative charge or with time-varying fields form
closed loops that neither start nor end on a charge.
2.1.2 DC MagneticField
An electric current is surrounded by a magnetic field of force. The magnetic field around a very
long wire carrying a constant current is given by
(2.3)
and illustrated in Figure 2.2.

Magnetic field lines always formclosed loops aroundcurrent-carrying conductors because
magnetic charges do not exist. The magnetic field is, like an electric field, a magnitude per unit
length. For example, the magnetic field I O cm from a wire carrying 10 A is 16 A/m and re-
duces to 1.6 A/m at a distance of 1 m. Expressed in another way, if the circumference of the
field line at 10-cm distance is 0.628 m, the magnetic field strength is then 10 A10.628 m =
16 A/m. Equation (2.3) may be found by dividing up the conductor into infinitesimal lengths
(current elements) through which the currentflows. The total field is then the sum of the contribu-
tions from all of the current elements stretching out to infinity on both sides of the measuring
point. When the length of the wire is not infinite but much longer than the measuring distance
r, Eq. (2.3) may stillbe used with anormallyacceptablesmall error in the computed field
strength. If the wire changes direction, then the equation for computing the field from a current
loop may be applicable.
In practice it is uncommon to find short lengths of isolated current-carrying conductors.
One exception may be where a conductor enters a space through a shield and then exits the
space after ashort distance via asecond shield. The approximate magnetic field from this specific
example is then
It is very common to find a second return conductor in close proximity to the supply
conductor, with the return conductor carrying exactly equal and opposite current to the supply.
Figure 2.2 Magneticfieldaroundalongconductor.

22 Chapter 2
z ,,'
Figure 2.3a Configuration of a two-wireline.
This configuration is shown in Figure 2.3a. Because the field magnitude for the two conductors
is not the same in the plane of the loop, the x-axis, as it is tangential to the plane of the loop,
the z-axis, two field magnitudes H: and H , must be computed.
The derivation of the following equations for H: and H , may be found in Ref. 1 as well
as in other textbooks on electromagnetic theory:
All distances, such as x, z, r , , and r?, are in meters.

From Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6) we see that the field on the x-axis at the center of the two
conductors is zero and on the z-axis it is twice the magnitude computed for the z-component
either side of the center. This may be seen graphically in Figure 2.3b, where the fields from
the two conductors are in antiphase on the x-axis and in phase on the z-axis at the center of the
conductors.
When probing around the two conductors with a magnetic field measuring probe, the
change in measured field may be seen with change in probe location and orientation in the x-
and z-axes around the conductors.
Twin conductor cables carrying50-20-kHz AC power are potential sources of high mag-
netic fields atclose proximity to the conductor. The closertogether the conductors are, the lower
the resultant H field. Where the conductors are separated and, for example, routed around the
inside of an enclosure, the magnetic field is at a maximum, and the correct prediction method
for magnetic field from a current loop is Eq. (2.7).
2.1.3 Twisted-Pair Wires

In order to minimize the generation of magnetic fields from conductors, twisted-pair wire is
used. The magnetic fields from each loop of the twisted wires are in antiphase and therefore
tend to cancel. At the exact centerof the loop and equidistant from all loops, assuming all loops
E and H, Fields, Radiators, Receptors, and Antennas 23
Figure 2.3b Fielddistributionaroundatwo-wireline.
are of equal size, the total magnetic field is zero. The realistic situation is that not all loops are
equidistant from the measuring pointand that the sizes of the loops arenot exactly equal. Figure
2.4 illustrates the resultant fields and their directions, which may be computed for any location
by computingtheindividual fields fromeachloop. Then the total field maybegraphically
estimated from the vector product or vector analysis may be used.
The magnetic field from a twisted pair contains a radial component, x , a component down
the axis of the pair, z, and a circumferential component, $, due to the helical nature of the twist.
The field at some distance from the wire, p , is dependent not only on p but on the pitch distance,
h (distance for one cycle of twist), as well as the distance between the center of the twisted
pair and the center of one conductor of the pair.
Figure 2.4 Resultant fields and their directions for an individual loop of a twisted pair.
24 Chapter 2
At distances very close to the twisted pair, the field may be higher than for the two-wire
line. However, the field very quickly reduces in magnitude with increasing distance p. From
measurements in Ref. 2 it was found that the magnetic field strength from a twisted pair reduces
more rapidly, as a function of l / r 3 , than the field from an untwisted pair or a coaxial cable in
which the center conductor is not concentric or on which an unbalanced current flows, which
reduce as a function of l/,.'.
We use the term 1 / r " throughout this chapter. In order to illustrate the meaning, imagine
that the magnetic field has been measured at a distance of 1 cm from a twisted wire pair and
that the field at 10 cm is required. The changein distance between measuring pointand predicted
point is 10 cm/l cm = 10, the reduction in field strength is therefore l / lo7 = l / 1000.
From measurements and predictions on twisted-pair cable with a large pitch distance of
3 inches (i.e., only 0.33 twists per inch) from Ref. 3, the reduction in field for the twisted-pair
cable is approximately l/r"', or 60 dB, for a doubling in distance p . From the same reference,
the reduction in field for an untwisted cable is 12 dB (i.e., l/r') for a doubling of distance. A
comparison between the reduction in field versus distance for both a twisted pair and an un-
twisted pair is shown in Figure 2.5. In Ref. 4, generalized curves using the ratios of d h and
p/h have been constructed for B,, B,, and B,. These generalized curves are reproduced in Figure
2.6. The y-axis of Figure 2.6 is magnetic field strength, in decibels/gauss for 1 ampere of current
flow. To calculate the field components from the figure:
1. Find the number of decibels for the ratio d h .
2. Add the decibels for the ratio of plh.
3. For the B , and B: fields, add 20 log(1/2.54xh) [cm] or 1/12 [inches]) to the number
of decibels obtained in step 2. For the B , field, add 20 log( 1/2.54p) [cm] l /or
p [inches]
to the number of decibels obtained in step 2.
4. To correctfor the actualcurrent flow I , add20log Z/I to the numberobtained in
step 3.
The field magnitude at some point or points in close proximity to a twisted pair is of
interest when the voltage induced into either a loop or a wire, which crosses the pair at some
angle, is required. Where the concern is not the electromagnetic field incident on a point but
0
N
Figure 2.5 Comparison of thereductioninfieldvs.distance curves for both a twisted pair and an
untwisted pair. (01968 IEEE.)
1. FIRSTCOMPONENT X=1 -
2. SECONDCOMPONENT X = 3 -
3. THIRDCOMPONENT -1.15
"a anl-1
F
f -20
-60
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.18.0 1.2 1.61.4 1.8 2.0
Figure 2.6 Field reductions as a function of a l h and plh.
on a cable or wire running the length of the twisted wire pair, then a current is induced into
the receptor wire. Again these currents tend to cancel, but not exactly due to varying distance
and orientation between the twisted wire source and the receptor wire, unequal loop areas, and
an odd number of loops. End effects where large loops may exist due to the termination of the
twisted pair must also be considered. For the evaluation of crosstalk, the worst-case magnetic
field generated down the length of the twisted pair may be estimated for a given distance from
the twisted pair and used with the cable crosstalk equations and computer program found in
Chapter 4. This program allows the prediction of coupling to either a single wire above a ground
plane, a two-wire line, or a shielded cable.
The susceptibility and radiation from twisted pairs from 20 kHz to GHz (i.e., above the
frequency where the quasi-static equations are valid for long distancesfrom the source) is consid-
ered in Section 2.2.6.
2.1.4 DC and Quasi-Static Fields from a Loop

The radial magnetic field from a loop (i.e., in the x-axis) at a point coaxial to the loop at DC
and low frequency in close proximity is given by
26 Chapter 2
-
Conductor
Figure 2.7 Configuration for the magnetic field from a loop.
where
d = distance from the loop [m]
r = radius of the loop [m]
I = current carried by the loop [A]
The loop and measuring point are shown in Figure 2.7. The components of the magnetic field
in the y-axis at point p cancel, and thus H , is zero.
2.2 ELECTRIC WAVES ON WIRES AND IN FREE SPACE

Connecting a sinewave generator to parallel conductors of length greater than the wavelength,
h, results in the generation of a wave along the length of the conductors. Parallel conductors
can be considered chains of small inductors in series and small capacitors in parallel. We thus
expect a delay in the transmission of voltage down the length of the conductors. The wave
profile is shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8 Distribution of charge and waves on parallel plates.

The distance between the crests of the sinewave is called the wavelength, h. If the wave
moves down a conductor so that the time between successive crests is 1, then the velocity of
the wave is
v = -h
l
The frequency is given by
Hence,
v = hf
The velocity of a wave infree spaceor air is a constant 3.0 X lo8 m/s, andthe relationship
between frequency and wavelength is
300
f [MHz] = -
h [In1
300
h [m] = ___
.f [MHz1
The velocity for a medium is given by
1
%4LEEr
where
p = permeability of free space = 47c X lo" [H/m] = 1.25 [pH/m]
p, = relative permeability
E = dielectric constant of free space = 11367~X 10" = 8.84 [pF/m]
E, = relative permittivity
The wave velocity of a transmission line is given by
1
where
L = inductance of the line per unit length
C = capacitance per unit length
Figure 2.8 shows the distribution of charge in the form of electric lines of force. Lines
of force are considered to be tangential to the electric field E . Clusters of dense lines of force
exist where the charge density is high, and in the next cluster the lines of force are oppositely
directed. Loops of current are also present, formed partly on the conductors and partly in the
space between the plates.
Thus a magnetic field is present around the parallel plates. The current flow in the space
between the conductors is named the displacement current, and, as we shall see in Section
7.6.3.1, it is important when considering the common mode current on a line. The open circuit
28 Chapter 2
Figure 2.9 Linesofforcearounddivergentconductors.
transmission line of Figure 2.8 results in standing waves along the length of the line, due to
reflection of the wave arriving at the end of the line. If the conductors are not parallel but rather
divergent, then the lines of force are as shown in Figure 2.9.
2.2.1 Radiation
The dipole antennadepicted in Figure 2.10 is said to be short, because charge reaches the ends
of the antenna in much less than a period; expressed differently, the length of the antenna is
much less than a wavelength. The current flow in conductors of the two-wire transmission line
driving the antenna are of the same magnitude but 180" out of phase, and standing waves are
created on the transmission line. When the length of the antenna is less than the wavelength,
the standing wave current along the length of each arm of the antenna is in phase and the fields
radiated from both arms will reinforce. As the discharge begins, the lines of force diminish and
after a half period are atzero.Duringthisperiod,the lines of forcereachingout to P are
H
4
Figure 2.10 Detached lines of force around a short dipole antenna.

E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 29
cancelled; however, a fraction of the lines of force spread out to Q, and this cluster of lines
becomes detached at the end of the first half-period. The cluster of lines of force move on, and
new lines of force take their place. The width of the configuration of lines remains h / 2 , with
the area over which the lines of force spread increasing with increasing distance I’ from the
antenna. The area can be proven to equal nhr..
In accordance with our conception of lines of force, the density of the lines of force is
proportional to the electric intensity. The number of lines of force issuing from the antenna is
proportional to the charge and, therefore, to the current in the generator. The fraction of the
lines of force detachedfrom the antenna is proportional to the length 21 of the antenna. Magnetic
and electric fields exist in the equatorial plane of the antenna (Figure 2.10). 111 the equatorial
plane, the magnetic field, in amps per meter, is proportional to
211
xhr
The radial electric field is the field that has the same direction as the static or quasi-static
field, and it is given, in volts per meter, by
211
4n1.2
and therefore diminishes as a function of l / r 2 with distance I’.The electric field in the meridian
(i.e., in the plane of the antenna arms) is given by
?!!?h
cos 6
nhI’
where 8 is the angle between the direction of the antenna arm and the measuring point.
The ratio of EIH has the dimension of an impedance and is often referred to as the wave
impedance, Zl,., used in the precedingexpression. The electricintensity E and the magnetic
intensity H in free space take the place of the voltage and current at the terminals of a circuit.
Therefore, E = ZuH and H = EIZ,l,.
The physical dimensions of E and H are those of voltage and current per unit length. The
ratio of EIH is dependent on the proximity of the wave to the source of emission. Very close
to the source, where the field contains radial components, it is called the indrrcriorlfield. Further
away, where some field conlponents decrease as 1 / r 3 ,it is called the$-esnel regiotz. Still further
from the source, where the fields fall off as I/r, it is called the fnr$eld or,fi.crurdzofeffer. ~ ‘’c’1011.
h’
The fields in the fresnel and fraunhoffer regions both radiate. At low frequency and in close
proximity to the dipole antenna, the reactive or quasi-static field exists and does not r ad‘late.
The distances at which far-field conditions occur are dependent, among other factors, on
the size of the antenna. Where the size D of an antenna is less than h / 2 , then the near-field/
far-field interface distance is defined as
I ’ = -h (2.8)
2n
where D > h / 2 n , the interface distance is I’ = D / 2 n .
This definition is useful i n EMC because it describes the distance at which the magnetic
and electric fields from an electric current element or current loop begin to rcduce as a function
of I/r. When D is much less than h/2n,the antenna approximates a point source, and the phase
is a function of the distance I‘ from the source. When the dimension D approaches h/2n, a
correction for phase error may be made, as describedin Section 2.2.2. The phase error expressed,
30 Chapter 2
in degrees, can be defined as the difference in the following path lengths: between the closest
point of the antenna to the measuring point and the furthest pointof the antenna to the measuring
point.
For a high-gain antenna, the interface distance is often considered to be
40'
r>-
h
at which distance the phase error is less than 22.5". For the equation to be useful, the aperture
dimension of the antenna, D,should be largecompared tothe wavelength. In the far-field region,
Z,,. is equal to the intrinsic impedance of free space, which is commonly expressed as either
(R,.Z,,n or p ) .
The intrinsic impedance of free space is equal to
which is 376.7 R, or very nearly 120n or 377 R. As we have seen, p,, is thepermeability
'
of free space (4n X 10 [H/m]) and E,,is the dielectric constant of free space (1/36n X IO"
[F/m]).
At large distances from a short antenna, phase differences can be ignored and the resultant
field can be termed a plane w w e with an electric field intensity proportional to
2(377)Il
nhr
For a plane wave, the electric and magnetic field intensities in free space are always in
phase and perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. Often the electric
wavefrom an antenna is more complex withregard to phase and doubly so in the near or
induction field of an antenna.
In problems of EMC, unintentional sources of electromagnetic emissions are primarily
from current loops or current elements, whether from PCB tracks, intraunit, interunit, or system
wiring and cables. Thus we shall concentrate on fields from current loops and current elements
and in the current induced into loops and short lengths of conductor by electromagnetic fields.
2.2.2 Current ElementsasRadiators

A current elernerzt is defined, for the purpose of EMC, as an electrically short length (i.e., l <
h) of current-carrying conductor connected to the current source at one end and disconnected,
or at least connected via a high impedance, from ground at the other end. Strictly, the current
source should be disconnected from ground at both ends. The practical use of an isolated wire
to which no generator or return current path is connected as a model in EMC predictions may
appear extremely limited. However, a practical example is in the modeling of a shielded cable
on the center conductor of which a current flows and returns on the inside of the shield. In our
example, the shielded cable is connected to a well-shielded enclosure at each end. If the shield
of the cable is not perfect, then some small fraction of the current flowing on the inside of the
shield will diffuse through the shield to the outside. If the length of the cable is less than the
wavelength, h, then the current flow on the outside of the shield will reduce to zero at the ter-
mination with the enclosures at both ends and remain relatively constant over the length of the
cable.
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 31
For certain cable and measuring distance configurations, discussed later,the electric cur-
rent element model may be used with either one or both ends connected to a return path. In
addition, the electric current element model is strictly valid when the distance from a plane
conductor or ground plane is much greater than the wavelength. When the proximity is closer,
the current element equations may be used and corrected forthe effect of reflections in the plane
conductor, as discussed in Section 9.3.2. When the proximityof the ground plane is much less
than the wavelength, h, and the length of the current element is equalto or greater than h, then
the equation for radiation from a transmission line contained in Section 7.6 is applicable.
The currenton a current element is assumed to be constant overits length. When applying
the formulae for the current element to an electrically short length of wire or cable (i.e., I <
0.11) disconnected from groundat both ends, then the current distribution is as shown in Figure
2.1 la, and the electromagnetic radiation fromthe short wire is approximately half of the value
of the current element. The current distribution for length a of wire which is resonant (i.e., l =
0.5h) is sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 2.1 lb, and the radiation is approximately 0.64 that of
the current element. A more accurate approach that is particularly useful when the length of
the wire is greater than the wavelength, as shown in Figure 2.1 IC, is to break up the wire into
a number of current elements and compute the compositefield from all sources. If the distance
from the wire, at which the magnitudeof the field is required, is much closer than thewavelength,
then the current element equationsmay be used with no correction, because the contribution to
the total field from the current elementsat some distance fromthe point of calculation is negligi-
bly small. Even where the wire is terminated at one or both ends, the current element equation
(a) I = 0.1 h
(b) I = 0.5h
II
I
I
(c) l = 1.5 L
Figure 2.11 Current distribution on a wire of length 1.

32 Chapter 2
may still be used at close proximity, as long as the return current path is at a large electrical
distancefromthe wire. If, as oftenhappens, the returnpath is in close proximity, then the
formulae for fields from either a transmission line or a current loop, whichever is applicable,
should be used. In calculating the field strength, the magnitude of the current flow on the wire
must be known. The current may be calculated; however, a simpler approach is to measure by
means of a current probe.
Thus we see from the foregoing discussion that the current element, as a model, has more
practical applications than may at first be realized.
2.2.3 CurrentLoops
The current loop is a valuable model for use in predicting radiation and coupling. The cable
connecting two units in a rack or two units mounted one upon the other often forms a loop.
Likewise, where a cable is routed along the ground or in a cable tray and then is connected to
equipment, a loop is often formed. The wiring inside an enclosure (or the tracks on a printed
circuit board, PCB) often takes the shape of a loop. Another use of the current loop model is
in the design of a simple antenna, which may be constructed and used as either a source of, or
to measure, magnetic fields.
2.2.4 SphericalWaves
To understand spherical waves (i.e., those present close to an antenna or an electric current
element or loop), we shall use thespherical coordinate system.Figure 2.12 shows the field
vector around an electric current element, sometimes referred to as an ir$finiresirnal dipole. The
simplified field equations for a nondissipative medium such as air are
Figure 2.12 Fieldvectoraroundelectriccurrentelement.

(2.10)
(2.11)
Expressed as magnitudes, these become
JEel = 377 2hr {l - (2)

47c?r? (2.12)
(2.13)
IE,.I = 377 (2.14)

(2nr)-
In the far field of the electric current element, where we assume rlh >> n/2, and using
the intrinsic impedance of free space (377) for Z,,, the field equations simplify to
(2.15)
H,, =j
(
;L)
~ sin 8 (2.16)
I
E, = 60 4
r-
cos 8 (2.17)
In the far field it can be seen that Ee and H , are the predominant radiation components, with
E,. as the induction (or reactive) componentthat soon decays at large distances from the current
element.
The open-circuit voltage induced in the loop is
V,,,, = -j2nj p J J (2.18)
where
p,,= permeability or inductivity of air or vacuum, 4n X 10 .’[H/m]

S = area of the loop
p , , H , = B = flux density
34 Chapter 2
/
\
/ v
/X
Figure 2.1 3 Field vector arounda current loop depicts a small
loop with a current elementat position P,,.
The value of H, can be found from the currentI flowing in the current elementat position
P,, in Figure 2.13 and from Eqs. (2.10) and (2.18) as follows:
(2.19)
where p = 2 d h . As a magnitude, this is
(2.20)
2.2.5 Receiving Properties of a Loop

From Eq. (2.18), the receiving properties of the loop can be expressed as
27~Zb"HeSCOS 0 -
-
27cE,S COS 0
V = 2nfp,,HeS cos 0 = (2.21)
h h
where 0 is the angle between the normal, or perpendicular, to the plane of the loop and the
magnetic intensity He, as shown in Figure 2.13.
Equation (2.21) gives the open-circuit receiving properties of a loop. The impedance of
the loop and the impedance across which the voltage is developed must be accounted for when
predicting either the voltage developed across the load or the current flowing in the loop. In
Chapter 7, on cable coupling, the EM1 voltage induced in a loop formed by a wire or cable by
a field is examined further.
The inductance of a loop of wire or a wire above a ground plane, which forms a loop
with its electromagnetic image in the ground plane, is given by
r l
/ln- 2h' + h In (2.22)

a(l + d ) a(h + d)
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 35
The impedance of the loop and load as a magnitude is
z= d(Z,? + 27cfl2)
With current applied to the loop and assuming even current distribution around the loop
(i.e., S <
< h), the field components at any point around the loop can be found from
(2.23)
(2.24)
(2.25)
Expressed as magnitudes, these become
(2.26)
(2.27)
(2.28)
These equations areuseful in computing the fields generated by acurrent loop in the
induction field, in the near field, and in the far field. For example, Eq. (2.28) may be used to
obtain the approximate value of the radial inductiodnear field when the radius of the loop is
less than the measuring distance. Equation (2.28) should always be used when the measuring
distance is greater than six times the radius of the loop. At low frequencies and for distances
closer than the radius of the loop, Eq. (2.7) or (1 l.l), which provides the DC or quasi-static
radial field, should be used.
In order to examine the ratio between E and H fields generated by a loop, as shown in
Figure 2.13, the values of E and H fields from a 0.01-m circular loop with a generator current
36 Chapter 2
Figure 2.14 E and H fields vs. distance.
of 1 mA at 10 MHz is plotted against distance from the loop in Figure 2.14. In Figure 2.16 the
ratio EIH (i.e., the wave impedance) has been plotted. It can be seen that the near-fieldlfar-
field interface for the small current loop is at approximately 4 m, which corresponds well with
the definition of h/2n = 30 ml6.28 = 4.7 m. The wave impedance for the small current loop
is given by
z,,.= z,2nr
__ 5 377 n
h
(2.29)
(e.g., at 0.1 m, Zuj = 7.9, and this is called a rn(Ipetic or low-inll,edrrrzce~eld).

Also, from Figures 2.14 and 2.15 it can be seen that in the near field, H , reduces as a
function of l l r ' , as does H,, whereas E , reduces as a function of l l r ' (where r = distance).
Had we been examining a small dipole or current element (i.e., 1 << h), then Eo would have
followed a l l r ' law with distance and H , a l / r 2 .The wave impedance would then equal
Zn = Q2 377 n (2.30)
2nr
and the field is then called an electric or h i ~ h - i n l ~ e d ( r n c e ~Ite lappears
d. from Figure 2.16 that
the wave impedance increases above 377 close to the hl2n transition zone, which is not true.
Instead a transition zone exists, and the (I/r:)-to-(l/r)- and the (l/r')-to-(l/r) transitions are
not abrupt. Numerous measurements on a single current-carrying cable and on multiple cables
located on a nonconductive table 1 m above the floor in a shielded room have confirmed that
the current element is the correct model for the cable configuration. The measurements have
also shown that the transition zone exists. It has been seen from a number of the measurements
that the circumferential magnetic field H , from a cable reduces approximately as a function of
llr' up to a certain distance, thereafter reducingby l l r ' . 5up to a certain distance, and thereafter
reducing by Ilr.
1.O'E+OO
1.0 E-02
1.0 E-04
0)
22
1.0 E-06
i
1.0 E-08
1.0 E-10
1.0 E-12
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Distance [m]
He and H , vs. distance.
Chapter 9 and Section 9.3.2 discuss measurement techniques and compare predictions,
based on cable current magnitude, to measured levels and reduction with distance.
2.26, 2.27, and 2.28 are valid when the loop is electrically small (i.e., the perimeter is much
less than the wavelength).
For a large loop, where the perimeter approaches one-half the wavelength, s t a n ~ n gwaves
1.0 E-t-03
t
- 1.0 E+O2
z
-c,
iD
Y.
a,
0
%
73
1.0 E+01
a,
i?-
I_
a,
>
9 1.0 E-00
Wave impedance vs. distance.

38 Chapter 2
Figure 2.17a Radiationpatternfor a small loop: E,, P < O.lh.
are generated on the loop and the current is no longer constant around the loop. At frequencies
where the ratio Plh, where P is the perimeter of the loop, in meters is 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, . . . , the
loop exhibits the characteristics of a parallel resonant circuit (termed an antiresonance), and
the input current and radiation from the loop are greatly reduced.
At frequencies where the ratio P l h is 1, 2, 3, . . . , the loop behaves as a series resonant
circuit, and the current is limited only by the DC and radiation resistance.
The input impedance of the loop isa minimum at resonance and a maximum atan antireso-
nance. For example, when the circumference of the loop P is equal to h, the input impedance
is approximately 100 R, and when P = 2h, the input impedance is approximately 180 R. At
the first antiresonance, when P = OSh, the input impedance is approximately 10 kR; and when
P = l.%, the input impedance is from 500 R to 4000 R, depending on the ratio of the radius
of the loop to the radius of the conductor.
In addition, the radiation pattern changes, with reduced radiation from the plane of the
large loop and maximum radiation from the plane of the small loop; these are the E, field of
Figure 2.13. Figures 2.17a and 2.17b illustrate the E, radiation pattern for the small loop and
Figure 2.17b Radiationpatternfor a large loop, E,, P = h.

Figure 2 . 1 7 ~ Radiation pattern for a large loop, Eo, P = h.
the large loop, where P = O.lh and h, respectively. With the large loop in addition to the E,
field, which is small in the vertical plane, a second component E,, which has a maximum value
in the vertical plane and is zero in the horizontal plane, is generated. Figure 2 . 1 7 ~shows the
radiation pattern for the Eo field. The directivity in the vertical plane (at 90" to the plane of
the loop, where 8 = 0) with sinusoidal current distribution around it is provided in Table 2.1.
The power gain of the loop, when the ratioof the radius of the loop to the radius of the conductor
is 30, is 1.14 when P = 0.6h and 3.53 when P = 1.21.
The radiation resistance of the large loop, comparedto 3 1,200 (xa2lh2)'for a small circular
or rectangular loop, is shown in Figure 2.18 from Ref. 5.
2.2.6 Far-Field Radiation from a Twisted Wire Pair

The EMC literature contains a model for the prediction of radiation from a twisted pair based
on the model of a helix described in Ref. 5. For a helix whose dimensions are much less than the
wavelength, the radiation is primarily from the sides of the helix, and the axial-mode radiationis
at a minimum.
Table 2.1 Directivity of the Eu

Field for a Large Loop
Plh Directivity
0.2 0.7
0.4 0.9
0.6 1.12
0.8 1.3
1.o 1.S
1.2 1S 8
1.4 1.67
1.6 1S 8
1.8 1.25
2.0 0.75
40 Chapter 2
Radiation resistance with sinusoidal current
obu
Figure 2.18 Radiationresistance of largeloop.
The helix may be modeled as a series of small current loops and current elements, as
shown in Figure 2.19a, and this model may be of use in an EMC prediction where a single wire
takes the form of a helix. In this case, the far-field radiation is found from the sum of the loop
and element sources. The physical layout of a twisted pair is shown in Figure 2.19b, from which
it is seen that the twisted pair forms a bifilar helix in which both helices are identical but dis-
placed in position axially down the length of the pair. The axial displacement is determined by
the distance between the two wires. An important parameter in controlling the radiation from
the pair is the distance between the wires and the pitchof the twist. Decreasing both the distance
and the pitch will decrease the radiation. For commercially available twisted-pair wire made
up as a cable, the distance between the two wires is approximately 0.3 cm, and the pitch is
from 3.8 to 4.4 cm. The current elements in the equivalent circuit are therefore longer than the
diameter of the loops in this practical example.
Because the two helices are axially in the same plane and the current flow is in opposite
directions, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Figure 2.1%. Assuming an even number of
twists with the total length of the pair less than 0.5h, we may see from the equivalent circuit
Figure 2.19a Equivalent circuit of a helix comprised of current elements and current loops.
d distance
pitch
L #l
X 2 #2
Figure 2.19b Physical layout of a twisted wire pair illustrahng the bifilar helix form of the cable.
Figure 2 . 1 9 ~ Equivalent circuit of a twisted pair.

42 Chapter 2
that the fields from thecurrent elements and current loops tend to cancel at aconsiderable
distance from the source. This is not surprising, based on the physical layout of the pair. Mea-
surements from a twisted pair have confirmed that the far-field radiation is lower than for an
untwisted pair.
Where the total length of the twisted-pair line is greater than 0.51, the current flow in the
two wires changes direction at some point down the length of the pair, and the cancellation of
fields from the loops and elements is not as complete. In the limiting case where the pitch is
equal to the wavelength, the axial radiation from two adjacent loops and current elements tends
to add, and the level of radiation is higher than for an untwisted-pair cable. This occurs for the
majority of twisted pairs in the gigahertz frequency range, whichis typically, but not exclusively,
above the frequency of emissions from unintentional sources, such as logic and converters.
The major source of radiation from the twisted pair is not from loops and elements but
from the common-mode current, which inevitably flows on both conductors of the cable. One
source of common-mode current is displacement current, which flows in the space between the
two conductors; this source, along with others, is discussed in Section 7.6.
Likewise, when a field cuts a twisted-pair cable, the induced differential-mode currents
are at a relatively low magnitude, whereas the common-mode current is identical to that of an
untwisted pair. Calculations for differential-mode voltage and common-mode current flow re-
sulting from an incident field and the effect of unbalanced input impedance onthe noise voltage
developed are discussed in subsequent chapters.
2.3 RADIATED POWER

In addition to E and H fields, we may consider antenna transmitted and received power. Radiated
power is defined as the average power flow per unit area and is expressed in watts per square
meter. In a perfect, lossless, isotropic antenna, the power is radiated equally in all directions
and must pass through every sphere of space. The relationship between the power and the E
and H fields is given by the Poynting vector cross-product
; = E X f i
The Poynting vector is merely a convenient methodof expressing the movementof electro-
magnetic energy from one location in space to another, and it is not rigorous in every instance
when applied to antennas. It has been shown that in the far field, the ratio EIH is a constant
and istermed the wave impedance. In the far field, the E and H fields are mutually perpendicular
and perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Therefore,
Because the E and H fields each decay by the factor l l r in the far field, the power decays
by the factor Ilr' and the radiated power is then
(2.33)
The 1/47cr2term may be visualized by considering the power flow as spreading out from
the source in the form of a sphere. If the radiation pattern were truly in the shape of a sphere,
then the source would be an isotropic radiator. No practical antenna is an isotropic radiator; the
least directive radiator is a current element and a current loop, both of which have the same
radiation pattern.
E and H, Fields, Radiators, Receptors,
Antennas
and 43
The antenna gain is a measure of the “directivity” of the antenna. In antenna terminology,
the term directivity is reserved to describe the ratio of power at beam peak, assuming no losses,
to the power level realized with thesame input power radiated isotropically. Where ohmiclosses
in the antenna are low and cable/antenna impedances are matched, the directivity D and the
gain G are virtually the same. The gain is defined as the ratio
4l.t W,,,,,
p,,,
where P , , is the antenna input power. The gain of the perfect isotropic antenna is thus1. Neither
the equation forradiated power nor that for antenna gain is valid in the near field of the antenna.
The received power of a receiving antenna is likewise not constant in the near field nor equal
to the gain in the far field, because near-field contributions radiating from the antenna, which
would be in phasein the far field, can cancel in the near field. The radiated power at a distance
r from an antenna with gain G is given by
(2.34)
The input voltage to the antenna for a given input power is
where R,, is the antenna input or radiation resistance.

The E field generated by the antenna, using V,, and assuming the antenna input impedance
is 50 R and equals the radiation resistance, is given by
E = V!,, (2.35)
r.\j628/Z,VG
where r is the distance from the antenna, in meters.
The radiation resistance is defined as that part of the antenna impedance that contributes
to the power radiated by an antenna. In the case of a resonant antenna, such as a dipole, the
antenna input impedance equals the radiation resistance. For the tuned dipole, the input imped-
ance equals 70-73 Q, and for a tuned monopole it equals 30-36 Q, depending on the radius
of the conductors used and assuming the conductor radius is small compared to the antenna
length. We use the term tuned to denote that the antenna length has been adjusted so that the
antenna is resonant at the frequency of interest.
For an electrically small dipole or monopole antenna, where1, which is the length of one
arm, is much less than h / 4 , the input impedance is predominantly capacitive and is higher than
the resonant value. The radiation resistance is then only a small fraction of the input impedance.
The effective area of an antenna (A(,)is defined as the ratio of the power received at the
antenna load resistance (P,.) to the power per unit area of incident wave (Wj. If the antenna
impedance is matched to the load impedance, then P , = WA,,.
The effective capture area, or aperture, of a receiving antenna (A‘,)is dependent on the
actual area and efficiency of the antenna. The physical area of a rectangular-aperture antenna,
such as the horn antenna, is the length times the width. For a circular antenna, such as a dish,
the area is nr’. The effective aperture is the physical aperture times the aperture efficiency, q(,.
For example, q o is approximately 0.5 for a dish antenna. The effective area can be expressed
in terms of gain, thus
44 Chapter 2
(2.36a)
so
G = -4nAC WGh'
and P , = __
h? 4n
The h'14n term does not imply that with increasing frequency, waves decrease in magnitude.
It means that at higher frequency, the area over which a given power flow occurs is smaller.
The equation for gain must also include a correction for losses. In the specified aperture
efficiency for an antenna, losses due to reflections caused by a mismatch between the transmis-
sion line driving the input terminals of the antenna and the antenna input impedance should be
included. Where aperture efficiency or realized gain is not specified and Eq. (2.36) is used to
determine the gain of an antenna, any loss due to transmission-line-to-antenna impedance mis-
match must be calculated to arrive at the realized gain (Grc).G,, equals G X L, where L is the
loss. The loss may be found from the transmission linelantenna reflection coefficient, K, using
= 1 - K?:
(2.36b)
where
Z,,=, antenna input impedance

Z,, = impedance of the transmission line connected to the antenna
For two antennasin free space in the far-field region, both polarization matchedand ignor-
ing losses in cables baluns and due to impedance mismatch, the received power is given by
combining Eq. (2.34) for transmitted power, using the antenna input power, with the equation
for received power (Eq. 2.36a), which gives
P,. = p )
(3) (2.37)
which may be simplified to Eq. (2.38):
(2.38)
where
P , = received power at the input of the receiving device

P,, = input power to transmitting antenna
G, = gain of transmitting antenna
G, = gain of receiving antenna
If we express the received power in dbW and the antenna gains in decibels, then Eq.
(2.38) is
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 45
(2.39)
The received power is readily converted to voltage at the input of the receiver when the
receiverinputimpedance is known(assuming the cable impedancematches the terminating
impedance) by V = d e .The power equation is useful in calculating free-space propagation
loss in the basic antenna-to-antenna EMC prediction. For this prediction, additional factors due
to the unintentional nature of the coupling have to be accounted for. Some of these additional
factors, which are discussed in Chapter IO, are:
Non line-of-sight coupling
Antenna polarization and alignment losses
Intervening atmospheric effects
Frequency misalignment losses
2.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The unit dBW was used to describe power; the following are some definitions of commonly
used units.
dB: The decibel (dB) is a dimensionless number that expresses the ratio of two power
levels. It is defined as
P?
dB = I O log L
PI
The two power levels are relative to each other. If power level P ? is higher than P , , then
dB is positive; vice versa, dB is negative. Since
p = -V ?
R
when voltages are measured across the same or equal resistors, the number of decibels is
given by
V?
dB = 20 log L
v,
A rigid voltage definition of dB has no meaning unless the two voltages under consideration
appear across equal impedances. Thus above some frequency where the impedance of wave-
guides varies with frequency, the decibel calibration is limited to power levels only.
dBW: The decibel above 1 W (dBW) isa measure forexpressing power level with respect
to a reference power level P , of 1 W. Similarly, if the power level P ? is lower than
1 W, the dBW is negative.
dBm: The decibel above 1 mW in 50 Q. dBm = 1 mW = 225 mV (i.e., 225 mV?/50 =
1 mW). Since the power level in receivers is usually low, dBm is a useful measure
of low power.
dB pV: The decibel above 1 yV is a dimensionless voltage ratio in decibels referred to
a reference voltage of 1 pV and is a commonly used measure of EM1 voltage.
pV/m: Microvolts per meter are units used in expressing the electric field intensity.
dB pV/m: The decibel above 1 yV/m (dB yV/m) is also used for field intensity measure-
ment.
46 Chapter 2
pV/m/MHz: The microvolt per meter per megahertz is a broadband field intensity mea-
surement.
dB p,V/m/MHz: The decibel above 1 pV/m/MHz.
pV/MHz: Microvolts per megahertz are units of broadband voltage distribution in the
frequency domain. The use of this unit is based on the assumption that the voltage
is evenly distributed over the bandwidth of interest.
The following log relationships, whichhave been used in this chapter to convert magnitude
to decibels, are useful to remember:
log(AB) = log A + log B
log(A") = n log A
Appendices 2 and 3 show theconversionbetweenelectric fields, magnetic fields, and

power densities.
2.5 RECEIVING PROPERTIES OF AN ANTENNA

In accordance with the reciprocity theorem, certain characteristics of a receiving antenna, such
as pattern shape and return loss, remain the same when the antenna is used for transmitting.
Likewise, the power transfer between two antennas, not necessarily identical, is the same regard-
less of which is transmitting and which receiving. One important consideration when applying
the reciprocity theorem is that it applies to the terminals to which the voltage is applied in the
case of the source, and to the terminals to which the voltage is measured in the case of the
receptor. The pattern of power reradiated by a receiving antenna is different from its radiation
when used asatransmittingantenna. In problems of EM1 it is oftenthecurrent flow on a
structure, cable, orwire that is required, and it should be remembered that the current distribution
on a radiating structure is often different from that on the receptor structure, even when both
structures are identical, and the power level most certainly is. An explanation for the coupling
of an E field to a wire receiving antenna follows.
A field incident on the receiving antenna is assumed to have an angle of incidence that
results in a voltage developed across the terminals of the antenna. This open circuit voltage V
is proportional to the effective height, sometimes referred to asthe effective length, of the
antenna, which is seldom equal to thephysicalheight of the antenna; thus, V = h,,,E. For
aperture antennas, the ratio between the power developed in the antenna load and the incident
power is known as the effective aperture of the antenna.
When the antenna input impedance equals the load impedance, a division of 2 occurs in
the antenna received voltage. When the antenna impedance is greater than the load impedance,
the voltage division is greater than 2. The loss due to antenna/load impedance mismatch is
accounted for in the equation for the gain of the antenna, which is a term in the equation for h,,,..
A second potential source of loss is due to a mismatch between the wave impedance and
the radiation resistance of the antenna, and this is accounted for in determining the effective
height of the antenna. The physical length of the wire antennaand the wavelength of the incident
field both determine the radiation resistance and, therefore, the voltage developed.
E and H, Fields, Radiators,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 47
2.5.1 Conversion of Power Density to Electric Field Intensity

For EM1 measurements, the value of E and H field intensity is normally required, and itis
possible to find these intensities from the power density at some distance from the source. To
convert from power density Pd in the far field to electric field intensity at the measuring point:
p , = -E' [~/m?] (2.40)

2,"
and
E = dz,pd = d377p,, (2.41)
2.5.2 Conversion of Power Density to Electric Field Intensity in Terms

of Antenna Gain
A receiving antenna is oftenused in EM1 as a measuring device tofind either the power density
or the incident E field. The power density may be found from the received power developed
in the antenna load resistance using Eq. (2.23):
(2.42)
where
P,, = power density at the receiving antenna
P, = power into the receiver
G, = gain of the receiving antenna
The value of the E field may be found from the power density using P,, = E'/Z,; the E-
field-to-power relationshipis then E = dmv. Using Eq. (2.42) for P,, and assuming Zu = 377
Q, the electric field intensity E in the far field is given by Eq. (2.24):
(2.43)
Assuming the field intensity measuring instrument has an input impedance of 50 Q and
V is the voltage measured by the instrument, P , can be found from
p = -V2
50
Then E can be expressed as
2.5.3AntennaFactor
Antenna factor AF orK is an important calibration term; it defined
is as the ratio of the electric
field to the voltage developed across the load impedance of the measuring antenna, as follows:
48 Chapter 2
E
AF = - (2.45)
V
where
AF = antenna factor numeric
E = field strength, in voltslmeter
V = voltage developed across the load
The voltage developed is given by
(2.46)
Thus for an antenna where Z,,, = 50 Q V = E11,,~12.For a resonant dipole where Z,,, =
72 Q, V = Eh,,,/2.46; and for a resonant monopole, Z,,, = 42 Q, V = Ehc,,II.84. Theequation
for h,,, is
(2.47)
where
Gh?
A,,,,,, = maximum effective aperture = ~
4rt
= 0.135h' for a resonant dipole
= 0.1 19h' for a small dipole (2.48)
Z,, = wave impedance
R, = radiation resistance
At resonance, the radiation resistance equals the antenna impedance. For a short dipole,
from Ref. 5,
R, = 197 (F) ?
And for a monopole,
197 (2Hlh)'
R, =
2
H is the physical height of one arm of the dipole or of the rod of the monopole. The gain in
Eq. (2.48) must include the loss correction for any Zan,-to-ZL impedance mismatch.This is true
when Z;,,, is higher than Z!,. However, when the load impedance is higher than theantenna
impedance, the voltage developed across the load is either the same magnitude or higher than
when Z,,, and ZI are matched, even though reflections occur. In determining the AF, it is the
ratio EIV that is of interest and not reflected power. Therefore when the load impedance is
higher than the antenna impedance, K (given by Eq. 2.36b) is set to zero, the loss is zero, and
the gain is unchanged.
+
The Z,,,, ZI. term is included in both Eq. (2.46) for V and Eq. (2.47) for h , f f , and thus
Eq. (2.47) may be expressed as
E and H, Fields, Radiators, Receptors,
Antennas
and 49
(2.49)
Assuming the antenna is matched to the terminating impedance,
(2.50)
In some textbooks, either the antenna-to-load mismatch is ignored or an unterminated

antenna is examined, in which case V = h,,,-E.Assuming R,. = Z,,,,= Z,,,,,, (i.e., impedance of
the antenna termination), for a dipole,
(2.51)
=,50 R and Z,,, = 377 Q,

Thus for Z,,,
h.jG
h,,, = __ (2.52)
4.87
For a monopole, the effective height is half the value given by Eqs. (2.51) and (2.52).
Using Eqs. (2.44), (2.46),
and (2.52) for antenna factor and antenna height gives us
(2.53)
Expressed in decibels this is
and, from Eq. (2.53),
or
The relationship between AF and frequency is plotted in Figure 2.20a for a number of
constant-gain antennas. One example of a constant-gain antenna is the half-wave tuned resonant
dipole in which the physical length of the anns are adjusted to ensure that the total length of
both arms is nearly h/2.
For example. the effective height of a half-wave dipole is given by
h
h,,-,-= -
n
50 Chapter
Figure 2.20a AF versus f for constant-gain antennas.
For a monopole, it is
h
h,,, = ~
2n
where h is thephysicalheight of both arms of the antenna = h12 in freespace (assuming

sinusoidal current distribution and an unterminated antenna).
When the physical height of an antenna is much smaller than h12, the current distribution
is not sinusoidal but rather of a triangular shape, with maximum current at the center and zero
current at either end, and the effective height is one-half of the physical length of both arms of
the dipole. For a monopole, h,,, is one-half of the physical length of the monopole rod.
For a true electric current element or infinitesimal dipole, h,,, = h . An equation that may
be used when the physical length of the antenna is not h12 but is approaching this length is
(2.54)
where
H = PI1 = 2 ~ t h I h
h = physical length of the dipole antennaor the length of the rod of the monopole antenna
H,,, for the monopole is one-half the value given by Eq. (2.54).The foregoing values of
h,,,for nonterminated antennas donot include losses due to impedance mismatch, so Eq. (2.47),
using gain andmaximumeffective area, has a moregeneralapplication,especially in EMC
prediction.
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 51
Consider the following example: At 100 MHz, the effective height of a half-wave dipole
is 3 mU.142 = 0.955.FromEqs. (2.45) and (2.46). andassuming far-field conditionsand
Z,,,,,, = 50 R and R , = Z:,,,,= 70 R,
24
AF = L- = 2.5
/L.!!
which, expressed in decibels, is8 dB. Figure 2.20b shows AF versus frequency for a h12 dipole;
here the loss from the mismatch between the antenna impedance (70 R) and the terminating
impedance (50 R) has been included. Manufacturers of antennas designed for EM1 measure-
ments usually publish gain and AF figures, whereas antennas designed for communications are
typically supplied with gain calibration figures only. The antenna factor graphs published by
manufacturers of broadband antennas are measured either on an open field site or in a semi-
anechoic chamber. In either case, the results have been corrected for the effects caused by the
reflection from the ground or the floor of the chamber. However, should the antenna then be
used in ashielded room, as recommended in MIL STD 462 EMC test methods,where the
antenna is positioned 1 m away from the equipment under test (EUT) and the ground plane,
then the actual antenna factor can be greatly different from the published figures. This error is
caused primarily by reflections from ceiling, walls, and floor, standing waves in the shielded
room, and capacitive loading on the antenna due to ground plane proximity. Section 9.5.1 in-
cludes a description of techniques available to reduce these errors.
Where large standing waves exist, the ratio of E to H fields may vary from nearly zero
to very high values (theoretically from zero to infinity), depending on the region (enclosure or
cavity). In practice, the value of magnetic field measured in a shielded room is more constant
than the E field.
One method of measuring the antenna factor is to use two identical antennas in the test
setup shown in Figure 2.2 I . Two paths for the received voltage are obtained, one directly via
the matching network into50 R ( V5,1d,r)and the second the radiated path ( V5,1rdll).
For two identical
antennas, where G, = G r ,and using Eq. (2.37), the product of the two gains is given by
40 I I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1
30
I? where f = frequency In MHz
LL
Q AF [dB] = 20 log AF
L- 20 G = 1.69
0
c
2
LL
2
C
10
a,
L
2
0
-10 I I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1
20 50 100 200 500 1000
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 2.20b AF versus f for a h/2 dipole and a 50-R receiver

52 Chapter 2
Receiving Transmitting
RECEIVER OR
SPECTRUM
TRANSMITTER. ANALYZER
z ouf E 50R Cable Zin 5oR
Connector
Figure 2.21 Test setup for the two-antenna method of determining AF. (From Ref. 20.)
where
P,,,, = radiated power measured by the receiver
P,,,, = power measured by direct connection
Because G, = G,, the antenna realized gain, G,,, is
Now
P,,,, vd,r(m'
where P(S0) is the power into SO R and V(S0)is the voltage developed across 50 R. Therefore,
and from Eq. (2.29),
If this calibration is conducted in a shielded room where subsequent EM1 measurements

are to be made and the receiving antenna is located at a fixed and marked location, which is
then used for subsequent measurements, then the measured AF will have compensated, to a
large extent, for the errors caused by reflections inherent i n the test location.
Because the realized gain has been determined using this method,no further compensation
due to wave-impedance-to-load-impedance mismatch is required and the near-field AF for the
antenna may be obtained. It is therefore important that the distance between the two antennas,
used in obtaining the AF, be duplicated when using the calibrated antenna for EM1 measure-
ments, for at different distances the AF calibration is not valid. Any loss due to the mismatch
between the antenna impedance and load is also included in the measured Grc.It is important
to ensure that the generator is able to produce the same voltage across the antenna impedance
as across the 5042 load. When this is not the case, and the reason is a high-input-impedance
antenna, then a SO-R load at the generator end of the cable feeding the transmitting antenna
may be included during the radiated path measurement and removed during the direct measure-
ment. This ensures that the generator load is approximately the same for the radiated and direct
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 53
path measurements. When the antenna impedanceis high, the receiving and transmittingantenna
connecting cables should be kept short and of equal length. For maximum accuracy, the same
cable should be used in measurements with the antenna. Any attenuation due to the cables is
not included in the two-antenna measurement technique, and the cables should be calibrated
separately.
The antennafactor for a tuned dipole usingthetwo-antennacalibrationmethod in a
shielded room, with the manufacturer’s AF curve, is plotted in Figure 2.22. By plotting the AF
curve over a narrower frequency range, Figure 2.23, the effect of resonances, antiresonances,
and reflections may be clearly seen, and the AF curve may be used to calculate the field magni-
tude with higher accuracy than when the manufacturer’s curve is used. The accuracy of the AF
curve is sensitive to exact antenna location and to the presence of equipment or personnel in
the shielded room. Techniques that are helpful in achieving good repeatability include the instal-
lation of a plumb bob directly above the receiving antenna location used in the two-antenna
test setup. This location should be chosen for its usefulness. For example, MIL-STD-462 test
requirements specify a distance for the measuring antenna of 1 m from the EUT (equipment
under test), which is placed 0.05 m from the edge of a table covered with a ground plane that
is bonded to the shielded room wall. Thus where MIL-STD measurements are made, one or
more calibration points down the length of the table at a distance of 0.95 m from the edge of
the ground plane would be useful.
35
30
25
20
15
IO
0 ’ \’
-S
-10
-1s ‘
20 30 so l00 200 300 400
FREQUENCY I N MHz
DIPOLE ANTENNA FACTOR dB

ANTENNAHEIGHTABOVE GROUND = 1.22m
ANTENNASEPARATIONFROM S I G N A L SOURCE = l m
Figure 2.22 AF, in decibels, of a tuned dipole measured in a shielded room.

54 Chapter 2
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 I10
F MHz
288M
= l
0 240 io 280 300

F MHz
Figure 2.23 AF, numeric, for the same tuned dipole.

E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 55
The antenna calibration and subsequent measurements using the antenna should be made
in a room clear of equipment and personnel, or at least the same room configuration should be
maintained for both.
If the two-identical-antenna test method is used for calibrating antennas to be used on an
open area test site or in an anechoic chamber, then the calibration should be conducted on an
open area test site. The site should preferably be without a ground plane and with the area
between the two antennas covered in a combination ferrite tile and foam absorber material to
absorbthe reflected groundwave.Horizontalpolarization of the antenna shouldbe used to
reducetheimpact of theantennafeed cables, whichareorientedvertically. The 6-12-dB
5 0 4 attenuators should be included, as shown in Figure 2.21. Both antennas should be placed
at least 4 m above the ground to reduce antenna-to-ground coupling. The distance between the
antennas should be 10m to eliminate antenna-to-antenna coupling.
Alternative antenna calibration techniques are the reference Open Area Test Site (OATS)
and the reference dipole calibration contained in ANSI C63.5 and described in Section 9.4. I .
If correctly constructed, the four reference diopoles, designed to cover the 25- 1000-MHz fre-
quency range, will have antenna factors within 0.3 dB of theoretical. An alternative test method
uses the GTEM cell, as described in Section 9.5.2.2. The antenna factor can also be calculated
using either the “induced-emf method,” numerical electromagnetics codes (NEC), MININEC,
GEMACS, or the site attenuation. In the induced-emf method, mutual coupling between anten-
nas is calculated by formulas given by S. A. Schelkunoff and H. E. King. These formulasusually
replace the presence of the ground plane by images of the transmit and receive antenna. NEC,
MININEC, and GEMACS use the moment method (MOM) to calculate the coupling between
antennas, and with GEMACS using the MOM and GTD hybrid, the presence of a ground plane
can be included. Reference 16 compares the accuracy of these analysis techniques to OATS,
anechoic chamber, and GTEM measurements for symmetrical dipoles and horn and waveguide
antennas. With symmetrical dipoles in horizontal polarization, the maximum deviation between
the site-attenuation model and measurements was 3 dB. The maximum deviation between mea-
surements and the induced emf, MOM, MININEC, and other calculations was 2.7 dB.
2.5.4 Receiving Properties of an Isolated Conductor/Cable
An isolated ccrhle is defined as one disconnected from ground at both ends and at some distance
from a ground plane. Although this configuration used as a model has limited practical use, one
practical, albeit unusual, example of this cable configuration was. in a case of EMI, caused by
coupling to a shielded cable.The cable was connected to a helicopter atone end andto equipment
contained in an enclosure towed beneath the helicopter at the other end. With the helicopter
airborne, the cable was isolated from ground at both ends. The more common cable configura-
tions are discussed in detail in Chapter 7, on cable coupling; however, forthe sake of complete-
ness, here we examine coupling to an isolated cable. When a cable is disconnected from ground
at both ends, the E field component of a wave that cuts the cable at an angle of 90” to its axis
does not induce a current flow. In the case where a wave is incident on the cable such that the
magnetic field component cuts it at an angle of 90” and the E field is in the plane of the cable,
a current is induced. The magnitude of the current is determined by the length and impedance
of the cable and the wavelength of the field. If the length of the cable is less than O.lh (i.e.,
nonresonant), then the average flow per second in the conductor of the cable is given approxi-
mately by
56 Chapter 2
where
f = frequency, in hertz
B = magnetic flux density
l = physical length of the conductor
= dR' + 2rr: fL?
z,.
and where
R = total resistance of the conductor
L = total inductance of the conductor
Values of resistance and inductance for single conductors and for the shields of shielded
cables are provided in Tables 5.1 and 4.2, respectively.
When the length of the cable equals h/2,it is resonant and the characteristics of a resonant
short-circuit dipole, sometimes referred to as a parasitic element, may be used. In a resonant
dipole terminated in its radiation resistance and ignoring losses, half of the received power is
delivered to the load and half the power is reradiated from the antenna. In a shorted resonant
dipole, four times thepower isreradiated, compared to the antenna matched dipole. Theradiation
resistance of the resonant dipole is approximately 70 Q, and this is true regardless of the load.
The reradiated power from the dipole is therefore 1'70. Because the reradiated power for the
short-circuit dipole is four times that for the matched dipole, the current How is twice the value
of that for a matched dipole.
The receiving characteristics of the dipole, described in the preceding section, may be
used to find the current I in the load of a dipole. The average current in the same length of
isolated cable (i.e., the short-circuit dipole) at the same frequency then has the value 21 X 0.64.
2.5.5 Monopole Antenna as a Measuring Device and in Prediction

of Electromagnetic Compatibility
Few practical cable, wire, or structure configurations look like a dipole antenna, and thus it is
not particularly useful as a model in EMC predictions. The monopole antenna is in principle a
vertical wire above a ground plane, with the ground plane sometimes referred to as a counter-
poise. The monopole receiving properties and to a lesser extent its transmitting properties are
useful in EMC prediction. A cable connected to a metal enclosure, with the cable routed over
a nonconductive table, may be represented by a monopole antenna as long as the far end of the
cable does not connect to ground. That the cable is horizontal to the Hoor of the room does not
change the validity of the antenna model. The far end of the cable may terminate in a small
metal enclosure, in which case the model is similar to a top-loaded monopole antenna. If the
far end of the cable loops down to a conductive Hoor, such as is found in shielded rooms, or
terminates in equipment connected to ground, then the monopolemodel is not appropriate.
Instead the model described in Section 7.4 for coupling to loops should be used. The cable,
which we model as the rod of the monopole antenna, may be a shielded cable, with the shield
terminating on the enclosure or a twin or multiconductor cable that terminates inside the enclo-
sure. Whichever it is, we require the termination impedance in order to apply the monopole
model. One additional good reason to examine the receiving properties of a monopole antenna
is its usefulness as an EMC measurement antenna and its ease of construction. A 41-inch (1-
m) monopole or rod antenna over a square-meter counterpoise is a common measurement an-
tenna. Its useful frequency range is 14-30 MHz when it is not used as a resonant antenna. When
the rod is adjustable from 1 m to approximately 0.2 m, the antenna may be used as a resonant
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 57
monopole over the range 75-375 MHz. To cover the 300-1500 MHz, it is more convenient to
manufacture a monopole with a smaller counterpoise, typically 30 cm by 30 cm, and a rod
adjustable from 30 cm to 5 cm. For use in EMC predictions and in EMC measurements, the
resonant and nonresonant characteristics of the monopole are required. When the length of the
cable or rod is equal to h14, where h is the wavelength of the incident field, then the antenna
is resonant, the input impedance is 35-42 R,and the gain is 1.68 numeric. When the length
of the rod is much less than h, the gain is the same as the current element, which is 1.5, and
the antenna input impedance is high.
For an electrically short monopole, the input impedance is approximately
or, as a magnitude,
[S
H ( l+"
0 - 2
where
and h is the physical height of the rod and (1 is its radius. 011 is defined as 2~chlh.As ph ap-
proaches 1, the antenna impedance tends to become resonant and at values of ph = 1.5, 2.5,
3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, . . . the monopole is resonant.Curvesforthereactanceandresistanceofthe
dipole, for plz = 0.5-7,areprovided in Fig. 2.24 and 2.25 from Ref. 6. The reactance and
resistance of a monopole are one-halfof the values for a dipole. The magnitude of the impedance
of the monopole is
where
Z,,,,,,= reactance of the antenna
Z,,,, = resistance of the antenna
The maximum open-circuit gain of the resonant monopole is1.68; for the short monopole
it is 1.5. By using Eq. (2.36b) to obtain the reflection coefficient due to the antenna-to-load
mismatch, the realized gain G,, may be obtained. From Eq. (2.48) and using G,,, the value of
A,,,:,, may be determined. Using A,,,,,,with the wave and radiation resistance in Eq. (2.49) gives
us the voltage developed across the load, from which the load current may be calculated. The
average current flow in the rod of the monopole is then equal to one-half the load current for
the short monopole and 0.64 times the load current for the resonant monopole.
Consider an example of the calculations of antenna factor for a small tunable rod antenna
at a frequency of 550 MHz. The AF of the antenna is
58 Chapter 2
Figure 2.24 Input reactance of a dipole (monopole is half the dipole value). (From Ref. 6.)
E - 1 - 1
v h,,, h/2n
Therefore the AF at 550 MHz is 1/(0.545/12.56) = 23 = 27 dB.
The antenna factor of a tunable monopole over the 300-800-MHz frequency range is
plotted in Figure 2.26. The calibration was made in a shielded room using the two-antenna test
method. At 550 MHz, the measured AF = 26.2 dB, whereas the predicted AF is 27 dB. At
other frequencies, a difference of 2 3 dB between predicted and measured AF is apparent. The
measuredantennafactorandgain for a l-m rod antenna, calibratedat l-m distance from a
second identical antenna, over a 10 kHz to 30 MHz frequency range are shown in Figures 2.27
and 2.28. Consider the antenna factor at 20 MHz, where the antenna impedance is approximately
500 R and the wave impedance at a distance of 1 m is approximately 900 R. The reflection
coefficient, from Eq. (2.36b) is
1 - 500150 - -9 - -o.818
K =
1 + 500/50 11
The loss is l - (-0.818)' = 0.33, so thegain is 1.5 X 0.33 = 0.496.
Figure 2.25 Input resistance of a dipole (monopole is half the dipole value). (From Ref. 6.)
The radiation resistance of the l-m monopole at 20 MHz is
The effective height, from Eq. (2.47), is

68.88 X 1.75199 = o.065
effective height =
2
The first term in Eq.(2.47) appears in the equation for the AF and is, in our ex-
ample, omitted from both equations. Therefore, from Eqs. (2.45) and (2.49) the AF ( E I V ) is
1/0.065 = 15.4. From the plot of the measured antenna factor for a monopole, Figure 2.27, the
AF at 20 MHz is 6.2and the difference betweenmeasuredandpredicted AF is 8 dB. The
measurements were made in a shielded room, and thus some difference between measured and
predicted AF is to be expected due to the proximity of the rod of the antenna to the conductive
ceiling and due to reflections. An additional potential source of error is that the measurements
60 Chapter 2
30
29
28
27
26
AF dB 25
24
23
22
21
20
0 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 BOO 1000
FREQUENCY I N MHz
Figure 2.26 Measured AF, in decibels, of a resonantmonopole.
~.
10. m ~
1 OKHz f 1OOKHZ 1MiZ I owl 1 OOlltk

1M MONOPOLE ANTENNA FACTOR
CAF = E / V I NUMERIC.
COUPLED
Figure 2.27 Measured AF, numeric. for a l-m monopole.

lxlo-l 3800
IK
1x10-; ZK
1~10-l 4);
1~10“ 51:
.-.
2
<
LI
C
0
c3 ly
I~IO-’
lX104 101:
I~IO-’ 121:
1x10-
101012 1 ow2 1 OOtiHZ
Blb 1.81: 3770
Zmt = 24OK 0 1M)KHz 1 M MONOPOLE G A I N

2.m 0 IOKHZ
1M D I STANCE
O=COUPLED
Figure 2.28 Measuredgain of a 1-111monopole.
were made in the near field, where curvature of the radiated E field will reduce the coupling
to the receiving antenna.
The monopole in our example is neither an effective E field measurement nor a communi-
cation antenna, due to the large mismatch between the antenna input impedance and the SO-R
load impedance. The inclusion of a high-input impedance, e.g., FET, buffer, or amplifier posi-
tioned under the counterpoise and connected directly at the base of the antenna, will greatly
increase the sensitivity of the antenna at low frequency. The two monopoles, located 1 111 apart
during measurements, are in the near field, and thus the quasi-static radial field terminates on
the counterpoises of both antennas as well as on the rod of the receiving antenna.
The quasi-static coupling is via the very low ( ~ 0 . pF)
5 mutual capacitance of the antennas.
The mutual reactance of the antennas is therefore very high at the frequencies of interest, and
minimal voltage is developed across the SO-R receiving antenna load impedance, due to the
radial E field. When the antenna termination impedanceis high, the quasi-static field will develop
an appreciable voltage across the load and change the AF calibration of the antenna.
When the monopole modelis used to predict the current flow on a shielded cable connected
to a shielded enclosure, the load impedance is equal to the termination impedance of the shielded
cable, typically the sum of the shield-to-backshell, male-to-female connector, and connector-
to-bulkhead interface impedances. This termination impedance may then be used in the equa-
tions for the short nonresonant antenna to find the load voltage, from which the load current
may be found. The current flowing on the shield of the cable is then one-half of the load current.
Where the shielded cable length is resonant, the characteristics of a resonant short-circuit
62 Chapter 2
monopole may be used to find the shield current. First the receiving properties of the resonant
antenna into a matched load is used to find the load current. The average matched antenna
current is then 0.64 times the load current, and the current flow on the short-circuit resonant
antenna (cable shield) is twice that for the matched antenna.
A simple circuit comprising a MOSFET input stage followed by a single transistor gain
stage, with an input impedance of 100 kR,was built and powered by a 9-V battery. The increase
in gain at 10 kHz and 100 kHz was measured at 83 dB and 78 dB, respectively. The noise floor
increased by S S dB at 10 kHz and 42 dB at 100 kHz,with a resultant increase in signal-to-
noise ratio of 28-36 dB.
2.6 SIMPLE, EASILY CONSTRUCTED E AND H FIELD ANTENNAS

This section presents the designof a number of easily constructed antennas forthe measurement
of either E or H fields. When considering time-varying waves, E and H fields are always present
and either may be measured. One important aspect of the design of a measurement antenna is
that the antenna differentiates between E and H fields. Thus an antenna designed to measure
H fields should reject the influence of the E field component of the electromagnetic wave.
The advantage of physically small antennas is that the localized E and H fields in close
proximity to sources such as enclosures, apertures, and cables may be readily measured. The
larger dipole and commercial broadband antennas also have a place i n measuring the composite
field from all sources. Measurement techniques using both types of antenna are discussed in
Chapter 9.
2.6.1 ShieldedLoopAntenna
The simple loop antenna connected to a shielded cable is unbalanced with respect to the shield
of the cable and therefore responds to both E and H fields. One technique used to reduce the
influence of the E field is to shield the loop.
The schematic of a shielded loop antenna is shown i n Figure 2.29a, with a photograph
shield owned
connector
(a) Single shielded loop antenna (a) Multiturn shielded loop antenna
Figure 2.29 Shielded loop antennas.

E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 63
Figure 2.30 Photo of shielded loop antennas.
of an 1 1-cm and 6-cm

a antenna givenin Figure 2.30. The antenna is constructed from semirigid
cable that is available in a number of different diameters. The shielded loop antenna becomes
resonant above a frequency determined by the inductance of the loop and the capacitance be-
tween the center conductor and the outer sheath. The lower the capacitance of the semirigid
cable used inthe manufacture of the loop, the higher the useful frequency response. Calibration
curves for the 6-cm loop, which has a useful upper frequency of greater than 15 MHz, and the
1I-cm loop, which has a useful upper frequency of 10 MHz, are shown in Figures 2.31 and
2.32. The receiving propertiesof the 6-cm and 1l-cm loops are close to the predicted properties
when terminated in a 50-Rload, and so calibration is necessary only to determine the upper
frequency limit or where maximum accuracy is required. A word of.warning: The measurement
technique, unless it is carefully controlled, may result in less accuracy than the useof the pre-
dicted characteristics alone. Where the sensitivity of the single loop at low frequency is not
sufficient, a multiturn shieldedloop may be constructed. The multiturn antenna may be shielded
by wrapping the turns with a conductive tape. The tape is connected to the outer surface of the
coaxial connector as shown in Figure 2.29b. The shield must contain a gap around the circumfer-
ence of the loop in order to avoid the shielding of the loop against magnetic fields.
The multiturn loop exhibits a lower resonance frequency than a single turn, due to its
higher inductance and intrawinding capacitance.
2.6.2 Balanced Loop Antenna

A second extremely useful H field antenna is a 6-cm balanced loop antenna, the schematic of
which is shown in Figure 2.33. The balanced loop antenna contains a balun constructed from
a two-hole femte bead. Baluns are used in a number of balanced antennas, both E and H field
types, to match the antenna to the unbalanced coaxial cable. The cable and associated equipment
are unbalanced because the shield of the cable and the outer shell of the coaxial cable are
64 Chapter 2
Figure 2.31 Calibration curves for a 6-cm shielded loop antenna, upper limit l5 MHz.
connected to ground, via the enclosure that is connected to safety ground on the majority of
equipment. In the balanced loop antenna, the E field induces equal and opposite voltages into
the primary (loop side) of the balun, and thus, ideally, zero E-field-induced voltage appears
across the secondary of the balun.
In practice, some capacitive imbalance exists both in the intrawinding capacitance of the
balun and between the loop and the metal enclosure housing the balun. Any imbalance results
in an incomplete cancellation of the E-field-induced voltage. In addition, the capacitance, with
the inductance of the loop, determines the resonant frequencies of the loop. In a carefully de-
signed antenna, the connections from the loop to the primary of the balun should have a charac-
teristic impedance of 200 Q. The secondary connection to the coaxial connector mounted on
the enclosure should have an impedance of 50 Q. The center tap of the primary of the balun
is connected to ground via the enclosure. Ideally this connection should be made via a low
impedance, such as a shGrt length of wide PCB material. The calibration curve of a balanced
loop antenna is shown in Figure 2.34. This antenna was not constructed with maximum care
in the layout, and some of the kinks in the calibration curve may be the result. Nevertheless,
the measured characteristics are within 4 dB of the predicted. The sensitivity of this simple
antenna is approximately 46 dB above that of the Hewlett-Packard HP 11940A near-field mag-
netic field probe, which costs almost 100 times as much. It should be added that the HP probe,
due to its very narrow tip, is invaluable for locating emissions from printed circuit board tracks
and iqtegrated circuits. In addition, the HP probe covers the wider, 30-1000-MHz frequency
range, compared to the 20-200 MHz for the simple loop. One potential source of measurement
error in the small loop antennas is produced by E-field-induced current flow on the shield of
the coaxial interconnection cable. The shield current induces a voltage in the center conductor
of the cable, which adds to the signal from the antenna.
rooojlv
-J
0
5
CL
\
O l0jlV
Figure 2.32 Calibration curve for an 1 l-cm shielded loop antenna, upper limit I O MHz.
Balanced loop side
P P
balun
4 unbalanced
L-/B---J
conncctor bl
(ca c )
Figure 2.33 Schematic of a balanced loop antenna and construction details of the balun.
Chapter 2
"I
___c_
I
b
LOOP 8
Figure 2.34 Calibration curve of a balanced loop antenna
In other chapters we will see that H field measurements are typically more reliable in
locations where reflections cause nleasurement errors. We shall see that measurement errors
may be reduced by computing the magnitude of the E field, at some distance from the measuring
point, from the magnitude of the H field at the point. The calibration of the example H field
antennas are in mV/mA/m. However, an alternative is to use the H field antenna factor, defined
as H(A/m)/V.
2.6.3 E Field Bow Tie Antenna

The balun incorporated into the balanced loop antenna may also be used to match a broadband
E field "bow tie" antenna to the coaxial cable. The schematic diagrams of a bow tie antenna
for the 20-250-MHz and 200-600-MHz frequency ranges are shown i n Figure 2.35. The imped-
ances of the 20-250-MHz and 200-600-MHz antennas with 2/1 voltage- and 4/1 impedance-
ratio baluns are shown in Figure 2.36 and are derived from Ref. 7.
The bow tie is useful in measuring both the radiation from an EUT in close proximity as
well as the level of the E field in a radiated susceptibility (immunity) test. The small bow tie,
with 10-cm-long elements, although designed for 200-600 MHz, has been calibrated from 25
MHz to 1000 MHz. At low frequency, the antenna factor is high, in common with all physically
small antennas, and great care has to be exercised, i n both calibration and use, to ensure that
the coupling to the feed cable is not higher than that to the antenna. To reduce the coupling,
use a double-braid shielded cable with many ferrite baluns mounted on the cable; and when
monitoring susceptibility test levels, orient the cable vertically for horizontally polarized fields
and antenna, and orient it horizontally for vertically polarized fields and antenna. Figure 2.37
15 cm 10 Cl11
_j r l
l l
(a) 20-250-MHz bow tie antenna (b) 200-600-MHz bow tie antenna
Figure2.35 Bow ticantennas.
280
n I l
240
-c 200
8
E
U
160
a,
g
c
3
120
Cl
-
C
80
40
Frequency (MHz) (1 GHz)
Figure2.36 Inputimpedancecalibrationcurves for the IS-cmandIO-cm bow tieantennas. (From

Ref. 7.)
68 Chapter 2
Bowtie Calibration 0.2 m

45
40
35
30
25
Antenna Factor ( W
20
15
10
0
10 l00 1000
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 2.37 Bow tie antenna factor at 0.2 m.
shows the 10-cm bow tie calibration at a distance of 0.2 m; Figure 2.38 shows it at a distance
of 1 m, with the antenna horizontally polarized, and 1 m above a ground plane. The antenna
was constructed on a rectangular-shaped PCB with the two bow tie elements etched out of the
PCB material, with a BNC connector mounted in the center of the antenna and with the balun
located close to the connector as shown in Figure 2.38.
2.6.4 MonopoleAntennas
The l-nl and the tunableresonantmonopole antennas described in Sections 2.5.5 and 2.5.6
cover the 14-kHz-30-MHz and 300-800-MHz frequency ranges, respectively, and the simple
construction of these antennas is illustrated in Figure 2.39. The monopoles with ground plane
do not require a balun to match the antenna to the cable, which is onereason for their widespread
use.
2.6.5TunedResonantDipoleAntennas
The schematic of the dipole with a typical balun used over the 40-300-MHz frequency range
is shown in Figure2.40. The calibration curve for this antenna in ashieldedroomand the
theoretical open field test site calibration is shown in Figure 2.22. The construction details of
a similar balun, showing how the coaxial cable is wound on formers and attached to the connec-
tor, are presented in Figure 2.41. The construction details are reproduced by courtesy of the
Electrometrics Corporation.
2.6.6 HelicalSpiralAntennas
Helical spiral antennas, whichcover the 800-MHz- 18-GHz frequency range, as shown in Figure
2.42, are relatively simple to construct. The larger antenna is26.5 cm long and 12 cm in diameter
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 69
Bowtie Calibration l m
I I I I I IIII I I I I I1111 I I I I I I l l
0 , I 1 1 1 1 I I l I 1 Ill1 1 I I l I I I I
Figure 2.38 Bow tie antenna factor at 1 m and 1 m above aground plane.
at the base, tapering to 10 cm at the top. The larger antenna is wound as a.helica1 log periodic,
with the angle between the base of the antennaand the spiral at approximately20". The distances
between the windings of the spiral are not critical, and in the larger antenna, shown in Figure
2.42, the ratioof the distance between the windings of the lower spiral and the distance between
the windings of the next higher spiralis approximately 1.25. The important criterion is that the
70 Chapter 2
Figure 2.39 l-m and resonantmonopoleantennas.
two antennas be made as similar as possible when the two-antenna test method is used for
calibration.
The calibration curve for the 26.5-cm log periodic helix is shown in Figure 2.43. The
design frequency range for the antenna is 1-4.77 GHz, based on the circumferences of the
lowest and highest spiral. From the calibration curve itis seen that the antenna is usable down
to 800 MHz; a recent recalibration was made up to 4 GHz.
In order to simplify the construction of the two smaller antennas, covering the3-18-GHz
frequency range, only the diameter of the helix is changed from top to bottom. The intermediate-
size spiral has a maximum circumference of 8.96 cm and a minimum of 3.49 cm; thus the design
frequency range is 3.34-8.6 GHz. The distance between the spirals on the intermediate-sized
antenna is a constant 0.476 cm (3/16 in.). The small antenna has a design frequency rangeof
8-18 GHz. The material onwhich the helix is wound shouldexhibit a low permittivity and low
loss at high frequency; here, expanded polystyrene is a good choice. However, the antennas
illustrated were wound on cardboard formers impregnated with epoxy, and acceptable results
were achieved in the calibration of the antenna.
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 71
"
metal enclosure
9 turns on 112"DIA.,
1-3/4"long former
connector
f '
Figure 2.40 30-500-MHzbalun.
Figure 2.41 Construction details of a similar balun. (Reproduced courtesy of Electrometrics Corpora-
tion.)
72 Chapter 2
p
I
Figure 2.42 Helical antennas covering the 800-MHz-18-GHz frequency range.
2.6.7 SmallToroid Antenna

An inductor wound on a toroid core does not contain the field inside the core particularly well
and, as described in Section 5 , any inductor wound on a core will have a current induced in
it when an electromagnetic field impinges on the inductor. Thus in certain-filter applications
it is imperative to shield the inductor to minimize this radiated coupling effect. This coupling
effect is used in the toroid antenna, which is constructed from a small iron-dust toroid type
T12-3 from Micrometals. The T12-3 core has a diameter of only 3.18 mm and an A, value of
6 nH/N2; to construct the antenna,ten turns of magnet wire are wound on the core. The toroid
is mounted at the end of a brass tube, with one side of the inductor connected to the tube and
the second side connected to a center conductor in the tube. At the other end of the tube, an
SMA connector is soldered, as shown in Figure2.44. The toroid antenna shows no resonances
over the 20-1000-MHz frequency range.It is sensitive tovery localized fields and is invaluable
for measuring PCB emissions down to a single trace or to differentiate between emissions from
the PCB and the integrated circuits (ICs).It is used at very close proximity to sources, where
the field reduces rapidly with distance, for comparative measurements, and so it makes no sense
IO0
10
800 1000 1200 I400 1600 I BOO 2000 2200
MHz
Figure 2.43 Calibration CUIW for the 26.5-cm helical log spiral antenna.
to calibrate the antenna. If quantative measurements are required, then the balanced loop or
bow tie antenna at distances of approximately 0.2 m are the correct antennas to use.
2.6.8 Calibration
When care is taken in the construction of two antennas to makethem as similar as possible,then
the two-antenna test method described in Section 2.5.3 is recommended. Alternative antenna
calibration techniques are the reference open area test site (OATS) and the reference dipole
calibration, both of which are contained in ANSI C63.5 and described in Section 9.4.1. If cor-
rectly constructed, the four reference dipoles, described in ANSI C63.5 and designed to cover
the 25-1000-MHz frequency range, will have antenna factors within 0.3 dB of theoretical. An
alternative test method uses the GTEM cell, as described in Section 9.5.2.2. The antenna factor
can also becalculated using eitherthe“induced-emf method,” numericalelectromagnetics
codes (NEC), MININEC, or GEMACS or from site attenuation. In the induced-emf method,
mutual coupling between antennas is calculated via formulas given by S. A. Schelkunoff and
74 Chapter 2
Figure 2.44 Smalltoroidantenna.
H. E. King. These formulas usually replace the presenceof the ground plane by images of the
transmit and receive antennae. NEC, MININEC,and GEMACS use the moment method (MOM)
to calculate the coupling between antennas;with GEMACS, using the MOM and GTD hybrid,
the presence of a ground plane can be included. Reference 21 compares the accuracy of these
analysis techniques to OATS, anechoic chamber and GTEM measurements for symmetrical
dipoles and horn and waveguide antennas. With symmetrical dipoles in horizontal polarization,
the maximum deviation between the site attenuation model and measurements was 3 dB. The
maximum deviation between measurements and the induced-emf,MOM, MININFC, and other
calculations was 2.7 dB.
One alternative test method is to use a calibrated-gain transmitting antenna. A measured
and controlled input power is applied, and therefore a known E field is generated at the distance
from the transmitting antenna at which the receiving antenna is placed. The measured output
voltage from the antenna under calibration can then be used, with the value of the E field, to
obtain the antenna factor, from which the gain of the antenna under calibration may be calcu-
lated. The second test method is to use the antenna under calibration as the transmitting antenna
and the antenna factor of the calibrated receiving antenna to calculate the gain of the antenna
under test, from which the antenna factor may be calculated. The mutual coupling between
antennas can be minimized by using a 10-m distance between the antennas and, as described
in section 2.5.3, the effectof the ground reflected wave has to be either minimized or calculated.
One technique for the calibrationof H field antennas is shownin Section 9.6.7.8. Although
the calibration is for anRSOl transmitting antenna, it is identical to the calibration
of a receiving
loop antenna, if the reference transmitting loop is constructed.
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 75
2.7 NONIONIZINGELECTROMAGNETICFIELDEXPOSURE
SAFETY LIMITS
The term rzorliorzizirzg rtrdiarinrz is used to denote radiation from such sources as microwave
ovens, antennas, and wires carrying high-RF currents.Infrared and visible light are also nonion-
izingradiation.Ionizingradiation,whichincludesx-rays, gamma rays,andelectromagnetic
particles, is so named because it can cause ionization of gas molecules, whereas nonionizing
radiation cannot.
The maximum allowable or recommended levels of exposure to nonionizing radiation are
not the same for every country or for different organizations within the same country. One
reason for the inconsistency may be that, unlike ionizing radiation, the amount of data on the
biological effects on human beings and other warm-blooded creatures is limited; also, different
criteria are used by the various regulatory organizations to arrive at safe levels. Generally speak-
ing, the effects of nonionizing radiation on living tissue depends upon the wavelength (fre-
quency), which, with the conductivity of the tissue, determines the depth of tissue penetration.
As a general guideline for those working with high-power microwave radiation, special precau-
tions must be taken at frequencies where an ungrounded person is half a wavelength or less
from a radiating source.
CAUTION:Althoughevery effort has been made toverifythe accuracy and the
currency of the safety levels published in this section, they are intended for information
only. If any of these limits are to be applied, the responsible organization must be contacted
to obtain the current frequency band and levels. Also, separate limits apply to controlled
environments and to RF workers.
2.7.1 ClinicalStudiesonHumanBeings
Since the first edition of this book, many articles and books have been published on human
exposure to electromagnetic fields, especially the fields generated by 50-60-Hz power lines.
Many of the data are contradictory, and so a review of the data is well beyond the scope of
this edition. Information on this topic may be obtained from the Internet and from the database
used in the IEEE C95.l-I991 document.
2.7.2 CanadianLimits
In the early limits, both Welfare Canada and the IEEE American National Standard confined
themselves to the thermal effect in the interaction of RF and microwave fields with biological
systems.
The basal metabolic rate (BMR), or the dissipation of an average man resting, is 100 W,
and this figure can double or even triple during activity. It was assumed that the human body
could easily cope with a 100% increase in the BMR (i.e., an additional 100 W). The earliest
widely adopted limit in Western Europe, the United States, and Canada was 10 mW/cm' based
on exposure of one-half the cross-sectional area of an average man to an incident plane wave
with a field intensity of l0 mW/cm2. Thiswas chosen because it is the level sufficient to increase
the dissipation by an additional 100 W.
By calculation and experimentation, using saline-filled human phantoms, it was subse-
quently found that the average-sized man, grounded, resonates at 31-34 MHz (the resonant
frequency for a 6-foot-high shorted monopole). The resonance frequency is, of course, higher
for children. Taking into account the resonance and other frequency effects as well as the possi-
bility of reflection (8) the Canadian exposure limit for the general public was revised down to
76 Chapter 2
Table 2.2 Canada Safety Code 6, 1999: Exposure Limits for Persons Other than RF Workers
(the General Public)
3 2 5
AveragingPower field Magnetic
1 field Electric
Frequency strength rms strength
time r m s density
(MHz) (V/m) (Ah) (W/m') (min)
0.003- 1 280 2.19 6
1-10 280/f 2.19Jf 6
10-30 28 2.19/f 6
30-300 28 0.073 2* 6
300-1 500 1 S85f l'' 0.0042f "' fIl50 6
1500-l5000 61.4 0.163 10 6
15000- 150000 61.4 0.163 10 616.000/f1'
4.21 X
150000-300000 0.158f"' 10 4f1'i 6.67 X I O 'f 616.000/f' '
* Power density limit is applicable at frequencles greater than 1 0 0 MHz.
Notes:
I . Frequency.f. is In MHz.
2. A powerdenslty of I O W/m' I S equlvalent to I mW/cm'.
3. A magnetic field strength 01' 1 A/m corresponds to 1.257 microtesla (PT)or 12.57 milligauss (mG)
1 mW/cm' continuous in the frequency range 3 MHz-100 GHz. In the latest version of this
document (Ref. 10) the power limit is further reduced to 2 mW/m' (0.2 mW/cm') from 30-
300 MHz and is ,f(MHz)/lSO (mW/m') from 300 to 1500 MHz and 10 mW/m' from 1500 to
300,000 MHz.
The detailed derivation of the limits in Ref. I O that are reproduced in Table 2.2 for the
general public has not been provided. Reference 10 contains different exposure limits for RF
workers and persons other than RF workers. The power limit shall not be exceeded when aver-
aged over any 0.1-hr period and when spatially averaged.
Where the electromagnetic radiation consists of frequencies from more than one frequency
band in the first column of Table 2.2, the fraction of the actual radiation (power density or
square of the field strength) in a frequency band relative to the value given in column 2, 3, or
4 shall be determined and the sum of all fractions of all frequency bands shall not exceed unity
when time and spatially averaged.
Time-averaged vall1es need only be calculated from multiple measurements if the field
changes significantly (more than 20%) within a periodof 0.1 hr;otherwise a single measurement
suffices.Reference10provides formulas fortimeaveraging.Spatialaveragingrefers to the
uniformity of the exposure field. For portable transmitters and other devices which produce
highly spatially nonuniform fields, the levels in Table 2.2 may be exceeded, but the following
values shall not be exceeded:
SAR Conditions (w/KG) limit

~ ~~
The SAR* averaged over whole body mass 0.08

The local SAR* for head, neck, and trunk, averaged over any
one gram (g) of tissue 1.6
SAR*
The ilimbs,
n the as averaged
over 4tissue
log of
* SAR = specific absorption rate = power absorbed per weight of tissue, in watts per kilogram.
Table 2.3 CanadaSafetyCode 6 Induced and Contact-Current Limits for

Persons Other Than RF Workers (the General Public)
2
Rms induced current 3
Rms contact current
(mA)
1 (mA) 4
through
Frequency Averaging
and
grip
hand
(MHz) foot
Each
feet
Both time
through
foot
each
0.003-0.1 900.f 450.f’ 450f Is
0.1-110 90 45 45 0.1 h (6 min)
Aithough not a requirement of the Code, it is suggested that wheneverpossible, the organ-
averaged SAR for the eye shall not exceed 0.2 W/kg.
In addition, a limit is placed on contact current. For free standing individuals (no contact
with metallic objects) the current induced into the human body by electromagnetic radiation
shall not exceed the value in column 2 of Table 2.3. No object with which a person may come
in contact shall be energized by electromagnetic radiation in the frequency band listed in column
I of Table 2.3 to such an extent that the current flowing through a circuit having the impedance
of the human body exceeds the value given in column 3 of Table 2.3 as measured with a contact
current meter, where the electromagnetic radiation consists of frequencies from more than one
frequency band of column 2 of Table 2.3, the ratio of the square of the measured current at each
frequency to the square of the limit at that given frequency shown in column 2 or 3 (whichever is
applicable).
2.7.3 American Standards

One of the present standards is contained in Ref. 9, IEEE C95.1--1991. The present standards
include revisions in the limits from the 1982 to the 1998 version based on additional data. From
1988 to 199 I the revisions resulted in an expanded frequency range, limits on induced body
current to prevent radio frequency (RF) shock or burn, a relaxation of limits on exposure to
magnetic fields at low frequencies, and exposure limits and averaging time at high frequencies
that are compatible at 300 GHz with existing infrared maximum permissible exposure (MPE)
limits.
Different MPEs apply to controlled environments, where exposure is incurred by persons
who are aware of the potential for exposure, such as RF workers, and to uncontrolled environ-
ments,whereexposure to individuals who have no knowledge or control of their exposure
occurs, such as the general public. The following limits are for the uncontrolled environment.
The MPEsrefer to exposure values obtained by spatially averaging over an area equivalent
to the vertical cross section of the human body (projected area). In the case of partial-body
exposure, Ref. 9 describes some relaxation. In nonuniform fields, spatial peak values of field
strengths may exceed the MPEs if the spatially averaged value remains within the specified
limits. The MPEs may also berelaxed by reference to SAR limits in Ref. 9. For near-field
exposure at frequenciesless than 300 MHz, the applicable MPE is in terms of rms electric
and magnetic field strength. The MPE refers to values averaged over any 6-30-min period for
713 Chapter 2
Table 2.4 IEEE C95.1 MPE Limits for Uncontrolled Environments
Electromagnetic fields"
2 3
Electric Magnetic 4 5
1 field field Power density (S)
Averaging time (min)
Frequency strength strength E-Field, H-Field
0.003-0.1 614 I63 100, 100,000" 6 6

0.1-1.34 614 16Nf 100, IOOO/f'" 6 6
1.34-3.0 823.8/f 16.3/f 180/fJ. 1000/.f'" f?/0.3 6
3.0-30 823.8/f 16Nf 80/f', 1000/f'" 30 6
30- 100 27.5 I58.3lf' hhh 0.2, 940,00O/f' ''I' 30 0.0636f' '"
100-300 27.5 0.0729 0.2 30 30
300-3000 27.5 j/I500 30
3000- 15,000 fll500 90,OOOif
15,000-300,000 10 6 16,OOO/f' '
" The exposure values in terms of electric and inagnctic lield slrengths are thc values obtained by
spatially avcraging values ovcr an area equivalent to the vertical cross section of the human body
( projcctcd area).
" Thesc planc-wave cquivalcnl power density values, although not appropriate for near-lield condi-
tions, arc commonly uscd as a convenient coinpanson with MPEs at highcr frequency and are dis-
played on sonic instruments i n use.
Sorirce: Ref. 9.
frequencies up to 3000 MHz and over shorter periods for higher frequencies down to 10 s at
300 GHz, as indicated in Table 2.4.
For mixed or broadband fields at a number of frequencies for which there are different
values of the MPE, the fraction of the MPE [in terms of E', H', or power density ( S ) ] incurred
within each frequency interval should be determined and the sum of all such fractions should
not exceed unity. In a similar manner for mixed or broadband induced currents, the fraction of
the induced current limits (in terms of I ? ) incurred within each frequency interval should be
determined and the sum of all such fractions should not exceed unity. For exposures to pulsed
radio frequency fields in the range 0.1-300,000 MHz, the peak (temporal) value of the MPE
in terms of the E field is 100 kV/m.
For exposures to pulsed radio frequency fields of pulse durations less than 100 nis and
for a single pulse, the MPE is given by the MPE from Table 2.4 (E field equivalent power
density) multiplied by the averaging time, in seconds, and divided by 5 times the pulse width,
in seconds. That is:
MPE X Avg time (seconds)
Peak MPE =
5 X Pulsewidth (seconds)
A maximum of five such pulses, with a pulse repetition rate of at least 100 ins, is permitted
during any period equal to the averaging time. If there are more than five pulses during any
period equal to the averaging time, or if the pulse durations are greater than 100 ms, normal
averaging time calculations apply, except that during any 100-ms period, the energy density is
limited by the preceding formula, viz
MPE X Avg time (seconds)
Peak MPE X Pulsewidth (seconds) = ____
5
Table 2.5 Induccd and Contact RF Currents for Uncontrolled

Environments"
Maximum current (mA)
Frequency Through Through

range (MHz) both feet Contact
foot
each
~
0.003-0.1 45Of
9OOf 45Of
0.1-100 45 90 45
.f' = frequency.111 MHz.

"The current limits given may not adequately protect egalnst startle reac-
tions caused by transient discharges when contacting an e n e r g i d object:
see Ret. 9 tor additional comnent.
At frequencies between 100 kHz and 6 GHz, the MPE i n uncontrolled environments for electro-
magnetic field strengths may be exceeded i f the exposure conditions can be shown by appro-
priate techniques to produce SARs below 0.08 W/kg, as averaged over the whole body, and
spatial peak SAR values not exceeding 1.6 W/kg, as averaged over any 1 g of tissue (defined
as a tissue volume in the shape of a cube), except for the hands, wrists, feet, and ankles, where
the spatial peak SAR shall not exceed 4 W/kg, as averaged over any I O g of tissue, and the
induced currents in the body confonn to Table 2.5.
A second source of limits is the FCC RF exposure guidelines contained in 47 C.F.R.
I . 13IO, Ref. 17. The criteria listed in Table 2.6 shall be used to evaluate the environmental
impact of human exposure to radio frequency (RF) radiation as specified in 1.1307 (b), except
in the case of portable devices, which shall be evaluated according to the provisions of 2.1093
of the 47 C.F.R. document. Further information on evaluating compliance with these limits can
be found in the FCC's OET/OET Bulletin Number 65, "Evaluating Compliance with FCC-
Specified Guidelines for Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Radiation. The FCC limits are
generally based on recommended exposure guidelines published by the National Council on
Radiation Protectiol! and Measurements (NRCP) in "Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria
for Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields," NCRP Report No. 86, Sections 17.4.1, 17.4.1.1,
17.4.2, and 17.3. Copyright NRCP, 1986, Bethesda, MD 20814. In the frequency range from
100 MHz to 1500 MHz, exposure limits are also generally based on guidelines recommended
by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in section 4.1 of IEEE Standard forSafety
Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to
300 GHz, ANSI/IEEE C95.1- 1992.
2.7.4 East European, European, and other Standards

The philosophy of standard setting in East European countries, at least in 1977, appears to be
that any effect due to microwave radiation. whether subjective, objective, or reversible, should
be avoided, andthus the RussianandCzechoslovakianstandardswere as low as 1 pW/cm?
(i.e., 1/2000th of the Canadian level).
I n May 1997 the Hungarian Standards InstitutionreleasedtheEuropeanPre-standard
(ENV 50166-1 /2) as Hungarian Pre-standard MSZ ENV 50166-1 /2. It is the general policy of
the Hungarian Parliament that confirmed EU standards shall be considered as Hungarian Na-
tional Standards.
The Russian limits have remained the same over 40 years and are based on intensity and
time of exposure: I O pW/cm' for 8 hours. 100 pW/cm' up to 2 hrs, and 1000 pW/cm' for up
to 20 minutes per working day.
80 Chapter 2
New general-public limits were issued in Poland in August 1998 and, although increased,
are still lower than the proposals of CENELEC, IRPA or ANSI for the same frequency range
(0.1 Hz-300 GHz). It would almost certainly be difficult to increase the public values too drasti-
cally, at least initially.
The European Commission has proposed basic restrictions on SAR designed to prevent
whole-body heat stress and excessive localized heating of tissues. The basic restrictions are set
to account for uncertainties related to individual sensitivities, environmental conditions, and for
the fact that the age and health status of members of the public varies. The SAR limits over
the 10 MHz to 10 GHz frequency range are: 0.08 W/kg for the whole body; the localized SAR
for the head and trunk of 0.08 W/kg and for the limbs 4 W/kg. CENELEC (The European
Committee on Electrotechnical Standardization) accepted the ENV 50166 at the end of Novem-
ber 1994 for provisional application for three years, which has been extended to the year 2000.
In 1997 the 26th EMF Ordinances came into effect in Germany and are based on the
International Radiation Protection Association(IRPA), WHO,and ICNIRP guidelines. The EMF
Ordinances is limited to the frequency range 10 MHz to 300,000 MHz at the levels shown in
Table 2.6.
In the UK the National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) revised its advice in 1993
and published the new advice 8.
Table 2.6 ICNIRPReferenceLevelsforGeneralPublicExposure to Time-Varying Electric and

Magnetic Fields
Equivalent plane wave
density
strength
power
H-field
E-field
B-field
Frequency range (Vn") (Am-') (PT) S,,,(Wm -')
up to 1 Hz - 3.2x IOJ 4 x 10" -
1-8 HZ 10,000 3.2 x l0"l.f' 4 x IO'If' -
8-25 HZ 10,000 4,0001,f 5,OOOlf -
0.025-0.8 kHz 25Olf 4Jf 5/f -
0.8-3 kHz 25Olf 5 6.25 -
3- 150 kHz 87 5 6.25 -
0.15-1 MHz 87 0.73lf 0.92lf -
1-10 MHz0.73lf 87lf'" 0.92lf -
10-400 MHz 28 0.073 0.092 2
400-2,000 MHz 1.375f l i L 0.0037f"2 0.0046f"' fi200
2-300 GHz 61 0.16 0.20 10
Note:
I . f as indicated in thc frequency range column.
2. Provded that basic rcstnctions are met and adverse mdircct effects can be excluded, field strength values can be
exceeded.
3. For frequencies between 100 kHz and 10 GHz, Scq.E', H?, and B' arc to be averaged over any 6-min period.
4. For peak values at frequencics up to 100 kHz see Table 4. note 3.
S. For peak values at frequencles exceeding I O 0 kHz see Figs. I and 2. Between 100 kHz and 10 MHz, peak values
for the field strengths are obtained hp mterpolatm from the 1.5-fold peak at 1 0 0 kHz to the 32-fold peak at 10
MHz. For frequencies exceeding I O MHz i t 1s suggested that the peak equivalent plane wave power density, as
averaged over the pulse width does not cxcced 1.000 times the S,, restrictlons, or that the field strength does not
exceed 37- times the field strength exposure levels glven in the table.
6. For frequencies exceeding I O GHz, S,,,. E'. H', and B' are to he averaged over any 68/.f'"'-min period ( f i n GHz).
7. No E-field value is provided for frequencies < 1 Hz. which are effectively statlc elcctric fields, perception of surface
elcctrlc charges will not occur at field strengths less than 25 kVm I. Spark discharges causmg stress or annoyance
should he avoided.
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 81
In Japan the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) issued revised rules to
establish Radio Radiation Protection for Human Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields from 10
kHz to 300 GHz. These guidelines contain levels which are a mix of the Canada safety code
6 and the IEEE C95.1 but are not the same as either. In 1997 the MPT slightly revised the
guidelines in changing the local SAR limit from 1.6 W/kg for 1 g of tissue to 2 W/kg for 10
g of tissue for the general environment.
The Australasian Standards Committee created a joint Australian and New Zealand stan-
dard and published a draft of NZS/AS2772 Part 1 in 1998. At present the UHF reference level
remain capped at 200 pW/cm’, which is more conservative than the ICNIRP which allows 450
pW/cm? at 900 MHz.
The Italian limits forthe general public are 60 V/m and 0.2 A/m from 100 kHz to 3 MHz,
20 V/m and 0.05 A/m from 3 MHz to 3 GHz and 40 V/m and 0.1 A/m in the frequency range
3-300 MHz. These limits are to be averaged over 6 min. “Precautionary levels” are 6 V/m
and 0.016 A/m for any frequency.
2.7.5 ICNIRP, CENELEC, IRPA, and CEU Limits

In 1998theInternationalCommission on Non-IonizingRadiationProtection (ICNIRP) pub-
lished guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic
fields. They concluded that any established biological and health effects in the frequency range
from 10 MHz to a few GHz are consistent with responses to a body temperature rise of more
than 1°C. This level of temperature increase results from exposureof individuals under moderate
environmental conditions to a whole-body SAR of approximately 4 W/kg for about 30 minutes.
A whole-body average of 0.4 W/kg has been chosen as the restriction that provides adequate
protection for occupational exposure. An additional safety factor of 5 has been introduced for
exposure of the public, giving an average whole-body SAR limit of 0.08 W/kg. The lower basic
restriction for exposure of the general public take into account the fact that their age and health
status may differ from those of workers. The reference levels (E, H, and power density) are
obtained from the basic SAR restrictions by mathematical modeling and by extrapolation from
the results of laboratory investigations at specific frequencies. These reference levels for the
general public are provided in Table 2.6. The ICNIRP developed basic restriction guidelines
with the International Non-Ionizing Radiation Association (IRPA) and these are shown in Table
2.7 for the exposure of workers.
The guideline limit values for the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardiza-
tion (CENELEC) contained in the European pre-standard ENV 50166, the International Radia-
tion Protection Agency (IRPA) and the Commission of the European Communities (CEU) are
provided in Table 2.7. These values of SAR are applicable to the exposure of workers only,
over a full working day, and include limits on the exposure to fields at 50/60 Hz.
However, in common with all other organizations, the committee did not take into account
the effects of
Drugs
Chemical or physical agents in the environment
Modulated microwave effects
Possible nonthennal very long-term effects
High-level low-repetition-rate sources.
2.7.6 Measurement of Electromagnetic Field Levels

A broadband isotropic probe is an instrument designed for the measurement of EM fields. How-
ever, such instruments are calibrated in the far field (i.e., illuminated with a near plane wave).
82 Chapter 2
Table 2.7 CENELEC ENV 50166, IRPA, and CEU Guidelines for Workers (Not the General Public)
over a Full Working Day
(a) power frequency 50/60 Hz CENELEC IRPA CEU
Induced current density, head and trunk 10 10 10
[niA/in']
Electric field strength [kV/tn] 10 10 19.6;12.3;6.1
Magnetic flux density [nil-] 1.6 0.5 0.64:0.4;0.2
Contact current L1nAl 3.5 1.5
(b) high frequencies CENELEC IRPA CEU

Frequency range [Hzl 1.0 x 10'- 1.0 x 10:- 1.0 x 10'-
3.0 x 10" 3.0 x 10" 3.0 x 10"
Specific absorption rate SAR [W/kg]
Whole body 0.4 0.4 0.4
Extremities (averaged over 10 g tissue) 20 20 20
Head and trunk (av. over 10 g) 10 10 10
Peak specific absorption rate sa [inJ/kg] 10 10
Contact current (0.1-3 (100) MHz) [mA] 35 (50) 50
When measuring in the near field i t is important to use the correct probe, and a magnetic (H) field
or electric (E) field probe is available for most instruments. The near-fieldlfar-field transition for
radiation from a point source is defined as h12x; however, for an antenna the transition is depen-
dent on antenna aperture. For example, the transition is at 25 ft for a specific helical antenna
( 1 I ) that has an operating frequency of 250-400 MHz.
As discussed in preceding sections and of use as a guideline only, the type of field gener-
ated by a dipole is predominantly an E field, as is the field from a current-carrying cable, and
the field from a loop is predominantly an H field. In the case of one type of helical antenna,
neither the electric nor the magnetic fields predominate in the proximity of the antenna; therefore,
either an E field or H field probe may be used for measurements (Ref. 1 I). To illustrate the
importance of using the correct probe: If a magnetic field probe is used to measure the near
field of a dipole and it registers the niaximum recommended level of magnetic field (i.e., 0.073
Alm) and we assume at the measurement location that the wave impedance Z,, is 6000 R, then
the electric field would be
Z,. X Alm = Vlm
6000 R X 0.073 Alm = 438 Vlm (i.e., 16 times the recommended level)
Potentially hazardous fields can be generated from unlikely, or at least unexpected,
sources. In the course of EM1 investigations, a broadband E field of 200 Vlm from a shielded
box (without apertures) and its power cable have been measured. Similarly, narrowband mag-
netic fields as high as 7 Alm at 30 MHz have been measured in the vicinity of an instrument
containing a plasma source.
2.7.7 DC and Power Frequency Fields

Those living i n an industrial society are constantly exposed to electric and magnetic fields from
power wiring, appliances, and high-voltage transmission lines at frequencies in the 50-60-Hz
range. For the sake of efficiency, overhead power lines have increased in voltage over the years,
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 83
with a recent increase from 345 kV to 765 kV. As a result of public concern, a number of
studies on possible hazards have been undertaken.
It is clear from earlier studies that 60-Hz electric and magnetic fields can affect biological
systems: however, due to the conflicting results of the recent studies on the effects on humans,
the author considers that no conclusions can be drawn at the time of publication of this book.
Health and Welfare Canada doesnot specify a maximum exposure to magnetic fields below 10
kHz. However, a contact there has provided a reference to an IRPA report entitled “Interim
Guidelines for Exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields,” published in the Health Physics Journal
in 1990. The recommended maximum exposure over a period of 24 hr is 1000 mG = 79.36
A/m. (Flux density limits in gauss or tesla can be converted to magnetic field strength when
the relative permeability is 1. The relationship is 1 tesla = 7.936 X IO’ A/m and 1 tesla = IO‘
gauss. Therefore, 1 G = 79.36 A/m.)
The International Commission on Nonionizing Radiation Protection has provided “Guide-
lines on Limits of Exposure to Static Magnetic Fields.” These guidelines have resulted in the
limits for exposure to static magnetic fields shown in Table 2.8. The guidelines state that those
with cardiac pacemakers should be discouraged from inadvertently entering areas with fields
large enough i n dimension to include most of a person’s trunk at magnetic flux densities greater
than 0.5 mT (396 A/m).
Reports (Refs. 12- 14) have raised the issue of the extremely high LF or DCelectric fields
(up to10.000 V/M) in the proximity of video display terminals (VDTs), whereas one report (Ref.
13) indicates that ionizing radiation measured froma number of VDTs is at an insignificantly low
level. Several manufacturers have produced conductive antistatic plastic material that may be
placed under the bezel surrounding a cathode ray tube screen. One disadvantageof this material
is that when the screen is curved, wrinkles form in the material. Another disadvantage with the
use of this material are reflections, which can be alleviated if the material is antiglare. The
antistatic material is ineffective unless it is grounded to some metal structure within the monitor
that is in turn connected to AC safety ground. As typically only one side of the material is
conductive, it is important to choose the correct side when making the ground connection.
Table 2.8 GuidelinesforExposure to StaticMagneticFields”

~~~~~~
Exposure characteristics Magnetic flux density

Occupational
Whole
working
day
(time-weighted
average) 200 mT (1.58 X IO’ A h )
Ceiling 2T
Limbs 5T
General public
Continuous
exposure 40 mT (3.17 X 10‘ Altn)
” Caution: People with cardiac pacemakers and other implantedelectrully activated devices. orwith
ferromagnetic Implants. may not he adequately protected hy the limits given hcrc. The maprity o f
cardiac pacemakers arc unlikely t o be affected from exposure to fields helow 0.S mT. Pcople with
some ferromagnetlc Implants or electrically activated devices (other than cardiac pacemakers) may
be affected hy fields above a few millitcslas.
When magnetic flux densltles exceed 3 mT. precautions should be taken to prevent hazards from
flying objects.
Analog watches, credit cards. magnetic tapes. computer disks. etc. may be adversely affected by
exposures to I mT.but thls is not a safety concern for humans.
General puhlic. Occasional access of members t o special klcilitlcs where magnetlc flux densitlcs
exceed 40 InTcan he allowed under approprlately controlled conditlons provlded that the appropriatc
occupational exposure l i m t is not exceeded.
84 Chapter 2
Far better are antiglare/antistatic screens that are specifically designed for different makes
of monitor. The screens are available from computer accessory suppliers and, according to the
advertising material from one manufacturer, reduce the field strength by 80-90%.
2.8COMPUTERPROGRAMS
The following computer programs were written using Microsoft’s QuickBASIC Version 3.0.
Unlike other common versions of compiled BASIC, the QuickBASIC compiler doesnot require
line numbers and allows the use of alphanumeric labels.
The programs incorporate some of the equations contained in this chapter and Chapter 7
and are useful in EMC prediction and problem solving as well as antenna calibration using a
PC. The programs are available as freeware from EMC Consulting Inc.
2.8.1 Computer Programs for Radiation from Wires

These programs may be used for calculation of the electric field or magnetic field or power
radiated from a wire or cable, depending on the equations used in the program. The equations
cover the radiation from a current element or electric dipole, a current loop, and a wire above
a ground plane. These equations may be used to model the following cable configurations:
1. An electrically short length of wire/cable either that is some distance from a ground
plane or for which the fields in close proximity are required. The wire/cable must be
disconnected at one or both ends.
2. A wire or cable forming a loop with either a return conductor or its electromagnetic
image in a ground plane. The length of the wire and the distance between the wire
and the return path must be much less than a wavelength. When modeling the wire
or cable above a ground plane, enter twice the height of the wire or cable above a
ground plane for the width of the frame antenna.
3. A transmission line comprised of a wire/cable and a return path. The return path may
be either a conductor or formed by the wire/cable electromagnetic image in a ground
plane, The cable/wire must be of a resonant length, i.e., 1/4, 3/4, l-1/4, . . . wave-
length when only one end is connected to ground and 1/2, I , 1 - 1 /2, . . . wavelength
when both are connected to ground. The distance between the wiredcables must be
much less than a wavelength. When the return path is the electromagnetic image in
a ground plane, use twice the heightof the wire above the ground plane when entering
the distance between conductors.
2.8.1 .l Computer Program for the Electric Field, Magnetic Field, and Wave
Impedance for a Current Element (Electric Dipole)
’Initialize constants
C=3E+08
Pl=3.14159
’Initialize input variables
F=2000: CUR=l: R = l : THETA=90
GOT0 ComputeCurrentElement:
CurrentElementMenu:
CLS
PRINT
PRINT “CURRENT ELEMENT
PRINT “Schelkunoff & Friis, Antennas, Theory and Practice

PRINT “Wiley, 1952, p120
PRINT
PRINT “INPUTS:”
PRINT “[F] FREQUENCY (F):”,F;“ Hz”
PRINT “[C] LOOP CURRENT (l): ”,CUR;“ amps”
PRINT “[D] DISTANCE FROM ELEMENT:”,R;“ meters”
PRINT “[A] ANGLE:”,,THETA;“ degrees”
PRINT “[X] End program”
PRINT “Which variable do you wish to change (F,C,etc)?”
PRINT
PRINT “OUTPUTS:”
PRINT “MAGNETIC FIELD :”,HH,“A/m”
PRINT “ELECTRIC FIELD :”,EE,“V/m”
PRINT “WAVE IMPEDANCE :”,ZW,“Ohms”
CurrentElementLoop:
SEL$=INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN LOCATE 12,l: PRINT SPACE$(70): LOCATE 12,4
IF (SEL$=“F”) OR (SEL$=“f”) THEN INPUT *‘ Enter frequency ”,F
IF (SEL$=“C”) OR (SEL$=“c”) THEN INPUT “ Enter loop current ”,CUR
IF (SEL$=“D”) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “ Enter distance from element ”,R
IF (SEL$=“A’) OR (SEL$=“a”) THEN INPUT “ Enter angle ”,THETA
IF (SEL$=“X”) OR (SEL$=“x”) THEN END
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN GOTO ComputeCurrentElement:
GOTO CurrentElementLoop:
ComputeCurrentElement:
LAMBDA=C/F : BETA=2*PI/LAMBDA
ERE=1 -LAMBDA2/(4*PIA2*RA2): EIM=LAMBDA/(2*PI*R)
EMAG=SQR(EREA2+EIMA2)
ET=377*CUR/(2*LAMBDA*R)*EMAG*SIN(THETA*Pl/l80)
XMAG=SQR(l +(LAMBDA/(2*PI*R))^2)
HH=CUR/(2*LAMBDA*R)*XMAG*SIN(THETA*PI/I80)
ER=377*CUR/(2*PI*RA2)*XMAG*COS(THETA*PI/l80)
IF THETA=90 THEN ZW=ET/HH ELSE ZW=O
EE=SQR(ET^2+ERA2)
GOTO CurrentElementMenu:
2.8.1.2 Computer Program for the Electric Field, Magnetic Field, and Wave
Impedance for a Current Loop (Frame Antenna)
C=3E+08: RC=377: PI=3.14159
’Initialize variables
F=20000: I=1: L = l : W = l : R = l : THETAD=90
GOTO ComputeCurrentLoop:
CurrentLoopMenu:
CLS
PRINT
PRINT “ELECTRIC FIELD FROM FRAME ANTENNA’
86 Chapter 2
PRINT “Schelkunoff, Antennas, Theory and Practice, pg. 320”

PRINT
PRINT “INPUTS:”
PRINT “[F] FREQUENCY:”,,F;“ Hz”
PRINT “[C] LOOP CURRENT:”,,I;“ amps”
PRINT “[L] LENGTH OF FRAME ANTENNA:”,’;“ m”
PRINT “[W] WIDTH OF FRAME ANTENNA:”,W;“ m”
PRINT “[D] DISTANCE FROM FRAME TO MEAS. PT.:”,R;“ m”
PRINT “[A] ENTER FRAME ANGLE:”,,THETAD;“ degrees”
PRINT “[X] End program
PRINT “Which variable do youwish to change (F,C,etc)?”
PRINT
PRINT “ELECTRIC FIELD=”,EPHI;“ V/m”
PRINT “MAGNETIC FIELD=”,HMAG;“ A/m”
PRINT “WAVE IMPEDANCE=”,ZW;“ Ohms”
CurrentLoopLoop:
SEL$=INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN LOCATE 13,i
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN PRINT SPACE$(70)
LOCATE 13,4
IF (SEL$=“C”) OR (SEL$=“c”) THEN INPUT “ Enter loop current ”, I
IF (SEL$=“F”) OR (SEL$=“f”) THEN INPUT “ Enter frequency ”,F
IF (SEL$=“L”) OR (SEL$=“I”) THEN INPUT Enter length of frame antenna ”,L
I‘
IF (SEL$=“W”) OR (SEL$=“w”) THEN INPUT “ Enter width of frame antenna ”,W

IF (SEL$=“D”) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “ Enter distance ”,R
IF (SEL$=“A’) OR (SEL$=“a”) THEN INPUT Enter frame angle ”,THETAD
“

IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN GOTO ComputeCurrentLoop:
GOTO CurrentLoopLoop:
ComputeCurrentLoop:
s=rw
BETA=2*PI*F/C
THETAR=THETAD*PI/180
EPHl=RC*BETA2*I*S*SQR(l + ( l /(BETA*R)”2))*SlN(THETAR)/(4*PI*R)
HTHETA -
- BETA2*l*S*SQR((l-
(l/(BETA*R)^2))^2+(1/(BETA*R)^2))*SIN(THETAR)/(4*PI*R)
HR=BETA*I*S*SQR(l +l/(BETA*R)”2)*COS(THETAR)/(2*PI*RA2)
HMAG=SQR(HTHETA2+HRA2)
IF THETAD=90 THEN ZW=EPHI/HMAG ELSE ZW=O
GOTO CurrentLoopMenu:
2.8.1.3 Computer Program for the Radiation from a Resonant
Transmission Line
WireAboveGroundPlane:
’CLS:LOCATE 4,l
’PRINT “RADIATION FROM A TRANSMISSION LINE”
’PRINT
E and H, Fields, Radiators, Receptors, and Antennas a7
’PRINT “ P=30*BETA2*BBA2*IA2”
’PRINT H=SQR(P”K/(4*PI*RA2*ZW)”
“
’PRINT BETA=2*PI*F/C
“
’PRINT Pl=3.14159
“
’PRINT K = DAVID’S CONSTANT = 1.5

“
’PRINT SPEED OF LIGHT IN VACUUM, (C = 3E08 m/s)”

‘I
’PRINT
’GOSUB Spacebar:
GOTO ComputeWireAboveGroundPlane:
WireAboveGroundPlaneMenu::
CLS: PRINT
PRINT “WIRE ABOVE A GROUND PLANE
PRINT
PRINT “INPUTS:”
PRINT
PRINT “[F] FREQUENCY (F):”,,F;“ Hz”
PRINT “[R] DIAMETER OF WIRE (D):”,,D;“ metres”
PRINT “[C] LINE CURRENT (I):”,,l;“ amps”
PRINT “[D] DISTANCE FROM WIRE TO MEAS. PT.:”,R;“ metres”
PRINT “[H] DISTANCE BETWEEN CONDUCTORS”
PRINT “ OR HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND PLANE:”,BB;“ metres”
PRINT “[X] Exit to Main Menu”
PRINT “Which parameter would you like to change (A,B,..)?”
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT “POWER= ”,,P;“W/mA2”
PRINT “MAGNETIC FIELD= ”,H;“ A/m”
PRINT “ZW= ”,,ZW;“Ohms”
PRINT
PRINT
WireAboveGroundPlaneLoop::
SEL$=INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN LOCATE 12,l
LOCATE 12,4
IF (SEL$=“F”) OR (SEL$=“f”) THEN INPUT “ Enter frequency ”,F
IF (SEL$=“C”) OR (SEL$=“c”) THEN INPUT “ Enter loop current ”,l
IF (SEL$=“R”) OR (SEL$=“r”) THEN INPUT Enter diameter of wire ”,D
“
IF (SEL$=“D”) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “ Enter distance ”,R

IF (SEL$=“H”) OR (SEL$=“h”) THEN INPUT “ Enter distance or height ”,BB
IF (SEL$=“X”) OR (SEL$=“x”) GOTO MainMenu:
IF LEN(SEL$)>O GOTO ComputeWireAboveGroundPlane:
GOTO WireAboveGroundPlaneLoop::
ComputeWireAboveGroundPlane:
GOSUB CheckVariables:
K= 1.5
88 Chapter 2
LAMBDA=C/F
IF R>LAMBDA/(2*PI) THEN
zw =377
ELSE
ZO= 138*(LOG((4*BB)/D)/LOG(l0))
ZW=(R/(LAMBDA/(2*PI)))*(ZO-377)+377
END IF
P=30*BETA2*BBA2*IA2
H=SQR(P*K/(4*PI*RA2*ZW))
GOTO WireAboveGroundPlaneMenu:
2.8.2 Computer Programs for Coupling to WiresKabIes

These programs calculate the current flow in the victim wire/cable based on an incident E or
H field. The equations used in the programs cover the following cable configurations:
1. A wire or cable forming a loop with either a return conductor or the electromagnetic
image of the cable or wire in the ground plane. Where a wire above a ground plane
is modeled, enter the height of the cable above the ground plane. For a wire or cable,
enter one-half the distance between the two conductors for the height. Where the
height ( H ) or length ( L ) is much less than the wavelength, use the inductance of a
rectangular loop and enter (I) in the program. (I) may also be used to calculate the
receiving properties of a loop antenna when theload impedance is setto zero. Where
the length is much greater than the height and the height is less than half the wave-
length, use transmission line theory and enter (T) in the program.
2 . Where a cable is less than one-fourth of a wavelength in length, is disconnected from
ground at one end, and terminates on a metal enclosure at the other end, enter (M)
in the program. (M) may be usedto calculate the receiving propertiesof a nonresonant
monopole antenna.
A computer program for the coupling between wires or cables is provided at the end of
Chapter 4, on cable coupling and crosstalk.
2.8.2.1 Computer Program for the Receiving Properties of a Loop (l)
C=3E+08: RC=377:PI=3.14159
Z0=50: Z1=50: H = l : LL=1: A=.006: F=20000: 10=1
GOTO INDcompute:
Inductancelnputs:
CLS
PRINT “LINE CURRENTS USING INDUCTANCE”
PRINT “Equation 8 from Taylor & Castillo, IEEE, Vol. EMC-20, No. 4, Nov. 1978”
PRINT “INPUTS:
PRINT “[F] FREQUENCY”,,F;“Hz
PRINT “[S] SOURCE IMPEDANCE”,,ZO;“Ohms
PRINT “[TI LOAD IMPEDANCE”,,ZI;“Ohms
PRINT “[Z] HEIGHT”,,,H;“metres
PRINT “[L] LENGTH”,,,LL;“metres
PRINT “[D] DIAMETER OF WIRE”,,A;“metres
E and H,Radiators,
Fields,
Antennas
Receptors,
and 89
IF XX$=“?” THEN
PRINT “[C] CURRENT IN TERMINATION (Amps or ?):’’,‘l? = Refer to OUTPUT”
PRINT “[H] MAGNETIC FIELD”,,MF;“Amps/m”
ELSE
PRINT “[C] CURRENT IN TERMINATION (Amps or ?):’l, IO;“ Amps
END IF
PRINT “[X] End program”
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT “OUTPUT:”
PRINT “INDUCTANCE OF RECTANGULAR LOOP = ”,L;“Henrys”
PRINT “FLUX DENSITY = ”,B;“Webers/mY”
MF=B/UO
IF XX$=“?” THEN PRINT “CURRENT IN TERMINATION (Amps) = ”,IO;“A’
IF X X $ o “ ? ” THEN PRINT “MAGNETIC FIELD = ”,MF;“A/m”
INDLoop:
SEL$=INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN LOCATE 13,l: PRINT SPACE$(70):LOCATE 13,l
IF (SEL$=“S”) OR (SEL$=“s”) THEN INPUT “Enter source impedance ”,ZO
IF (SEL$=“T”) OR (SEL$=“t”) THEN INPUT “Enter source impedance ”,Z1
IF (SEL$=“B”) OR (SEL$=“b”) THEN GOTO CNGEXX::
IF (SEL$=“Z”) OR (SEL$=“z”) THEN INPUT “Enter height ”,H
IF (SEL$=“L”) OR (SEL$=“I”) THEN INPUT “Enter length ”,LL
IF (SEL$=“D”) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “Enter diameter of wire ”,A
IF (SEL$=“F”) OR (SEL$=“f”) THEN INPUT “Enter Frequency ”,F
IF (SEL$=“C”) OR (SEL$=“c”) THEN GOTO CNGEXX:
IF (SEL$=“H”) OR (SEL$=“h”) THEN INPUT “Enter magnetic field ”,MF
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN GOTO INDcompute:
GOTO INDLoop:
CNGEXX:
INPUT “Enter CURRENT IN TERMINATION (Amps or ?): ”,XX$
IF XX$=“?” THEN
LOCATE 13, l
PRINT “Current value for MAGNETIC FIELD is:”;MF;“Amps/m”
INPUT “Enter new value:”;MF
GOTO INDcompute:
END IF
IO=VAL(XX$)
GOTO INDcompute:
CNGEMF:
LOCATE 13,l
PRINT “Current value for MAGNETIC FIELD is:”;MF;“Amps/m”
INPUT “Enter new value:”;MF
GOTO INDcompute:
INDcompute:
uo=4*PI*.oooooo1
D=SQR((2*H)^2+LL^2)
90 Chapter 2
AA=LL*LOG(4*H*LL/(A’(LL+D)))
BB=2*H*LOG(4*H*LL/(A’(2*H+D)))
CC=2*D-7/4*(LL+2*H)
L=UO/PI*(AA+BB+CC)
ZZ=SQR((2*(ZO+Zl))^2+(2*PI*F*L)”2)
IF XX$=“?” THEN
B=MF*UO
IO=B*2*PI*F*4*H*LL/ZZ
ELSE
B=lO*ZZ/(2*PI*F*4*H*LL)
END IF
GOTO Inductancelnputs:
2.8.2.2 Computer Program for Calculating the Receiving Properties
of a Transmission Line (T)
C=3E+08: RC=377:PI=3.14159
10=1: EO=l: Z1=50: H = l : F=20000: A=.003: IsltCurrent=l
GOTO ComputeTransmissionLine:
TransmissionLinelnputs:
CLS
PRINT “LINE CURRENTS USING TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY”
PRINT “Taylor & Castillo: Eqn. 6,lO from IEEE, Vol. EMC-20, No. 4, Nov, 1978”
PRINT
IF IsltCurrent=l THEN
PRINT “[A] WIRE CURRENT (Amps or ?) :”;IO
ELSE
PRINT “[A] ELECTRIC FIELD (V/m or ?) :”;EO
END IF
PRINT “[R] RESISTANCE OF LINE :”; Zl;“Ohms”
PRINT “[H] HEIGHT :”;H;“metres”
PRINT “[F] FREQUENCY :”;F;“Hz”
PRINT “[D] DIAMETER OF WIRE :”;A;“metres”
PRINT “[X] End program
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT “OUTPUT:”
IF IsltCurrent=l THEN PRINT “ELECTRIC FIELD (V/m) = ”;EO;“ V/m”
IF IsltCurrent=O THEN PRINT “WIRE CURRENT = ”;IO;“ Amps”
PRINT “CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE = ”;ZC;“Ohms”
TLoop:
SEL$=INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN LOCATE 10,l: PRINT SPACE$(70): LOCATE 10,l
IF (SEL$=“A’) OR (SEL$=“a”) THEN GOTO ALTERXXX:
IF (SEL$=“R”) OR (SEL$=“r”) THEN INPUT “Enter impedance of line ”,ZI
IF (SEL$=“H”) OR (SEL$=“h”) THEN INPUT “Enter height ”,H
IF (SEL$=“F”) OR (SEL$=“f”) THEN INPUT “Enter frequency ”,F
IF (SEL$=“D”) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “Enter diameter ”,A

IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN GOTO CornputeTransmissionLine:
GOTO TLoop:
ALTERXXX:
LOCATE 10,l
IF IsltCurrent=l THEN GOTO ALTERXXX2:
INPUT “ELECTRIC FIELD (V/m or ?): ”,XXX$
IF XXX$=“?” THEN
PRINT “Current value for WIRE CURRENT is:”;lO;“Amps”
INPUT “Enter new value:”,lO
IsltCurrent=l
ELSE
EO=VAL(XXX$)
END IF
ALTERXXX2:
LOCATE 10,l
INPUT “WIRE CURRENT is (Amps or ?): ”,XXX$
IF XXX$=“?” THEN
PRINT “Current value for ELECTRIC FIELD is:”;EO;“V/m”
INPUT “Enter new value:”,EO
IsltCurrent=O
ELSE
IO=VAL(XXX$)
END IF
ComputeTransmissionLine:
uo=4*PI*.oooooo1
LE=(UO/PI)*LOG(H/A)
K=2*PI*F/C
ZC1 =(Z1/1000+2*PI*F*LE)*2*PI*F*LE/(K2)
ZC=SOR(ZCl)
IF IsltCurrent=l THEN EO=IO*ZC/4/H
IF IsltCurrent=O THEN IO=4*EO*H/ZC
GOTO TransmissionLinelnputs:
2.8.2.3 Computer Program for Calculating the Receiving Properties
of a Nonresonant Monopole Antenna
CLS
PRINT “Open circuit voltage or current into a load caused by an E field
PRINT “incident on a short length of wire/cable (length << lambda) located
PRINT “at least 1 m from a ground plane and terminated to ground at one end
PRINT “only.
GOSUB Spacebar:
C=3E+08: Pl=3.14159
EO=l: F=2000: H = l : A=.001: RL=50: ZW=377
92 Chapter 2
GOTO Compute:
Inputs:
CLS
PRINT INPUTS:
‘l
PRINT “ [A] Electric field”,EO;“V/m”

PRINT “ [B] Frequency”,,F;“Hz”
PRINT [C] Length of wire”,H;“metres”
“
PRINT “ [D] Diameter of wire”,A;“metres”

PRINT [E] Load Resistance”,RL;“Ohms”
‘I
PRINT “ [F] Wave Impedance”,ZW;“Ohms”

PRINT “ [X] End program
PRINT “ Please select variable you wish to change (A,B,etc)
PRINT “
PRINT OUTPUTS:”
“
IF 2*PI*H/LAMBDA<l THEN GOSUB Outputsl:

IF (2*PI*H/LAMBDA>l) AND (2*PI/LAMBDA<2.75) THEN GOSUB Outputs2:
IF 2*PI*H/LAMBDA>2.75 THEN GOSUB Outputs3:
LOCATE 9,3
SelectLoop:
SEL$=INKEY$
LOCATE 9,3
IF (SEL$=“A’) OR (SEL$=“a”) THEN INPUT “Enter electric field”,EO
IF (SEL$=“B”) OR (SEL$=“b”) THEN INPUT “Enter Frequency”,F
IF (SEL$=“C”) OR (SEL$=“c”) THEN INPUT “Enter Length of wire”,H
IF (SEL$=“D’) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “Enter Diameter of wire”,A
IF (SEL$=“E”) OR (SEL$=“e”) THEN INPUT “Enter Load Resistance”,RL
IF (SEL$=“F”) OR (SEL$=“f”) THEN INPUT “Enter Wave Impedance”,ZW
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN GOTO Compute:
GOTO SelectLoop:
Compute:
SEL$=“”
LAMBDA=C/F
BETA=2*PI/LAMBDA
HH=BETA*H
OMEGA=2*(LOG(2*H/A))/LOG(lO)
RR= 197.5*((2*H)/LAMBDA)”2
ZORE= 10*(HH”2)
TEMP1 =(OMEGA-2)”2
TEMP2=2*(LOG(2)/LOG(lO))
ZOIM=(30/HH)*(TEMPl / ( l +TEMP2))
ZO=SQR(ZORE“2+ZOIMA2)
K=(l -(ZO/RL))/(l+(ZO/RL))
ALPHA= 1- KA2
G = 1.5*ALPHA
Amax=G*(LAMBDA2/(4*PI))
HE1 =(Amax*RR)/(2*ZW)
HE2=(EO*LAMBDA)/(2*PI)*TAN(PI*H/LAMBDA)
IF RL>1000000! THEN VO=EO*HE2 ELSE VO=EO*HEl

IF RL>1000000! THEN HE=HE2 ELSE HE=HEl
VL=EO*HEl
IL=VL/RL
lS=VO*TAN(2*PI*H/LAMBDA)/GO
GOTO Inputs:
Outputs1:
PRINT “ Open circuit voltage”,ABS(VO);“Volts”
PRINT Short circuit current”,ABS(IS);“Amps”
“
PRINT Effective height (He)”,ABS(HE);“metres”

“
PRINT Self impedance (Zo)”,ABS(ZO);“Ohms”

“
PRINT Current in load (IL)”,ABS(IL);“Amps”

I‘
PRINT Voltage across load (VL)”,ABS(VL);“Volts”

“
RETURN
Outputs2:
PRINT “ **RESONANT**
PRINT “ See Transmission Lines, Antennas and Waveguides
PRINT “ (pp. 98,166)
PRINT “
PRINT Omega=”;OMEGA
“
PRINT Beta=”;HH
“
PRINT Open Circuit Voltage=”;VO

“
RETURN
Outputs3:
PRINT “
PRINT “ The frequency and length of wire are such that:”

PRINT “ *PI*H/LAMBDA>2.75
2
PRINT
PRINT “ This program is not applicable for such conditions.
RETURN
Spacebar:
LOCATE 15,l
PRINT “Press the spacebar to continue or X to end
SpacebarLoop:
Spcbr$=INKEY$
IF Spcbr$=CHR$(32) THEN GOTO Returner:
IF (Spcbr$=“x”) OR (Spcbr$=“X”) THEN END
GOTO SpacebarLoop:
Returner:
RETURN
REFERENCES
1. MathewZarct.OutlineofElectromagneticTheory.Regents,NewYork,1965.
2. J.E. Bndges. Study of low-frequency fields for coaxial and twisted pair cables. Proceedings of the
10th Tri-Scrvicc Conference on Electromagnetic Compatibility. Chicago, IL, Nov. 1964.
3. J. Moser. Predicting the magnetic fields from a twisted pair cable. IEEE trans. on EMC, Vol. EMC
IO. No. 3, Sept. 1968.
4. S. Shenficld. Magnetic fields of twisted wire pairs. IEEE Trans. on EMC Vol. EMC 1 I . No. 4, Nov.
1969.
94 Chapter 2
5. A. Richtscheid. Calculationof the radiation resistance ofloop antennas with sinusoidal current distri-
bution. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation. November 1976.
6. R.W.P. King, H.R. Mimno, and A.H. Wing. Transmission lines. antennas, and wave guides. Dover,
NewYork.1965.
7. G.H. Brown. and O.M. Woodward Jr. Experimentally determined radiation characteristics of conical
and triangular antennas. RCA Review 13, No. 4, Dec. 1952.
8. Health Aspects of Radio Frequency and Microwave Exposure. Part 2 . Health and Welfarc Canada,
78-EHD-22,Ottawa,1978.
9. IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromag-
netic Fields. 3 kHz to 300 GHz, IEEE C95.1--1991.
IO. Safety Code 6. Canada Health and Welfare. 99-EHD-237 ( 1999).
11. Private Communication with N. Sultan, formerly with Canadian Astronautics.
12. B. Spinner. J. Purdham, and K. Marha. The Case for Concern about Very Low Frequency Fields
from Visual Display Terminals: The Need for Further Research and Shielding of VDT’s. From the
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
13. K. Marha. Emissions from VDTs: Possible Biological Effects and Guidelines. Canadian Centre for
Occupational Health and Safety, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
14. K. Marha. VLF-Very Low Frequency Fields near VDTs and an Example of Their Removal. Cana-
dian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, Hamilton, Ontario. Canada.
15. Additional information on antenna factor and calibration is available from: Ezra B. Larsen. NBS.
Calibration and Meaning of Antenna Actors and Gain for EM1 Antennas. ITEM 1986.
16. A comparison of electric field-strength standards for the frequency range of 30- 1000 MHz. Heinrch
Garn. IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, November 1997, Vol. 39, No. 4.
17. Code of federal regulations
- 47. Chapter I , Part I , 1.1310. October 1, 1997.
Additional current element and current loop equations derived from: Schelkunoff and Friis.
Antennas Theory and Practice. Wiley, New York, 1952.
Typical Sources and Characteristics of
Radiated and Conducted Emissions
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO NOISESOURCES

Some typical sources of electromagnetic emissions are transmitters, pulse generators, oscillators,
digital logic circuits, switching power supplies and converters, relays, motors, and line drivers.
The majority of unintentional emissions are conlposedof a great number of frequencies typically
caused by switching and transient noise. Design engineers usually measure digital and impulsive
signals in the time domain with an oscilloscope or logic analyzer. whereas EM1 specifications
and measurements are made in the frequency domain. Either Fourier analysis or Laplace trans-
form may be used to compute the amplitude of the frequencies contained within the impulsive
noise (the spectrum occupancy), or a spectrum analyzer or receiver may be used to measure
the frequency components. Making a measurement is easier and more accurate, especially when
the wavefornl is complex in shape.
During breadboarding and when the first prototype of equipment is available, an assess-
ment of the level and frequencies generated by the circuit is important, both in achieving intra-
equipment EMC and in meeting EMC specifications. The same information is also useful when
locating the source in an EM1 investigation. Assuming a spectrum analyzer is not available,
some simple technique for assessing the frequency occupancy based on the time-domain signal
is desirable. This chapterillustrates the frequency occupancyof common waveforms with simple
formulae for calculating the amplitudeversusfrequencycharacteristics,introducesa “quick
transform technique,” and presents a case study of measurements made on a voltage converter
(which is a common source of noise).
3.1.1 Harmonically Related Noise from Single and Periodic Pulses

For a periodic pulse, the low-frequency spectrum is comprised of the pulse repetition rate (PRR)
and its harmonics. Figure 3.1 shows a symmetrical trapezoidal periodic pulse train where t,, +
t,. = T/2. Figure 3.2 shows the envelope approximation of the spectral lines shown at 1/T, 3/
T, and 5 / T (the spectral lines at 2/T and 4/T are at zero amplitude).
Figure 3.3 shows the spectral lines for a pulse where t,, + t, = T / 5 . The negative amplitudes
of the sin .d.\.envelope shown i n Figures 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 may be inverted, because we are
only interested in the anlplitude and frequency and an envelope approximation made of the
decrease in the amplitude of the spectral line with increasing frequency, as shown in all the
subsequent figures.
The spectrum analyzer inverts the negative amplitude and, depending on the resolution
bandwidth and sweeptime settings, may display the spectral lines. When the pulse train is un-
modulated, the scan starts at 0 Hz.
95
96 Chapter 3
By Fourier analysis the amplitudeat the frequencyof the

nth harmonlc IS glven by.
C,, = 2A +t )
(t
-
T
. 8111[
m
m (to+ t,)lT]
(lo+ t ,)A'
.
sln (nnt,A')
the argument of sone IS In radians
Figure 3.1 Symmetricaltrapezoidalperiodicpulse.(FromRef. 1.)
The pulse width can be found from the frequency at the sidelobe corresponding to 1 / ( l r +
f,,) and the pulse repetition rate from the spacing between the spectral lines corresponding to
1/T, as shown in Figure 3.3. Assuming T = 1 p for the pulse illustrated in Figure 3.1, t, +
l,,= 0.5 ps (i.e.. T / 2 ) and the sidelobe frequency will be 2 MHz (i.e., 1/0.5 vs).
One common error is often made in finding the PRR from a spectrum analyzer measure-
ment for a waveform with a mark-to-space ratio of unity, that is, the symmetrical pulse of Figure
3. l . The sine x/.x function envelope is shown for convenience only in Figure 3.1 and is not
displayed in a spectrum analyzer measurement; therefore the location of the sidelobe is not clear
from a spectrum analyzer display. The spectral lines at the sidelobes are at zero amplitude, and
the negative line at 3 / T is inverted by the spectrum analyzer. Thus the PRR is commonly taken
as the spacing between the two positive spectral lines, which is 2/T, i.e., a PRR twice as high
as the signal under measurement. Section 9.2.2 deals with the use of a spectrum analyzer in
some detail. The best method of familiarization with thespectrum analyzer and its representation
of a periodic pulse train, and one I know the customer support people at Hewlett-Packard have
used, is to apply a known signal from a pulse or square-wavegenerator and examine the resultant
spectral lines.
Figure 3.2 Low-frequencyharmonicspectrum for f, + f,, = T / 2 trapezoidalpulse. (From Rcf. 1.)

Typical
Sources
and
Characteristics of Radiated
and
Conducted
Emissions 97
where pulse repetition rate (PRR) = 1and b + t = T

T 5
Figure 3.3 Low-frequency harmonic spcctrum for trapezoidal periodic pulse (narrowband). (From Ref.
1.)
to coherent br-
Let b + t = d
f=n
T
QrmciBatdMtk
dBpV (narrowband) - 20 log ( P R R in MHz) = dBpVIMHz (broadband)
Figure 3.4 Low-frequencyharmonicenvelopcforsingle-pulsebroadband. (From Ref. I.)

98 Chapter 3
d = 0.5 PS
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Frequency (MHz)
A = 3.5 V
T = l p
+d=O0.5p-b
Figure 3.5 High-frequency spectrum of a TTL-level l-MHz clock pulse.
The periodic pulse train illustrated in Figure 3.1 generates narrowband frequencies har-
monically related to the PRR. The equation that may be used to find the amplitude at the fre-
quency of the 11th harmonic is shown under the wavefonn in Figure 3.1. An example of the use
of thisequation is given in calculating the harmonic components of the l-MHz transistor-
transistor logic (TTL) clock pulse illustrated i n Figure 3.5.
A single pulse and pulses with low repetition rates, relative to the pulse width, generate
coherent broadband noise. This noise is coherent because the frequencies generated are related
to the rise and fall times and width of the pulse. A dcfinition of cohererlt is a signal or emission
in which the neighboring frequency elements are related or well defined in both amplitude and
phase.
The definition of brocldhorzd as a single pulse or low-repetition-rate pulse is sometimes
Typical
Sources
andCharacteristics of Radiated
and
Conducted
Emissions 99
used in commercial EMC specifications with a specified maximum repetition rate, typically 10
kHz, below which a source is considered broadband.
A commonly accepted definition of Olocrdbnnd relates to a measurement bandwidth: noise
that has a spectrum broad in width compared to the nominal bandwidth of a receiver or spectrum
analyzer. Chapter 9 discusses the definition and measurement of narrowband and broadband
noise in some detail.
The equation shown in Figure 3.4 allows the conversion of the narrowband harmonic
amplitude from the periodicpulseinto the broadbandcoherentamplitude,measured in pV/
MHz, generated by a single pulse.
Figure 3.5 shows the high-frequency spectrum of a trapezoidal periodic pulse train. The
+
first breakpoint comes at 1 / ( I f , fc,) and this can also be seen in Figure 3.4; the second breakpoint
+
comes at l/'t,. The amplitude at frequenciesbelow l/('?, tJ is equal to (2A) X ( t , f,,)/T +
whereas for the single pulse it is (2 A) X (1, + fJ.
The high-frequency spectrum of a 3.5-V l-MHz clock with 3.5-ns rise and fall times,
which is a typical TTL level, is illustrated in Figure 3.5. We shall use this l-MHz clock as an
example i n calculatingtheamplitude at theharmonicsandconverting them into a coherent
broadband-equivalent level. It should be noted that due to the relatively high PRR, the clock
is almost certainly classified as a narrowband source, under the definitions given in Chapter 9.
From the following equation, the amplitude of the narrowband harmonics may be calculated:
( t + t )!
C,, = (2 A) L . ~sin[m(t,,
.- _.
+ r,)/T] sin(xrlt,/T)
_ _ _ _ - ,
(arguments of sine in radians)
T nn(t,,+ f , ) / T nnt,/T
The narrowband amplitude (C,,)at the first harmonic (the fundamental)using this equation
is 2.226 V. The equations in Figure 3.4 are used to find the broadband-equivalent amplitude as
follows: from narrowband CJPRR we obtain 2.226 V/1 MHz = 2.226 pV/Hz. To express the
broadband level in the common broadband unit of dBpV/MHz. we convert 2.226 pV to dBpV
(i.e., 6.9 dBpV) and add a 120-dB correction for the conversion from the l-Hz to the l-MHz
reference bandwidth, which results in 127 dBpV/MHz.
A second equation using dBp V (narrowband) and PRR in megahertz is as follows: dBpV
(narrowband) - 20 log (PRR in MHz). The amplitude at 1 MHz (the first harmonic) equals
2.226 V, which, expressed in dBpV, is 127 dBpV. The broadband level is therefore 127 dBpV
- 20 log 1 = 127 dBpV/MHz. The broadband amplitudes at other harmonics are S3 dBpV/
MHz at the second harmonic, 1 17 dBpV/MHz at the third harmonic, I10 dBpV/MHz at the
seventh harmonic, and 53 dBpVlMHzat the eighth harmonic, as plotted along with the envelope
in Figure 3.6.
The equations for the calculation of the spectrum occupancy for square, rectangular, and
many other single- or low-repetition-rate event pulse shapes are shown in Figures 3.7-3.13.
The curves in these figures result from connecting the maxima of the spectral lines envelope,
as shown in Figure 3.6. These figures also contain information useful in achieving a design that
limits the amplitude of the low- and high-frequency emissions from pulses. Figure 3.8, for
example, shows that the low-frequency component of a trapezoidal pulse may be reduced by
decreasing the duration of the pulse. However, when the pulse width is decreased, the maximum
value of the rise and fall times may be limited by the pulse width. Increasing the rise and fall
times decreases the frequency of the breakpoint and reduces the amplitudeof the high-frequency
components.
To summarize: for any pulse shape, the interference level at low frequencies depends only
on the area under the pulse. while at higher frequencies the level depends on the number (PRR)
and steepness (rise and fall times) of the slopes.
100 Chapter 3
Figure 3.6 Interference level for a l-V l-ps rectangular pulse. (From Ref. 1.)
Figure 3.9 illustratesthe rate of reduction in amplitude forfrequencies above the

breakpoint for eight common pulse shapes. The Gaussian pulse has the most rounded contours
and exhibits the steepest slope in amplitude reduction with increasing frequency beyond the
breakpoint. Thus it is not the rise time alone that controls the amplitude of the high-frequency
components.
A logic or similar pulse may often exhibit rounding at the start and end of the rising/
falling edge, with a subsequent reduction in high-frequency emissions, compared to a pure trape-
lsor
nt
sin nfd = 1
sin&- 1
0-28
,2121
t " \
FREQUENCY MHz
Figure 3.7 Interferencelevelfor ;i l-V 1-ps trapezoidalpulse(FromRef. 1.)

Typical Sources and Characteristics of Radiated and Conducted Emissions 101
160
d = PULSE DURATION INPS

140 f = PULSE RISE TIME INp
N 120
I
3a 100
U
m'
80
60
40
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
FREOUENCY. MHz
Figure 3.8 Trapezoidalpulseinterference. (From Ref. 1.)
zoidal pulse. Conversely, a pulse with overshoot and/or undershoot or with a section of the
transition that exhibits a faster rate of dVldr than the overall edge will result in high-frequency
emissions at greater amplitude. Where possible, the edges of pulses should be rounded and the
rise and fall times increased. In a printed circuit board (PCB) loaded with logic, this is a near-
impossible task, andother reduction techniques describedin subsequent chapters may be applica-
ble. However, for a clock line or data bus with a high fan out (i.e., driving a large number of
- -
NOTE: INTERFERENCE LEVELFOR 1-VOLT
1-PS PULSE A 1 .d lo8
2Ad
.r,. I
Figure 3.9 Interference levels for eight colnlnon pulse shapes (dBp VlMHz versusf). (From Ref. 1.)
102 Chapter 3
Figure 3.10 lntcrfcrence levels for various pulse shapes (dB below 2AAd vs. f ) . (From Ref. I . )
120
z
a
m
111) = a e-cltsin pt
WHERE:
a = l amp
5
aI-1.153~10
p = 7.854 X 105
fo= 126.34kHz
FREOUENCY. MHz
Figure 3.11 Normalizedfrequcncyspectrum of dampedsinewavepulse.(FromRef. 1.)

0 Time
Frequency
1EMP
Spacc plasma
arc dischargc
(MIL-STD-1-91)
Human btxldy
ESD Mtxlcl
(MIL-STD-88%)
I~ghln~ng
(MIL-STD-SOX7B)
Figure 3.12 Time- and frequency-domain relations due to lightning, EMP, ESD, and space plasma arc
discharge.
logic inputs), it may be practical to slow down and round edges by the inclusion of a series
resistor or a series resistor-parallel capacitor combination.Adding the resistor in TTL-type logic
will decrease the “high”-level voltage and increase the “low”-level and nlust be limited in
value to typically lOOR or less to ensure the correct operation of the logic and maintain some
level of DC noise immunity. An alternative to the resistor is a ferrite bead, which introduces
some inductance. Assutning the edges are not slowed down to the extent that the maximum
“high” andlnininlum “low” levelsare not reached at therepetitionrate of the signal,the
inclusion of the ferrite bead will not degrade the “high” and “low” logic magnitudes. One
disadvantage with the bead is the possibility of resonance and peaking in the logic levels. The
104 Chapter 3
2 4 6 8
140
120
100
80
dB
60
40
20
0
100 10 1 10 100 1
(kHz) (MHz) (GHz)
Frequency
Figure 3.13 Relativespectralcontentofa l-MHz TTL clocksource,theresultantinterfacecable

common-mode current flow, and the E field generated by the cable.
addition of a 1 to 10R resistor in series with the inductor or a resistor across the inductor will
reduce the inductor Q and minimize peaking. The characteristic of a ferrite bead, resonance,
and peaking andthe choice of resistor value to minimize these effects are discussed in Chapter 5.
Figure 3.10 is the same curve as in Figure 3.9 except that the y-axis is in "dB below
21Ad" and the x-axis is plotted in frequency as a function of d. Thus Figure 3.9 may be conve-
niently used for any pulse amplitude and pulse duration. The curves of Figure 3.10 may be
used for other waveshapes by considering the waveshape as made up of a number of different
waveshapes, such as rectangular and triangular, and finding the total area to obtain the low-
frequency content andthe number and steepnessof the slopes to find the high-frequency content.
From the envelopes of typical waveshapes it is clear that the high-frequency components are
at a lower magnitude than the fundamental but can exist at amplitudes that may be problematic
to other sections of a system or equipment. It is therefore not surprising that designers are often
amazed when equipment fails radiated or conducted emission requirements at frequencies orders
of magnitude above the fundamental frequencies used in the equipment. When we look at the
level of emissions from a l-MHz clock with a typical TTL waveshape at frequencies of 100-
300 MHz, they are indeed 40-46 dB below the fundamental.
Then why are measured emissions often at a maximum in this 100-300-MHz frequency
range? Typically a combination of factors is involved. One is that common-mode noise devel-
opedacross a PCB tends to increasewithincreasingfrequency as PCB tracklground plane
impedance increases. In addition, the coupling of common-mode noise may be via the capaci-
tance between the board and the enclosure, and this coupling path decreases in impedance with
increasing frequency. Where radiated emissions are caused by common-mode current flow on
a cable, the radiation will typically increase with increasing frequency until cable resonances
Typical
Sources
and
and
Conducted
Emissions 105
occur, and at the same time the common-mode voltage driving the current increases, due to
increasing circuit impedance. Where a shielded interface cable is used, the shielding effective-
ness typically decreases with increasing frequency, and the radiation, caused by current flow
on the outside of the shield, increases. These coupling mechanisms, including the effect of PCB
and cable resonance, are discussed in subsequent chapters.
Consider a simple model of an unshielded cable exitinga piece of equipment and terminat-
ing in a second pieceof equipment, as illustrated in Figure 7.25. Let us assume that the common-
mode voltages in each piece of equipment, which cause the current flow, and its coupling to
the enclosure resultin a 26-dB increase in current perdecade increase in frequency. The envelope
of the frequency components of the cable current flow, plotted for the sake of comparison against
the source voltage of Figure 3.5, is as illustrated in Figure 3.13. The radiated emissions from
the cable increase by approximately 20-30 dB per decade increase in frequency, dependent
on the frequency, until the resonant frequency of the length of cable is reached, after which
emissions either level out or reduce, as discussed in Section 7.6. This may be confirmed by use
of the loop equations given in Chapter 2. The envelope of the frequency components of the
resultant E field at a fixed distance from the cable is plotted for the sake of comparison in Figure
3.13. It should be emphasized that the current and E field plots are dimensionless.
Figure 3.13 illustrates that the maximum Efield in the 50-500-MHz frequency range may
be at an amplitude 36 dB abovethe fundamental, something commonly seen in practice. Often,
circuit and cable resonances occur and we see one or more frequencies at which the measured
field is higher than surrounding frequencies.
Sometimes the repetition rateof the impulsive noisecoincides with a resonance frequency,
and a sinewave or damped sinewave is generated. When a continuous sinewave is generated in
this manner it gives rise to an emission that is considered narrowband in nature. It is not uncom-
mon to find narrowband and broadband emissions together resulting from a single source of
noise.
We have assumed thus far that the source of noise is the logic voltage transition. Although
this voltage plays an important role in determining the radiated emission and in the crosstalk
andconductednoisevoltagegenerated by the logic, it is oftenthecurrentpulse that is the
predominant source of emissions.
High-current spikes flow in thelogicsignal and returninterconnections, as the output
device changes state and chargeddischarges the input capacitance of the load device and re-
moves the charge from eithera base/emitter junction ora diode. During the transition, the load
on the output device is therefore predominantly capacitive and, depending on the geometry of
theinterconnections and thelogictype, the source of radiated emissions is typicallyalow
impedance (i.e., a predominantly magnetic field source). Even though the current pulse is the
predominant source of emissions, those created by the voltage transition should not be ignored
in an EMC prediction, especially when the load is a high impedance with low capacitance.
Thus, in predicting the radiated emission from a PCB track or the voltage drop in either
signal power or return connections, the typical magnitude of the current spikes must be known.
The switching currents from various logic types and the rise and fall times with single input
load are shown in Table 3.1.
Using the current pulse for a fanout of 1, as shown in Table 3.1, the current spike due to
a maximum fan-out of 15 on a 74-series TTL output device is 97 mA. Large-scale integrated
circuits typically incorporate buffered clock and data inputs; however, input current spikes as
high as 500 mA at the logic transition have been measured. When the noise source is the current
spikes at the transition and the current flow during the steady-state logic level is relatively low,
the peak current pulse duration is short (typically 7 ns for TTL), and the first breakpoint in
106 Chapter 3
Table 3.1 InputCurrentDuringSwitchingTransient,OutputRiseandFallTimes,andTypicalInput

Capacitance of Different Logic Types
CMOS
CMOS
CMOS TTL TTL TTL ECL
ECL
Characteristic TTL
5 V" 10 V" l5 V" 74 L 74 S 74 H 10 K 100 K
Propagation
delay (ns) I O65 6150 3 33 50 2 0.75
Approximate rise and fall 3.5 100 40 30 7 1.7 2 1.8 0.75
times (ns)
Input current pulse (mA) 6.5 0.16 0.9 1.6 l - 9.2
14 16
(fan-out = 1)
Max. input capacitance (pF) 6 4 4 4 6 4 6 0.1" 0.1)'
Figure 3.5, a t f = I/nd, moves from 636 kHz to 45 MHz. At the same time, the low-frequency
amplitude reduces by 37 dB. This represents, therefore, another reason for the relatively high
magnitude of emissions at high frequencies (above the fundamental).
3.1.2 Frequency Spectrum Occupancy of a Step Function

From the Laplace transform, the amplitude generated by a step function (i.e., a single event
such as caused by a control line or a switch changing state) is given, for the case where the
frequency of interest, is higher than l/t,, approximately by
(3.1)
where
V, = initial voltage
V, = voltage after step
t, = rise time [S]
f = frequency [Hz]
The envelope of the resultant curve ( V vs. f ) decreases at a rate proportional to the fre-
quency squared (40 dB/decade), the magnitude is in VIHz, in order to express this in the common
broadband unit of dBp V/MHz, 120 dB must be added to the magnitude expressed in dBpV.
For example, if Eq. (3.1) yields a value of 0. I pV/Hz, then this can be converted to dBp
V/Hz:
0.1 pV/Hz = 20 log

(Oil)
- = -20 dBpV/Hz
and then into dBp V/MHz:

-20 dBpV/Hz + 120 dB = 100 dBpV/MHz
3.2 FOURIER TRANSFORM METHODS AND COMPUTER PROGRAMS
"Practicing engineers tend to shun the application of complex mathematics. In EMC work, this
tendency surfaces in a reluctance to perform Fourier Transforms when investigating complex
Typical
Sources
and
and
Conducted
Emissions 107
waveforms” (2). This book has been written for “practicing engineers,” and by one for whom
this reluctance is well understood. The figures and equations contained in the previous sections
of this chapter are useful in obtaining the frequency occupancy of fairly simple waveforms.
What is needed, however, is a simple method of obtaining the same information for the complex
waveforms so often encountered in practice. One such method is the “quick transform proce-
dure” by Toia (2). This is a graphical method of obtaining the harmonics and their amplitudes
from a complex time-domain waveform. The following is merely a brief review of this method.
In order to use the method, the reader must, almost certainly, refer to the paper by Toia (2).
In this method, the time-domain waveform is sketched over time in cycles, the x-axis,
with the amplitude of the waveform plotted on the y-axis. The time-derivative spikes are then
sketched and, from a number of simple properties of delta chains, a harmonic table is con-
structed. In summary, the steps involved in the “quick transform” procedure are:
1. Sketchthetime-variantwaveform.
2. If it contains no spikes, sketch its time derivative.
3. Continue sketching derivatives until spikes appear. Record the highest order of deriva-
tives sketched as “wz.”
4. In tabular form, record the relative amplitude and phase of each harmonic using the
known spectral property of delta-function chains (i.e., for the positive chain that all
frequencies are present and of the same magnitude and for the negative chain the
same but at a different position in time).
5. Add spectral components of the tablevectorially.
6 . Divide the rlth harmonic’s amplitude byn‘’’(27c/T) for each harmonic.
7. Retard the rzth harmonics phase by (11 X 90”) for each harmonic.
8. Remove the spikes from the sketch. If a residue remains, continue this procedure.
An example for a waveform more complex than a square wave is given in Ref. 2 along
with an example for a smooth waveform that contains no spikes. Although the quick transform
possesses shortcomings, it is a useful procedure that reduces the math to a matter of addition.
A number of programs exist for use on both mainframe and personal computers that per-
form fast Fourier transforms (FITS).A typical program enables the fast Fourier transform of
a vector of real data representing measurements at regular intervals in the time domain. The
result is a vector of complex coefficients i n the frequency domain. The phase information is
retained,and thus the inverseFouriertransform can be used to convertfromthe frequency
domain back into the time domain. The real data contains magnitude and phase or time informa-
tion. The program can also accept complex data containing real and imaginary magnitudes, and
the phase information is then implicit in the complex data. An inverse Fourier transform of the
resultant vector of data representing values in the frequency domain returns a vector representing
values in the time domain.
Common sources of noise at the unit level are AC-to-DC converters, DC-to-DC converters,
and switching power supplies.
3.3 CASE STUDY 3.1: NOISE LEVELS GENERATED BY

DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS
This section supplies dataon the magnitude and type of waveform, including frequency-domain
components, of the noisegeneratedby DC-to-DC converters. The emissions from a typical
converter are then compared to the military standard MIL-STD-461 limits on conducted and
radiated emissions. In the investigation, the input-noise current and output-noise voltage were
measured for small 15-25-W converters from four different manufacturers. The characteristics
108 Chapter 3
and magnitude of noise from the different manufacturers’ converters were relatively similar.
Differences were confined to the fundamental converter switching frequency and the maximum
frequency at which emissions were still significant. As expected, all the converters produced
coherent harmonically related emissions covering frequencies from the fundamental up to 490
MHz. One converter produced a single narrowband emission at 14.65 kHz and no further emis-
sions until 2.5 MHz. However, in measurements made in the investigation and in subsequent
measurements, this converter is the exception to the rule. The measured results from two typical
converters from the same manufacturer are presented in the remainder of this section.
3.3.1 GeneralTestSetupandMethod
Two small converters, a + 5-V 1.5-W and a 5 15-V 15-W, were tested for the following:
Conducted emission from the input terminals

Conducted emission from the output terminals
Radiated emission from a 2-m-long cable connected to the output terminals
Conducted emissions were tested in accordance with the methods and to the limits speci-
fied by MIL-STD-46211 CEO1 and CE03. For radiated emissions, MIL-STD-462/1 RE02 was
used. The CEO1 and CEO3 specifications represent limits on the noise current produced by a
device under test (DUT) at its input connections.
A number of different filters were tried at the input and output of the converters and to
compare filter performance; although these are referenced in the following text, the attenuation
performance of the filters is discussed in the continuation of this case study in Chapter 5 in the
section on filters.
The converters were mounted upside down on a conducting copper ground plane. A low-
impedance connection between the metal case of the converter and the ground plane was made
via an EM1 gasket of the “silver-coated aluminium particles in elastomer” type. The pins of
the converter were then pointing up and were brought through holes in a piece of double-sided
PCB material. The PCB material was used as a second ground plane that was connected to the
main ground plane via l-cm-long and 15-cm-wide tinned-copper braid. The EM1 power-line
filters, which were tested at both the input and output of the converters, were mounted through
holes in the PCB ground plane. The PCB ground plane was soldered to the case pin of the
converter. Pressure was applied between the PCB ground plane/converter/copper ground plane
by clamps, which ensured a low-impedance connection at the two interfaces. The mounting
method was intended to be used forinitialevaluationpurposesandonly until an improved
method was devised.
It was found during testing that the quality of the electrical connection of the converter
case to the PCB ground plane was an important factor in the level of attenuation achieved in
the high-frequency components of the output noise. With the case clamped to the PCB ground
plane with a moderate clamping pressure, the output-noise voltagewith the least effective output
filter in the circuit was 40 mV. At a higher clamping pressure, the noise voltage reduced to 5
mV. For the most effective filter, the GK2AA-SO8, the high-frequency component reduced to
0.25 mV, and this residual level may be attributed to radiated coupling between the input and
output wiring.
The MIL-STD-462 CEO1 - 1 test method was used to measure the conducted input noise
with and without input filters. The current flowing out of each of the input connections is mea-
sured into a specified impedance between the input connection and the ground plane on which
Typical
Sources
and
and
Conducted
Emissions 109
the DUT is mounted. In the majority of military or space EMC requirements, the impedance
is that of a IO-pF RF feedthrough capacitor, as described in MIL-STD-462.
The CEO1 limit is applicable to narrowband emissions only in the frequency range 30
Hz to 15 kHz. CEO3 requirements are for narrowband and broadband emissions, and separate
narrowband and broadband limits are imposed. Different measurement bandwidths are used in
the narrowband and broadband measurements, and any out-of-specification emission is then
characterized as either narrowband or broadband. The narrowband limit applies only to those
emissions that have been determined as narrowband, and the broadband limit applies to those
emissions that have been determined to be broadband. Chapter 9 describes four measurement
methods commonlyused in determining whether an emission is narrowband or broadband. Typi-
cal broadband and narrowband measurement bandwidths are given in Table 9.20.
The measurements were made in the frequency domain by use of a spectrum analyzer
and in thetime domain by use of an oscilloscope. The CEO1 and CEO3 test setup and test
equipment is shown in Figure 3.14. Two current probes were used, a Genisco GCP 5 120, to
cover the frequency range from 30 Hz to 15 MHz, and the Genisco GCP 5160, used from 15
MHz to 50 MHz.
A preamplifier that provides a gain of 26 dB 5 3 dB (14 kHz to 1 GHz) was connected
between the current probe and the spectrum analyzer. By first omitting the preamplifier and
connecting the probe directly to the spectrum analyzer, it was ascertained that the predominant
low-frequency emissions are above 100 kHz; thus the lower-frequency limit of the preamplifier
(14 kHz) does not affect the test results.
As a test of the type of noise emitted by the converter, the resolution bandwidth of the
spectrum analyzer was increased. As expected, the measured level also increased, which indi-
cates that the noise may be classified as broadband. Two +5-V converters from the same manu-
facturer were tested. with similar levels of measured noise.
Wall of shlelded room
' .Shlelded cable llal on ground plane forCE01iZ

. Unshlelded cable 5 cm above ground plane lor radlaled test
Figure 3.14 CEO1 and CEO3 test set up.
110 Chapter 3
3.3.2 Summary of +B-V-Converter Conducted Emissions (Input) CEO1

and CEO3 Test Results
Plot 3.1 shows a peak value of conducted emission of -26 dBm at 200 kHz measured using
the current probe. Converting to millivoltsand dividing by the gain of the preamp gives
"
- 0.55 m
20
The current probesare calibrated in transfer impedance versus frequency, where the trans-
fer impedance is defined as2, = VlZ,V is the current-probe output voltage, andI is the current
under measurement. The transfer impedance of the low-frequency probe is almost 0 dB above
1R; thus the current measured is
0.55 mA = 55 dB@
The CEOl narrowband conducted limit is40 dB@ at 100 kHz, so the converter is outside
the CEOl limit. Plot 3.2 shows the high-frequency broadband noise at 37.6 MHz to be -27.3
dBm. By the same methodology as just applied, and using a Z, of -10 dB (0.316Q) for the
high-frequency probe, the current is found to be 64 dBpA.
The resolution bandwidthof the spectrum analyzer during tests for broadband noise was
set at 100 kHz, so converting to the broadband standard bandwidth of 1 MHz entails adding
20 dB to the measured current. Therefore, the current dBpA/MHz. Since theCEO3 broad-
84 is
band limit is 50 dBpA/MHz at 37 MHz, the measured current is well above the specification
(i.e., by 34 dB@/MHz).
3.3.3 f 15-V Converter: Summary of Conducted Emission CEO1 and

CEO3 Test Results
Plot 3.3 shows the conducted CEOl emissions for the 215-V converter, which are 20 dBm
higher than for the f5-V converter. The CEO3 emissions, shown in Plot 3.4, are comparable
to the +5-V converter levels.
Plot 3.1 CEOl conducted emissions, +5-V supply, N B .

Typical
Sources
and
and
Conducted
Emissions 111
Plot 3.2 CEO3 conducted emissions, +5-V supply, BB.
3.3.4 Differential-Mode and Common-Mode Noise Conducted Noise at the

Output of the +5-V Converter
We shall use the terms common-mode and differential-mode voltage or current throughout the
book. The concepts of differential mode and common mode are often difficult to comprehend,
but an understanding of the difference between the two modes is of great importance when
attempting to analyze a source or in applying reduction techniques, such as those described in
Chapters 5 and 11.
We shall use an isolating DC-to-DC converter to illustrate the different modes of noise
voltages, since such converters are notorious generators of both modesof noise. The converter
shown in Figure3.15 has two output connections, both of which are isolated from the enclosure
i
Plot 3.3 CEO1 conducted emissions, + 15-V supply, N B .
112 Chapter 3
Plot 3.4 CEO3 conducted emissions, + 15-V supply, BB.
of the converter and from the chassis ground. Had one or the other of the output connections
been made to the chassis ground, and assuming an infinitesimally low-impedance ground con-
nection, then no common-mode voltage would exist. A common-mode voltage exists between
each output connection and the chassis. In Figure 3.14, this common-mode voltage is shown
between the lower connection and thechassis only. In addition, a differential-mode noise voltage
exists between the two output connections. Thus the total noise voltage appearing on the output
connections of Figure 3.14 is the sum of the common-mode voltage appearing between the
connection and the chassis and the differential noise appearing between the two connections.
The test setup used to measure common-mode and differential-mode noise voltage is the
same as shown in Figure 3.14, with the exception that the shielded wire connected to the output
connections of the converter was replaced with a two-conductor cable, 2 m long, located at a
height of 5 cm above the ground plane (this setup was also used for radiated tests). Two 50 R
AC AC/DC
SUPPLY CONVERTER
r)/ CHASSIS GROUND
Figure 3.15 Illustration of common-mode and differential-mode voltage at the output of a converter.
loads were connected i n parallel and located at the far end of the cable with reference to the
converter. The total load current on the converter was 0.2 A ( 1 W).
During measurements, one of the 50 R loads at the end of the 2-m-long cable was replaced
by the 50 R input impedance of the oscilloscope/spectrum analyzer for differential-mode noise
measurements. The connection from the load end of the 2-m-long two-conductor cable to the
measuring equipment was via 50 R coaxial cable. Common-mode noise was measured between
one side of the load and the ground plane using the high-impedance ( 1 MR) input of either the
oscilloscope or the spectrum analyzer. The characteristic impedance of the two-conductor cable
is approximately 88 R . Changing the load resistance on this 88 R cable from 25to 50 R produced
no discernableeffect on the frequency characteristics of the conducted noise, but a slight change
in the peak level of emission was seen. All subsequent tests were made with a 25 R load. In
practice, the mismatch between the load and cable impedance is likely to be higher than that
used in the test setup, because the load on the converter output contains capacitance.
Plot 3.5 shows the differential-mode conducted noise measured in the time domain by
use of an oscilloscope. The noise is characterized by a complex wave (Plot 3.6) that appears
at the positive and negative switching transitions of the converter, i.e., = 266 kHz, which is,
as expected, twice the converter fundamental switching frequency. The time base of the oscillo-
scope used to make the measurement shown in Plot 3.7 is 20 ns/division.
From Plot 3.6, it inay be seen that the transitions occurring in the complex waveform are
as fast as 5 ns, thus the high-frequency content of the noise is expected to be significant. Plot
3.7 shows the common-mode conducted noise.
The noise in the frequency domain is shown in Plot 3.8, from 0 Hz to 15 MHz, using a
narrowband setting of the resolution bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer.
The noise from 15 MHz to 1 GHz is shown in Plot 3.9, using a broadband setting of the
resolution bandwidth. The converter noise may almost certainly be classified as broadband in
nature and, as expected, contains frequencies up to 490 MHz.
3.3.5 Radiated Emissions

The level of radiated emissions fromthe secondary of the converters isdependent on the geome-
try of the wiring between the output of the converter and the load.
Plot 3.5 Differential-modeconducted noise,unfiltcrcd,time domain, +5-V supply(output).

114 Chapter 3
Plot 3.6 Differential-tnodeconducted noise, unfiltered,timedomain +5-V supply (output)(complex

wave).
The MIL-STD-462 (RE02) radiated-emissions test setup (14 kHz to 10 GHz) requires that
interface cabling be included i n the test setup and that any cables be located 5 cm from the
front of the ground plane at a height of 5 cm above the ground plane and run for a length of
at least 2 m.
The radiatcd-emissions test setup complied with the basic RE02 configuration, with the
exception that the radiatedemissionsfrom the input wiringwereminimized by the use of
shielded cable between the IO-pF R F input capacitors and the input of the converter. The input
wiring was further shieldedby taping it to the ground plane with conductive-adhesive aluminum
Plot 3.7 Common-mode conductednoise,unfiltered,time domain, +5-V supply (output).

Plot 3.8 Differential-mode conducted noise,unfiltered,frequency domain, 0 Hz to 15 MHz, NB.

+5-v supply (output).
tape. The two-/three-conductor wiring used between the output of the converter/filters and the
load forms a transmission line with its electromagnetic image in the ground plane.
The major contributor to radiated emissions is the common-mode currents flowing on the
two-/three-wire line, with negligible contribution from the differential-mode current flow. Thus
by measuring the common-mode current and using the equation for radiation from a resonant
transmission line, the E field at a distance of 1 m from the line may be predicted. A second
measurement was made using an 1 l-cm balanced loop antenna, which measures H field. Once
the H field at 1-m distance from the line is known, the E field may be calculated. The MIL-
STD-462 (RE02) test method requires the use of an E field antenna located 1 m from the source.
Plot 3.9 Differential-modeconducted noise,unfiltered, frequencydomain, 15 MHz to 1 GHz, BB,

+5-v supply (output).
116 Chapter 3
However, as described in Chapter 9, on MIL-STD-462 tests, the measurement techniqueis prone

to large measurement errors unless the antenna AF has been calibrated at the exact spot in the
room used for the measurement or othertechniques are used to compensatefor room resonances
and antiresonances. The methods using prediction and H field measurement, in contrast, result
in a relatively good correlation, as described in Chapter 9.
In summary, the level of radiated emissions from the line was found by
1. Measurement using an 1 l-cm balanced loop antenna
2. Measurement of common-mode current flow with a current probe around the line and
use of a program for calculation of radiation from a resonant transmission line.
Plot 3.10 shows the ambient EM level in the shielded room measured with the 1 l-cm
balanced loop antenna with the source of emissions and the spectrum analyzer in the shielded
room. Plot 3.1 1 illustrates the radiated emissions from the +5-V converter from 10 MHz to I
GHz. Peaks were detected at 34 MHz, 228 MHz, and 79 MHz.
Shielding the 2-m-long line reducedthe radiated emission levelto below either the ambient
level of the shielded room or the measuring instrument’s sensitivity. An obvious question is,
why not connect the return of either the +S-V or -C 15-V supply to the ground plane and thereby
reduce the common-mode noise and radiation from the line? Indeed this may be practical and
result in a significant reduction i n radiation. However, where many converters are used and the
returns are connected together, multiple connections of the returns to the chassis are made. This
may violate the grounding scheme or result in unacceptably high levels of RF current induced
via the loops formed between the commoned returns and chassis.
In the case study, a requirement existed for a single-point ground that was made at some
considerable distance from the equipment. An additional requirement was for a reference ground
linkingeachpiece of equipment andisolatedfromchassis at the equipment. The reference
ground was used to connect the signal ground to the single-point ground. The +S-V and -C 15-
V return was connected to signal ground and thus must be isolated from chassis to cornply with
the ground isolation requirement. This type of grounding scheme is illustrated in Chapter 8, on
grounding.
Plot 3.10 I I-cm balanced loop antenna 1 m from cable, power off (ambient)
Typical Sources and Characteristics of Radiated and Conducted
Emissions 117
Plot 3.11 Balanced loop antenna 1 m fromcable,+5-V supply.
A total of 17 similar converters were used in an instrument, with five located in close
proximity in a compartment in one of the pieces of equipment making up the instrument. Based
on the investigation it was decided, for the sake of intraequipment EMC and to limit the levels
of conducted noise placed on the common +28V supply, that the converter inputs and outputs
should be filtered. The choice of filter and attenuation or gain achieved when six different filters
were tested are described in a continuation of this case study in Section 5.1.10.7, on power-
line filters.
Digital logic and converters are common and major sources of noise, and so these have
been the focus in preceding sections. However, the equations and figures presentedare applicable
to other sources of transient intraequipment noise, such as stepper motors, CRT deflection driv-
ers, relays. and switches. For an EMC prediction external to any equipment (e.g., at the subsys-
tem or system level), the electromagnetic environment may be found from the typical or maxi-
mum levels from ISM sources, examined in Chapter 1, as well as the typical levels of E field
at the carrier frequency of transmitters.
Additionaltypes of noise are generated by transmitters, as describedin the following
section.
Table 3.2 Comparison Between MIL-STD RE02 Broadband Emission Levels and
Measured Levels
~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~
Difference between
RE02
Frequency Measured
limit and
measured limlt
(dBpV/m/MHz)
(dBpV/m/MHz)
values
(MHz) (AdB)
34 23 62 85
79 27 60 87
228 18 55 73
118 Chapter 3
3.4 TRANSMITTER-GENERATEDNOISE
A transmitter is designed typically to generate a specific frequency or a number of adjacent
frequencies. When the transmitter is used to convey information, one or more modulation tech-
niques are used that result in sidebands (i.e., frequency bands on either side of the carrier). For
example, when amplitude modulation is used, the upper sideband is the carrier frequency plus
the modulating frequencies and thelower sideband is the carrier frequency minus the modulating
frequencies. In addition to the frequencies used in the desired transmission, a transmitter gener-
ates a number of unwanted, spurious emissions. These include harmonics of the carrier and
sidebands and the master oscillator. In addition, the transmitter generates nonharmonically re-
lated frequencies and broadband noncoherent noise.
Broadband noncoherent noise includes ther-mal noise, sometimes called Gaussian noise
or white noise. The assumption made is that the thermal noise exhibits uniform power spectral
density. An additional source of noise is known asjicker- or Ilfnoise. Thermal noise, Ilfnoise,
and popcorn noise are of particular concern in analog and video circuits; Section 5.3.3 discusses
typical levels and evaluation techniques. The major potential source of EM1 to equipment and
cabling in proximity to an antenna is at the camer frequency, especially when the E field at the
equipment location is in the volts-per-meter range. For receiving equipment tuned to a different
frequency and incorporating a filter after the antenna, immunity at the carrier and sideband
frequencies generated by a transmitter may be achieved. Case Study 10.2 describes an EM1
problem due to equipment, including a receiver,that is located in close proximity to a transmitter.
When the transmitter is licensed, the frequencies required by the transmitter are clearly denied
to a receiver in the area. In addition, channels may be denied due to the spurious emissions
from a transmitter. Typical spurious transmitter output spectrums are contained in Ref. 3.
Transmitters in the past almost exclusively used tuned amplifiers in the driver and final
output stage, and thus an effective output filter existed. With the advent of broadband solid-
0
l-
X
"" T , TRANSMITTER WITHTUNED AMPLIFIER
z z T, TRANSMITTER WITH WIDEBAND AMPLIFIER
POWER OUTPUT = 32.60 dBm

z
L [
l-m
f ; f ; ; ;
50 100 200 400 800 1600 2000
Figure 3.16 Transmitter broadband noise measurements on transmitters T1 and T2. (01984, IEEE.)
state amplifiers, the useful frequency range of the amplifier was extended to decades. For exam-
ple, amplifiers are available with frequency ranges of 1 - 100 MHz, I O kHz- 1 GHz, and 1- 10
GHz.
The use of wideband amplifiers has typically resulted in increased levels of noncoherent
broadband noise. The only filtering effect may be due tothe reduction in out-of-band transmitting
antenna gain, which is discussed in Chapter 10, on system-level EMC. Modern resonant anten-
nas, which exhibit a high gain at the resonant frequency and a rapid reduction in gain on either
side of resonance, may mitigate the EM1 potential due to broadband noise. The effect of broad-
band noise and other spurious emissions is to increase the level of ambient noise and possibly
deny a number of additional channels in the area. When the noise level at the output of the
amplifier, the gain of the transmitting antenna, the distance and relative location and gain of
the receiving antenna, reflections, or shielding caused by buildings or topography are all known,
the potential for EM1 may be predicted. An example of an antenna-to-antenna EM1 prediction
and subsequent measurement at the site is included in Case Study 10.2. The level of thermal
noise power, P,,, generated by a transmitter, ignoring input-phase noise and internally generated
l/f noise, may be found from the following equation:
where
F transmitter noise figure (numeric)
=
KT thermal noise power density
=
(at 290 K, KT = 4 X lo-?' W/Hz = - 1 4 4 dBW/Hz)
B = bandwidth under consideration, in hertz
G = gain of the amplifier = P,,,,,/P,,(P,,",and P,,in watts)
Figure 3.16 illustrates measured transmitter broadband noise from a tuned amplifier trans-
mitter and a transmitter with a wideband amplifier for which noise levels almost 10 dB (power)
above the levels for the tuned amplifier transmitter are apparent.
Some of the measures that may alleviate EM1 caused by transmitter broadband noise is
the inclusion of an antenna output filter, the choice of a low-noise power amplifier or a low-
gain amplifier with a corresponding higher-level, low-noise, input.
REFERENCES
l.E. Kann. Design Guide for Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Reduction in Power Supplies, MIL-
HDBK-241B. Power Electronics Branch, Naval Electronic Systems Cornmand. Department of De-
fense, Washington, DC, 1983.
2. M. J. Toia. Sketching the Fourier transform: a graphical procedure. 1980 IEEE International Sympo-
sium on Electromagnetic Compatibility. New York, 1980.
3. P. N.A. P. Rao. The impact of power amplifiers on spectrum occupancy. Theoretical models and
denied channel calculations. International Conference on Electromagnetic Compatibility, London,
IEEE, 1984.
Crosstalk and Electromagnetic Coupling
Between PCB Tracks, Wires, and Cables
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO CROSSTALK AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

COUPLING
Crosstalk is defined as the interference to a signal path from other localized signal paths. The
term crossralk is often limited in its use to circuits/conductors in close proximity, where the
couplingpath may becharacterized by themutual capacitance andmutualinductance of
the circuits. This restricted definition will be used throughout this chapter. Crosstalk prediction
applies irrespective of whether the source is anintentional signal or noise;thus crosstalk is used
in this chapter in a broader sense, to describe the coupling from either a signal or noise source
into a signal path.The ternls electromagnetic coupling and crosstalk are used interchangeably in
the chapter. However, in general, electromagnetic coupling includes the coupling of an electric,
magnetic, or electromagnetic field from one conductor into another, which is not necessarily in
close proximity.
As with all EMC predictions or EM1 investigations, the first step is to identify the source
of emissions and to determine if the path is conducted, radiated, or crosstalk. Crosstalk should
be a prime suspect in an EM1 investigation, or a candidate for examination in a prediction, if
high transient current or fast rise-time voltages are present on conductors in close proximity to
signal-carrying conductors. An example is a cable that contains conductors that carry control
or drive levels to a relay motor, lamps, etc. or digital transmission and also contains conductors
used for analog, RF. or video signals. The sharing of a cable with digital signals or supply as
well as analog signals is also likely to result in crosstalk. Likewise, when a PCB track carrying
control or logic levels is in close proximity to a second track, which is used for low-level signals,
over a distance of 10 cm or more, crosstalk may be expected. Case Study 1 1.1 in Chapter 1 1
(Section 11.9 on PCB layout case studies), provides an example of crosstalk between a logic
supply track on a PCB and an analog signal track that are in close proximity over a distance
of only 6 centimeters.
Long cablesthat carry several serial channels orparallel bits of high-speed data orteleme-
try are also prime candidates for a crosstalk prediction or candidates in an EM1 investigation.
Crosstalk between conductors or cables in close proximity can be caused by an electric
field coupling via mutual capacitance or a magnetic field coupling via mutual inductance, as
illustrated in Figure 4.1. A third form of coupling is via common impedance, which is covered
in Section 8.8.3. It is important to discriminate between EM1 caused by common impedance
coupling and that resulting from electromagnetic coupling or crosstalk. An example in which
either common impedance or crosstalk may be the culprit is as follows: Assume high current
flows on a conductor driving filament lamps and that an adjacent signal conductor shares the
same return connection. When a common connection of the two returns is made at the lamp
121
122 Chapter 4
Source
Figure 4.1 Electricfield(capacitive) and magneticficld(inductive)crosstalk.
end of the cable, EM1 may result either from crosstalk or due to the high voltage drop caused
by the high lamp current flowing in the DC resistance of the returns.
Before attributing EM1 to crosstalk, it is important to ensure that the data on the receptor
line is noise free at the source end and that the input circuit, at the far end of the line from the
source, does not generate noise.
Another potential cause of incorrect reception of data on an interface are reflections due
to a line-to-load impedance mismatch, which may be mistaken for crosstalk.
One practical method of determining the presence of crosstalk-induced EM1 is to separate
the source and receptor conductors. Where this is not feasible, the temporary slowing down of
the edges of the source waveform or a reductionin the frequency may be feasible. Where
intermittent EM1 exists and the suspected cause is crosstalk,the source signal may be increased
in amplitude, frequency, or speed, oran additional noise source may be injected via, forexample,
a transformer or a capacitor. When the incidence of EM1 is thereby increased, the likelihood
exists that the source of crosstalk has been found.
The crosstalk values in the following sections may be computed, or they may be found
in tables or plots, where they are given for specified frequencies or rise times. Generally when
thefrequency is given,therisetime for whichthe same crosstalk occurs is given by 1lpL
likewise, when the rise time is specified, the frequency may be found from llpt.
The crosstalk predictions in this chapter assume lossless transmission lines. One source
of losses in transmission lines is skin effecr (i.e., the current flows predominantly in the surface
of the conductor). The skin effect in a current-carrying conductor is characterized by the AC
resistance of the conductor. The confinement of the current flow to a small fraction of the cross-
sectional area of a conductor is increased in the case where two conductors carrying currents
in opposite directions are in close proximity. The current flow then tends to crowd away from
the area close to the adjacent conductor, which increases the AC resistance by a factor of 0.6-
0.7. A second loss mechanism is in the dielectric material separating the conductors. In practice,
the loss due to skin effect tends to predominate in cable transrnission lines, such as twisted
shielded pairs.
The error due to the exclusion of transmission line loss in the prediction of crosstalk is
significant only with longcables and fast rise timesand is generally much less than the prediction
error. For example, the error due to ignoring loss in the crosstalk prediction for a 60-m-long
cable with a 100-ns rise-time source is only 7%, whereas the prediction techniques presented
in this chapter do not result in errors of much less than 15%.
Crosstalk & EM Coupling 123
When source and receptor circuits are not in close proximity, the equations presented in
Sections 2.2.4 and 2.2.5 for the generation and reception of electromagnetic fields may conve-
niently be used to predict the coupling, as described in Section 4.4.5.
When considering crosstalk between PCB tracks, conductors in a cable, orwires andcables
in close proximity, it is important to determine if it is predominantly electric field (capacitive) or
magnetic field (inductive) coupling. If neither mode predominates, then either both must be
examined separately or, more conveniently, the characteristic impedance between the source
and receptor circuit and the receptor circuit and ground may be used in a crosstalk prediction,
as described in Section 4.4.1. Which of the two modes of coupling predominates depends on
circuit impedances, frequency, and other factors. A rough guideline for circuit impedance (in
ohms) is as follows:
When source and receptor circuit impedance products are less than 3002Q,the coupling
is primarily magnetic field.
When the products are above 1000'Q. the coupling is predominantly electric field.
When the products lie between 3002Qand 10002Q,the magnetic or electric field coupling
may predominate, depending on geometry and frequency.
However, these guidelines are not applicable in all situations (e.g., crosstalk between PCB tracks
located over a ground plane). When the characteristic impedance of the tracks above a ground
plane is relatively low (e.g., lOOQ) and the load and source impedances on the receptor track
are higher than the characteristic impedance, the crosstalk is predominantly capacitive.
4.2 CAPACITIVE CROSSTALK AND ELECTRIC FIELD COUPLING

BETWEEN WIRES AND CABLES
Figure 4.2 shows a four-wire arrangement of parallel signal lines. If the circuits are unbalanced
(i.e., when the return conductor in each circuit is at the same ground potential), then the four-
wire arrangement may be replaced by two wires above a ground plane for prediction purposes.
The capacitance between the wire connected to one circuit and the ground plane we shall call
C,, and the wire connected to the second circuit and the ground plane we shall call C?, as shown
in Figure 4.2. When the distances between each wire and its ground plane are equal. C, = C?
Figure 4.2 Four-wire capacitivearrangement.

124 Chapter 4
and L2 = L I . The capacitance can be obtained from the inductance of a wire above a ground
plane, upcoming Eq. (4.8), as shown in Ref. 1:
C=" 3.38
L1
... c - 3.38
pFIm
0.14 log (y)
where h is the height above the ground plane and d is the diameter of the wire. Any unit Inay
be used for the height and the diameter as long as they are both expressed in the same units.
The mutual capacitance between the two-wire circuits, C,,, is computed from the mutual
inductance (M), upcoming Eq. (4.9), and the equation for the inductance of a wire above a
ground plane, Eq. (4.8), in accordance with Ref. 1:
where
D = distance between the two circuits
h = height above the ground plane
d = diameter of the wires
Although any unit of measurement may be used, D, h , and d must be in the same units
for all of these computations. Figure 4.3 shows how the geometry of the circuits affect the
AWG = d = 0.8mm
IO0
E 10
ii
n
Q
0
1
c
.-c0
(D
0.1
m
Q
m
0 0.01
0.001
0.1 l IO
Height in cm
- Cl .C2 -c12 -
D = 0.24~1
c12
D = Icm
* c12
D = 5cm
- c12
D = loan
Figure 4.3 Variation of C,, C:. and C,: with h and D. (From Ref. 1.)
Crosstalk 81 EM Coupling 125
self-capacitance and mutual capacitance for 22 AWG wires, which have a diameter of 0.8 m m
(0.032”). For small hlD ratios, Cl: grows slowly with an increase in the height of the wire above
the ground plane, h . For large values of h l D , Cl: remains more or less unchanged and then
begins to decrease with the wire height. It can be seen that the self-capacitance of the receptor
circuit, C:, plays a role in the coupling. This can be shown by considering the coupling coefti-
cient, K :
From Figure 4.3 it can be seen that C2 increases with a decrease in height, and from Eq. (4.3)
it can beseen that K decreases with an increase in C:. Thus, thelevel of crosstalk can be
decreased by:
Reducing the height of the wires above the ground plane or decreasing the distance be-
tween wires in the same circuit
Increasing the distance between the two circuits
Figure 4.4a shows two unbalanced circuits exhibiting capacitive crosstalk,with the equiva-
lent circuit in Figure 4.4b. The self-capacitance of the source circuit does not play a role in the
crosstalk and is therefore ignored. The self-capacitance of the receptor circuit, C?, is in parallel
with the source impedance, Rh. and load impedance, R,., of the receptor circuit.
When the line length is longer than the wavelength (i.e., I >> h), the voltage down the
length of the line is not constant and a more complex analysis is required. However, for the
simplecase, where the wavelength is such that the voltage is assumed to be constantfor
the entire length of line, the crosstalk voltage V, is given by
v, = v, G
‘
(4.4)
z,+ ZL
~
where
Z? = XC2 in parallel with RI and R,
The total resistance R, equals RI in parallel with R,\ and is given by

1
R, = (4.5)
IIRL + 11R.5
1
z,= (4.6)
d( lIR,)’ + 27cfCi
If the receptor wire of Figure 4.43 is replaced by a twisted pair i n which one conductor
is connected to the groundplane at each end, asshown in Figure 4 . 4 ~ .then the capacitive
crosstalk is the same as for an untwisted pair of receptor wires.+ Assuming an untwisted pair
of receptor wires in close proximity, the untwisted pair will exhibit reduced crosstalk, compared
to a single wire above a ground plane, simply because of the increase i n capacitance C: due to
:k This is because onc wlre is connectcd to ground and thc induced voltage is close t o zero whereas the
second wire is connected to a source and load impedance and a crosstalk voltage is induced.
126 Chapter 4
(c)
Figure 4.4 Unbalancedcircuitexhibiting crosstalk
the close proximity of the wires. If the twisted pair is connected to a balanced circuit, illustrated
in upcoming Figure 4.8, then the capacitive crosstalk is theoretically zero. In practice, the level
of crosstalk is very sensitive to irregularity in the twist and variation in the distance between
the source and receptorwires down the length of the wires. A twisted pairconnected to a
balanced circuit typically exhibits a lower level of crosstalk than an untwisted pair. The level
of crosstalk voltage induced in an untwisted pair connected to a balanced circuit is dependent
on the relative distances between the source wire and the two receptor wires, as discussed later
in the evaluation of crosstalk in a four-conductor cable. If the distances between source and
receptor wires are known or if a worst case can be assumed, then the mutual and self-capaci-
tances of the wires may be calculated, an equivalentcircuitconstructed.and the capacitive
crosstalk predicted. When crosstalk occurs between conductors inside a shiclded cable, the ca-
pacitance between the center conductors and the shielding may become a significant factor in
assessing the levelof crosstalk. For example, consider a four-conductor shieldedcable connected
to two unbalanced circuits in which the return conductors are connected at some point to the
shield of the cable (i.e., the two return conductors and the shield are at the same potential). The
cable configuration and capacitances are shown in Figure 4 . 5 , and the equivalent circuit of
the unbalanced arrangement is shown in Figure 4.37. In this configuration. conductor 1 is thc
source-signal wire, conductor 2 is the receptor-signal wire, and conductors 3 and 4 are the signal
return conductors. The crosstalk coefficient K of this arrangemcnt is given by
C,
K= (4.7)
c, + c, + C, + C,
where
C, mutual capacitance between signal conductors of the coupled pair

=
C?, C, = capacitances between the receptor signal wire and the signal returns
C, = shield capacitance
Equations (4.4)-(4.6) may be used for the shielded cable by replacing C: by the sum of
capacitances C,, C,, and C,. A practical example of crosstalk in a four-conductor shieldcd cable
is given below.
The cable used in this example contains 20-gauge stranded (27 X 34 AWG) conductors
with a diameter of 0.035’’ (0.89 m m ) , an insulationthickness of 0.0156” (0.4 m m ) , and an
interaxial spacing diagonally between the insulated conductors of approximately 0.008”. The
relative permittivity of the polyethylene insulation is 2.3. The mutual capacitance between con-
ductors I and 2, 2 and 4, 4 and 3. and 3 and 1 is 1 I pF, diagonally between 1 and 4. and 2
and 3 it is 5 pF. The conductor to shield capacitance is 20 pF. Assuming that the cable is used
for two unbalanced circuits, as shown i n Figure 4.4a, that the receptor source and load imped-
ances are each 20 kR, and that I V AC is applied to the source circuit, the crosstalk plotted
against frequency is as shown in Figure 4.6. In our example circuit, we sec that the crosstalk
voltage increases linearly with frequency u n t i l approximately 160 kHz, after which the slope
decreases until the crosstalk voltage levels out at 1 MHz. With the load and source resistors of
the receptor circuit reduced to 2 kR each, the high-frequency breakpoint occurs at I O MHz.
The amplitude above the breakpoint is given by the crosstalk coefficient and is independent of
frequency. The crosstalk coefficient in our example circuit is. from Eq. (4.7),
K=- 1 1.~pF - = 0.234

~
llpF+llpF+SpF+2OpF
The maximum crosstalk voltage is therefore 1 V X 0.234 = 0.234 V. or 23% of the voltage
applied to the source circuit. Measurements on the four-conductor cable arc plotted against the
theoretical values in Figure 4.6 for the R,. = I O k R case.
When the source voltage is a step function and the rise or fall time is equal to or less
than 0.2 times the time constant of the receptor circuit, the crosstalk peak voltage Inay be found
from the crosstalk coefficient. The time constant is the sum of the cable capacitances times the
128 Chapter 4
f Shield
(W
Figure 4.5 Fourconductor shielded-cable configuration.
receptor circuit load andsource resistors in parallel. Thus, in our example cable, the timeconstant
is
2 = 20kRx20kR (11pF+ llpF+5pF+20pF)=0.47ps

20 kR + 20 k R
When the rise or fall time of the source step function is greater than the time constant,
the peak crosstalk voltage is given approximately byK d t . The rise or fall time of the crosstalk
voltage is defined in this case as the time between the 10% and 90% voltage levels and is given
0.1
L
5
2
yi
0.01
8
0.001
0.001
Figure 4.6 Measured and predictedcrosstalk on the four-conductorshieldedcable in an unbalanced

circuit.
0.2
0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Rise Time (vs)
Figure 4.7 Crosstalk-induced voltages for rise times of 0.1, 2, 5, and 10 p .
approximately by 2.t. The duration of the crosstalk voltage is equal to the source rise time, f r .
Figure 4.7 illustrates the measured crosstalk voltage for T = 0.47 p , R,. = Rs = 20 k R , and
f = 0.1 vs, 2 p , 5 p , and 10 p .
Using the equivalent-circuit approach for multiconductor cables becomes unwieldy. A
simpler method is to use published data, which includes both the inductive and capacitive cross-
130 Chapter 4
10 kR
3
l
Figure 4.8 Balancedcircuitconfiguration.
f
11 pF T20pF
I-
T *O pF
11 DF I
1 1 pF I
Figure 4.9 (a) Equivalent circuitof the four-conductor cable in a balanced circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit
of the cable when the diagonal conductors are used for the source and receptor circuits.
talk contributions, as described in Section 4.4.2. A worst-case example of capacitive crosstalk

i n a multiconductor shielded cable is when two conductors are located in the center of the cable
(i.e., furthest from the shield) and are surrounded by other signal conductors. Assuming two
centrally located 24AWG signal conductors connected to unbalanced circuits and surrounded
by other 24AWG signal conductors in a 50-conductor cable with a mutual capacitance between
conductors of 14 pF, the crosstalk coefficient is approximately 25%. These very high levels of
crosstalk may be considerably reduced by the correct choice of cable, as described in Section
4.4.2. The choices include twisted pair, cross-stranded twisted pair, and shielded twisted pair.
The use of balanced circuits, as shown in Figure 4.8, will theoretically reduce the crosstalk to
zero. However, when using our example four-conductor cable in balanced circuits we see from
the equivalent circuit of Figure 4.9a that this will not be the case. The measured coupling coeffi-
cient for this configuration is 0.1, or lo%, which is only 13% better than for the unbalanced
circuits. By using conductors 1 and 4 in the source circuit and 2 and 3 in the receptor circuit,
the theoretical crosstalk is zero and the measured crosstalk coefficient is 6.8 mV, or 0.68%.
Figure 4.9b illustrates the arrangement and why the voltages at conductors 2 and 3 should be
at zero. In practice, crosstalk voltages do occur on the receptor conductors due to capacitive
imbalances between the four conductors. The crosstalk may be considerably reduced by use of
the balanced circuit with a cable that contains twisted pairs, as discussed in Section 4.4.2.
4.3 INDUCTIVE CROSSTALK AND MAGNETIC FIELD COUPLING

BETWEEN WIRES AND CABLES
At high frequencies it is normally the capacitive coupling that predominates. However, if either
the source or receptor lines, or both, are shielded, with the shield connected to ground at both
ends, as is often the case, then the coupling will be magnetic. Also at low frequency, and where
low circuit impedances are encountered, the crosstalk is likely to be inductive. The inductance
of a wire over a ground plane is given by
where
h = height above a ground plane
d = diameter of the wire.
The mutual inductance between two wires over a ground plane is given by
M = 0.07 log[ I + ($)l] [pH/ft] (4.9)
where D is the distance between the two wires.

Figures 4.10 and 4.1 1 show mutual and self-inductance as a function of hlD and hld.
When the height is much greater than the diameter but the diameter of the cable is large, the
inductance of the wire may be limited by the value for a wire far removed from ground, as
given in Section 5.1.2.
Apracticalcircuit,which we will use to demonstrate magneticcouplingbetweenun-
shielded wires, is shown in Figure 4.12. Here, cable capacitances are ignored and the lengths
of the wires are less than a wavelength. The generator voltage e , causes a current flow i, in the
emitter loop. The current, i , , is determined by the voltage E , , the source impedance R,, the
reactance of L , , and the load impedance R,,.
132 Chapter 4
Figure 4.10 Inductancebetweenthewires. (From Ref. 2 , 0 1967 IEEE.)
The voltage induced in the victim loop is given by

e? = j w M i , (4.10)
and the voltage across the receiver load resistance R,, is given by
(4. I 1)
The last term is replaced in the following discussion by the factor aL2, giving
Equation (4.11) expressed as a magnitude is
(4.12)
From Eq. (4.12) we see that the load voltage is divided not merely by the source and load
0.6
0.5
0.4
.
t-
LL
2
0.3
J
0.2
o0 I t m W
0
100
-
h
d
00
Figure 4.11 Inductance of a wire above a ground plane. (From Ref. 2, 0 1967, IEEE.)
resistance but by the inductive reactance of the victim wire L2.The interfering source voltage
e , may be a sinewave, in which case the open-circuit voltage ez induced in the receptor loop is
e: = 2nfMi, (4.13)
or a transient interference when
I
e z ( f )= M Ae"" (4.14)
z
where
M = mutual inductance between circuits

i, = source AC current
I , = peak value of source transient voltage
z = time constant of source current
U , A = factors that account for the division of induced voltage
Where shielded cable is used, factors n and A must be included in Eq. (4.15) and (4.16)
to account for the additional attenuation of the shields. The peak voltage across the receiver
load resistance V,, for the transient case is
(4.15)
134 Chapter 4
b
l
1
"
'LP ,
RC+Rd ' R C + R
'Lc2
d
,
'
x.
RSI ' RS2
+ Rd
"
RC t Rd ' RC
RSI
Figure 4.13 AC, inductive, and shield attenuation factors. (01967, IEEE.)
The factors aL2 and AL2(t)are plotted in Figures 4.13 and 4.14, from Ref. 2, along with
the factors for the shielded case. In the transient case, the induced voltage has a peak value
equivalent to
I
M 1 occurring at I = o
T
If the time constant of the receptor circuit is very short compared to the time constant of
the source circuit, that is, if
<< z
R,. + R,/
then the induced voltage will effectively divide between only R, and R,!. When it is not much
smaller than T, the voltage drop across L? must be considered.
Where the coupling is from an unshielded current-canying wire into a shielded wire, the
return current in the victim circuit via the ground plane is attenuated by the factor
1
(4.16)
136 Chapter 4
v)
v)
Figure 4.14 Transient, inductive, and shield attenuation factors (01967, IEEE.)
where
LS = shield inductance
Rs = resistance
Thus, at high frequency, the return path for a large proportion of the current induced in the
shielded victim cable is via the shield. In Table 4.1, the values of the shield inductance LS for
several types of shielded cable located 2 inches above a ground plane have been computed
based on cable diameter, from Ref. 2. Table 4.1 also shows the values of core inductance L,
and the difference, which is the cable inductance L,.(& = L, - LT),as well as the resistance of
the shieldfor lengths of 1 foot. The equivalentcircuit of the unshielded-to-shielded wirecoupling
is shownin Table 4.2.For convenience, the current flow i, is shownattenuated by the attenuation
factor of the shielded cable:
(4.17)
whereas in reality the attenuation takes place in the receptor loop, not at the source, and the
mechanism is as discussed in Section 7.2.1, on shielded cables.
Due to the mutual inductance between the shield and the center conductor, equal noise
voltages are induced in both, and therefore the noise current through R,, is reduced as compared
to the unshielded case. The voltage induced in the load resistor R,, is now divided not by the
Table 4.1 Coaxial Cable and Shielded Wire Parameters
Type 20 dS di b* Li* Lc Rs Ls/Rs*

RGO/U (a) (inch) (inch) (CLH (W (CLH (mQ (PI
feet) feet) feet) feet)
Single Braid
8A 50.0 0.285 0.086 0.20 0.27 0.07 1.35 150
58C 50.0 0.116 0.035 0.26 0.33 0.07 4.70 55
141 50.0 0.116 0.036 0.26 0.33 0.07 4.70 55
122 50.0 0.096 0.029 0.27 0.34 0.07 5.70 47
188 50.0 0.060 0.019 0.30 0.36 0.07 7.60 40
29 53.5 0.116 0.032 0.26 0.33 0.07 4.75 55
59A 75.0 0.146 0.022 0.24 0.36 0.12 3.70 65
180 95.0 0.103 0.011 0.26 0.40 0.14 6.00 43
A" - 0.057 0.023 0.30 0.36 0.06 16.00 19
B" - 0.056 0.030 0.30 0.34 0.04 6.20 48
Double Braid
9B 50.0 0.280 0.085 0.20 0.28 0.08 0.80 250
5B 50.0 0.181 0.053 0.23 0.31 0.08 1.20 190
55A 50.0 0.116 0.035 0.26 0.33 0.07 2.55 100
142 50.0 0.116 0.039 0.26 0.33 0.07 2.20 118
223 50.0 0.116 0.035 0.26 0.33 0.07 2.55 100
13A 75.0 0.280 0.043 0.20 0.32 0.10 0.95 210
6A 75.0 0.185 0.028 0.23 0.34 0.11 1.15 200
~~
* Valid for h = 2 inches.For h # 2 inches use Figure 4.17

A" and B" are shielded hook-up wires.
core inductance but by the difference between the shield inductance L,7and the core inductance
Lj (i.e., by L,.). The voltage V, is given by
(4.18)
where
as?= attenuation due to the shielded cable

ac = factor due to the division of voltage in the victim loop
Both of these factors are plotted in Figure 4.13.

For the transient case, V,/is given by
(4.19)
Asz is plotted in Figure 4.14.

Table 4.2 includes the additional equivalent circuits for shielded-to-unshielded and
shielded-to-shielded coupling modes and the equations for both the acRMS and peak transient
voltages. The voltage induced in the victim loop versus frequency is shown in Figure 4.15 for
both calculated and experimental values. The voltage for an open-wire to open-wire coupling
mode increases linearly with the frequency due to the 2 n f M expression in the equation. The
induced voltages for open wire to two types of shielded cable are shown. Here, above a certain
Table 4.2 Summary of Open-Wire and Shielded-Wire Induced Interference. (From Ref. 2,01967 IEEE)
GERFERENCE AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE
CASE SCHEMATIC OF VICTIM L O W
OPEN WIRE-
TO-
OPEN WIRE
I21
p c
2 i"c
SMIELDED
WIRE-TC- EAK TRANSIENT
OPEN WIRE
MII Rd
VdMAX'T Rc+Rd 'SI
-
C RMS
EAK TRANSIENT
t
R S Z Q ,,,I -Ls2
RS2
*
141
SHIELDED
WIRE-TO- EAU TRANSIENT
SHIELDED
WIRE
Rd
vdMAX'TW 'SS
IO0
1 OPEN
WIRE
OPEN WIRE
RG-58C/U
IO
01
0.I I IO IO0 IO00
FREOUENCY IN kHz
Figure 4.15 Coupling from open-wire to open-wire, or RG58C/U to RG223/U, shielded cables. (0
1967, IEEE.)
frequency a large proportion of the induced current flows on the shield; the inductive reactance
of the shield is high and so the 2n,fM term is balanced by the term
1
and the induced voltage levels out.

The difference between the two types of shielded cable is that the RG58C/U is a single-
braid cable exhibiting a resistance of 4.70 mR/ft and the RG223/U is a double braid with a
resistance of 2.55 rnnlft. The experimental and calculated results for the shielded cables begin
to diverge above 200 kHz, because the transfer impedance of the cables no longer equals the
DC resistance, due to skin effect and braid leakage factors. The preceding equations may be
used for shielded cables above 200 kHzby modeling them as unshielded and finding the current
flow on the shield. The load and source resistances are then the shield-termination impedances.
The current is found from the voltages developed across the low impedances. Once the current
flow is known, the transferred voltage, V,, may be found from the transfer impedance of the
cable as described in Section 7.2.2.
In the inductive crosstalk calculations, no account has been made for the effect of current
flow in the receptor circuiton the source circuit. Little errorwill result in ignoring the interaction
between the source magnetic field and the receptor magnetic fields when the circuits are not
closely coupled. However, when close coupling exists, the additional load represented by the
140 Chapter 4
Table 4.3 Induced Interference Due to Transient Current Open Wire to Coaxial
Cable, and Comparison of Measurements with Calculations
Calculated Measured
z e,,, f", em t,,,

Cable type (PSI (mV) (PS) (mV) (PSI
Open wire to coaxial cable
RG58CIU 1 2.1 4 2.7 3
18 1.8 31 1.9 28
34 1.5 44 1.6 40
50 1.3 55 1.4 50
RG223/U 1 1.6 4.6 1.6 5.5
18 1.2 39 1.2 35
34 1 58 1 50
50 0.9 72 0.9 65
Coaxial to coaxial cable
RG58C/U 0.2 1.16 50 1.2 50
8 1.08 60 I .2 50
17 I .06 77 1.1 60
26 1 89 1 70
54 0.86 I08 0.8 80
RG223/U 0.2 0.65 80 0.7 70
8 0.64 96 0.7 80
17 0.61 114 0.6 80
26 0.6 133 0.6 90
54 0.54 167 0.56 130
''! = 24 inches, !I = 2 inches, D = 1 inch, I = 1 A; e,. is the induced voltage and 1," IS the pulsc
width.
receptor circuit may be reflected back into the source. Using the equations presented here for
close coupling to a receptor circuit, with a low load and source impedance or a shielded cable,
may result in a predicted current that is above the source current!
A very approximate limit to the magnitude of the receptor circuit current is given by
measurements using the MIL-STD-462 RS02 test setup, in which the source cable is wrapped
around the receptor cable for a distance of 2 m. In performing the RS02 test, currents of approxi-
mately 50% of the source current have been measured in the receptor circuit.
Table 4.3 compares the measured and calculated transient induced voltage for the two
types of shielded cable previously considered, and Figure 4.16 shows the induced waveforms
for transient currents of various rise times. It should be noted that the inductances of the two
cables are identical; only the DC resistances are different (refer to Table 4.1).
Due to the number of calculations, the numerous attenuation factors, and the amount of
cable data involved in calculating the induced voltage in the victim load resistance, this type
of prediction lends itself to the use of a computer program such as the one at the end of this
chapter (Section 4.4.6). The limitations on the use of these equations are as follows:
When the cable length is long compared to 0.4 times a wavelength
When the frequency is above 200 kHz for shielded cables, after which the cable may be
treated as unshielded and the shield current may be computed
Figure 4.16 Scope traces of inducedvoltage, open wire tocoaxial cable. (01967, IEEE.)
100 @cm on x-axis. Waveform for 0.8-, 13-, and 5 0 - p rise times.
(a) Open-wire input voltage across 50 Q, 20 Vlcm on y-axis.
(h) Open-circuit induced voltage in RG58C/U, 1 rnV/cm on y-axis.
(c) Open-circuit induced voltage in RG23YU. 1 mV/crn on y-axis.
4.4 COMBINEDINDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVECROSSTALK

Referring to Figure 4.1, reproduced below for convenience, we see that the current flow due to
capacitive coupling in the resistor of the receptor circuit close to the source-voltage end of the
lines (near end) adds to the inductively induced current, whereas, in the resistor at the far end
of the receptor circuit, the capacitive and inductively inducedcurrents tend to cancel. The reason
for this difference can be found by considering the capacitive and inductive coupling modes
separately. The voltage induced i n the receptor circuit by capacitive coupling results in a current
1
Source
RL S
N Receptor F
142 Chapter 4
that flows in both directions on the line, due to the line-to-ground capacitance distributed down
the length of the line, as described in Section 4.4.3. When examining inductive coupling, we
may consider the source conductor as the primary of a transformer and the receptor conductor
as the secondary. The transfornler coupled voltage appears down the length of the receptor
conductor and develops a current flow in the load, composed of the near-end and far-end resis-
tances. The inductively induced current thus flows in one direction only in the receptor circuit.
When the coupling impedance, denoted as ZI2,which equals a. equals dRL, RL,,,,
the inductively and capacitively induced currents through the far-end receptor load resistor ex-
actly cancel.
Combining the equations for capacitiveand inductive coupling, described in Sections 4.2
and 4.3, gives the following expressions forthe total interference in the circuit at either end of
the receptor circuit and for AC and transient coupling:
For the AC coupling:
For the transient case:
Where
VC,V,, = AC voltages across R, and R,,, respectively
V,,,,,, V</(,,l.,= peak transient voltages across R,. and R,, respectively
f = source frequency, in MHz
M = mutual inductance, in pH/ft
L , , L: = self-inductance of source and receptor lines, in pH/ft
I, = AC current in source circuit, in amps
1, = peak value of current in source circuit, in amps
y = time constant of source current, in microseconds
4.4.1 Use of the Characteristic Impedance of PCB Tracks and Wires Over
a Ground Plane for Predicting Crosstalk
One conductor of a pair of conductors located over a ground plane exhibits a characteristic
impedance to ground when both conductors are driven at the same potential, termed the even-
mode impedance, Z,,,. When driven with different potentials, the impedance of one conductor
to ground is termed the odd-mode impedance, Z,,,,, which has a different value than Z,)c.The
characteristicimpedancebetween an isolatedconductorandground Z,,, may befoundfrom
Appendix 1 for a number of different conductor configurations. When the conductors are termi-
nated with an impedance that approximates their characteristic impedance, Z,,, the magnitudes
143
2, and 2, may be used to calculate crosstalk for AC voltages using the following relationship
(Ref. 3):
”
1
c = -2, (4.20)
&+l
zm
Consider theconfiguration shown in Figure 4.17, which is termed an open coupled

stripline by the microwave community. The practical application of the coupled stripline for
the nonmicrowave engineer is in crosstalk predictions in ribbon cables or in a multiconductor
printed circuit boards, where the signal conductors are immersed in a homogeneous dielectric
and are sandwiched between ground planes. Admittedly this configuration is not too practical
in a PCB, due to the difficulty of tracing signals on the board. However, sandwiching circuit
tracks in a closed stripline is a very effective method of reducing radiation from a board. We
may extend the usefulness of the modelincluding
by the case where signal tracks are sandwiched
between a plane connected to a supply rail and a ground plane, when a low impedance exists
between the supply and ground, typically via decoupling capacitors. The crosstalk found from
Q. (4.20) applies only to near-end crosstalk in the coupled stripline, since the capacitively and
inductively coupled voltages exactly cancel at the far end.
The characteristic impedance of the coupled stripline may be found from the relationship
The relative permittivity of epoxy glass printed circuit boards is approximately 4, and the
relative permittivity ofthe insulation of a ribboncable ranges from 2 to 5. Typical PCB dimen-
sions are 0.02” (0.5mm) for the width of the tracks, W,0.03” (0.75 mm) for the distance between
the tracks, S, 0.034” (0.86 mm) for the height of a single-layer board, and 0.005” (0.12 mm)
for the height of the layers in a multilayer board. The near-end crosstalk, C, for a number of
ratios of Slh and WIS and E, = 4 and 2 may be obtained from Table 4.4.
A more common PCB configuration, in which the tracks are on the surface of the PCB
material, may be modeled by the coupledmicrostrip shown in upcoming Figure 4.27. The imped-
ances 2, and 2, for permittivities of 2 and 4 and the crosstalk as a coefficient, C, are shown
in Table 4.5. From Q. (4.20), as demonstrated in Tables 4.4 and 4.5, it is seen that thecrosstalk
coefficient is independent of the values of E~and may be obtained simply from the ratios Wlh
and Slh.
144 Chapter 4
Table 4.4 Z,,,,, Z,,,., and Crosstalk, C, for the Stripline Configuration
E, = 4 E, = 2
Slh Wlh Z,,,. Z,,,, C Z,,,. z,,,, c
0.3 0.01 360 104 0.55 253 73 0.55
0.3 0.10 340 172 0.38 239 121 0.38
0.3 0.50 284 236 0.09 200 166 0.09
0.5 0.01 266 92 0.48 187 65 0.48
0.5 0.10 244 140 0.27 172 99 0.27
0.5 0.50 216 186 0.08 152 I30 0.08
1.o 0.01 154 74 0.35 108 52 0.35
1.o 0.10 150 100 0.20 106 70 0.20
1 .o 0.50 138 124 0.05 97 87 0.05
Table 4.4 and 4.5 provide the near-end crosstalk. Unlike the stripline, the far-end crosstalk
in the microstrip is not zero, due to the inhomogeneous dielectric composed of both the air and
the PCB material. Far-end crosstalk is typically, but not always, lower than near-end crosstalk
and may be zero, depending on the track layout, which influences the magnitudes of Z,,,, and
Z,,,., and the receptor and source load resistor values. Typical values of far-end crosstalk are a
factor of 1.5-0.37 of the near-end values for microstrip lines (Ref. 4).
A comparison of Tables 4.4 and 4.5 illustrates that, for the same dimensions of h , S, and
W , the crosstalk is lower forthe stripline configuration,due tothe increased capacitance between
Table 4.5 Z,,,,,Z,,,, and Crosstalk, C, for the Coupled Microstrip
E, = 4 E, = 2
W1h Slh z<,,, Z,,,, C zo,. Z,,,, C
0.2 0.01 360 104 0.55 253 73 0.55
0.2 0.05 202 56 0.56 310 86 0.56
0.2 0.20 190 77 0.42 292 1l9 0.42
0.2 0.50 171 98 0.21 263 150 0.27
0.2 1.oo 157 1l6 0.15 240 177 0.15
0.5 0.05 41 45 0.52 216 69 0.52
0.5 0.20 36 60 0.38 208 93 0.38
0.5 0.50 25 73 0.26 191 113 0.26
0.5 1.oo 16 85 0.15 177 130 0.15
1.o 0.05 97 37 0.45 149 56 0.45
1.o 0.20 95 47 0.33 145 73 0.33
1.o 0.50 89 56 0.23 137 86 0.23
1.O 1.oo 84 63 0.14 129 96 0.14
2.0 0.20 61 28 0.37 94 43 0.37
2.0 0.50 61 35 0.26 92 53 0.26
2.0 0.50 58 40 0.18 88 61 0.18
2.0 1 .oo 55 43 0.12 85 66 0.12
the center conductors and the ground planes. For either configuration, increasing the distance
between the tracks (the width of the tracks) or decreasing the height between the tracks and
ground will decrease the crosstalk. Increasing the spacing between tracks and inserting a shield
track, which is connected to ground, will decrease the level of crosstalk. However, measurements
have shown that the presence of the shield conductor reduces the crosstalk by only 6-9 dB.
The wider the shield conductor, the greater the reduction. Use of Eq. (4.20) is not limited to PCBs
but may be used in a wire-to-wire crosstalk prediction. The odd- and even-mode impedances for
pairs of wires above a ground plane may be obtained from the following equations:
where
h = height above the ground plane
D = distance between the wires
d = diameter of the wires
The same units must be used for h , D, and d. The crosstalk may be found by use of Eq. (4.20).
4.4.2 Crosstalk in Twisted-Pair, Cross-Stranded Twisted-Pair, Twisted-

Shielded-Pair, and Ribbon Cables
The very high levels of crosstalk measured in cables manufactured from untwisted conductors
and used in either balanced or unbalanced circuits may be greatly reduced by replacement with
twisted-pair or shielded twisted-pair cables. Toreduce problems dueto reflections, such as pulse
degradation, long cables used for communications or cables used for transmission of data with
short rise andfall times are usually terminated in the characteristic impedance of the lines. These
terminated cables arethe focus of attention here. In a properly designed, appropriately terminated
communication signal interface, the characteristic impedance of the cable will be extended to
the back plane inside the equipment and even to the tracks of the PCB on which the interface
circuits are mounted. The characteristic impedance of a number of different cables and PCB
track configurations may be computed from the equations contained in Appendix 1 . A statistical
model has been developed for predicting the near-end and far-end crosstalk in cross-stranded
multipletwisted-pair cable versusmeasuredcrosstalk (Ref. 5). Across-strandedmultiple
twisted-pair cable comprises a number of twisted pairs randomly positioned within the cable
during manufacture. The advantage of the cross-stranded over the more typical construction, in
which the pairs rotate arounda fixed point, is that the same pairs are not always in close proxim-
ity down the length of the cross-stranded cable. Assuming that the group twist frequency is the
same (that is, the twist period is the same forall twisted pairs in the cable), the near-end crosstalk
isolation varies between 60 and 70 dB and the far-end crosstalk isolation between 45 and 57
dB for a IO-pair cross-stranded cable.
The crosstalk, in decibels, is defined as either the ratio of the crosstalk-induced voltage
to the source voltage, in which case the crosstalk is negative, or the ratio of the source voltage
146 Chapter 4
to the induced voltage, i n which case the crosstalk is positive and is more accurately ternled
the cr-o.s.strrlkisoltrriorl. The latter of these two definitions will be used here.
By twisting the pairs within the cable at a different twist frequency, the crosstalk may be
further reduced; however, this type of construction is rarely available in commercial cables.
Measured data is available on crosstalk i n unshielded twisted-pair cable and shielded twisted-
pair cable (Ref. 6). The CR-CS test method, contained in U S . government document CR-CS-
0099-000, was used in the test. The CR-CS method uses the cable in a balanced circuit configu-
ration, so the test results are valid only for balanced circuits.
The mean values of near-end and far-end crosstalk for 19-pair shielded and unshielded
cables and 27-pair shielded and unshielded cables are reproduced in Figure 4.18. The pairs in
the shielded type B cable havea characteristic impedance of 50 R and a polypropylene insulation
with a thickness of 0.01”. In type C cable, the pairs have a characteristic impedance of 100 R
and a foam polyethylene insulation with a thickness of 0.023”.
Ribbon or flat cables exhibit a stable characteristic impedance, a controlled distance be-
tween conductors, and, depending on type, a low crosstalk. The following crosstalk figures for
various types of flat or ribbon cable are published by, and reproduced here withthe kind permis-
sion of, the Belden Cable Company.
The characteristic impedance of the cables are specified either with one conductor con-
nected to ground and the adjacent conductor used for the signal (CS configuration) or with the
signal conductor sandwiched between two ground conductors (GSG configuration). The typical
unbalanced crosstalk is expressed in percentages, with a rise time of between 3 and 7 ns. The
frequency at which the unbalanced frequency-domain crosstalk equals the pulse crosstalk may
be very approximately obtained by the relationshipf = 0.5 m.
The Belden 9L28OXX Series is a flat 0.05-pitch unshielded cable with a C S characteristic
impedance of 150 R and a GSG impedance of 105 R. The cable is available with 10-64 conduc-
tors. The cable dimensionsand adjacent conductor unbalanced pulse crosstalk results are repro-
duced i n Figure 4.19. The balanced crosstalk in the frequency domain is provided in Figure
4.20.
The 9L283XX Series is a flat 0.05-pitch shielded cable with a C S impedance of 45 R
and a GSG impedance of SO R. The cable is available with 9-64 conductors. The cable dimen-
sions and adjacent conductor pulse crosstalk are reproduced in Figure 4.21.
The 9GPlOXX Series is a 0.05-pitch Hat cable that incorporates a copper ground plane
and is available with 20-60 conductors, of which one conductor is ground. The cable has a
I 1
-
,050
t m2
(1.271
9
I -A ! 0l 1 3 5 7
Figure 4.19 Belden 9L28OXX flat cable dimensions and unbalanced pulse crosstalk.
I"
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 4.20 Belden 9L28OXX and 9V28OXX balanced frequency-domain crosstalk.

148 Chapter 4
Dimensions inch (mm) 71+"-*
Figure 4.22 Bcldcn 9GPIOXX dimensions and unbalanced pulse crosstalk.
Dimensions inch (mm)

r
I
Pulse Rise t h e (ns)
Figure 4.23 Bcldcn 9L32OXX unbalanccd pulse crosstalk.

GSG impedance of 60 R. The dimensions and unbalanced pulse crosstalk are given in Figure
4.22.
The 9L32OXX Series is a 0.025-pitch cable available with 41 or 53 conductors. The GS
impedance is I35 R, and the GSG impedance is 93 R. The dimensions and pulse crosstalk are
reproduced in Figure 4.23.
The 9V28OXX is a varitwist flat cable in which conductors are twisted as pairs for 18
inches followed by a 2-inch flat section provided for termination and then followed by a further
18 inches of twist. The cable has an 0.05 pitch and is available with 5-32 conductors. The
dimensions andpulsecrosstalk are illustrated in Figure 4.24, with thebalancedfrequency-
domain crosstalk provided in Figure 4.20.
Ribbon coaxial cables containing from 4 to 25 coaxial cores are available. The Belden
9K50, 9K75, and 9K93 Series have SO-, 75-, and 9 3 4 characteristic impedances, respectively.
The near-end and far-end crosstalk for these types of cable is less than 0.1% for 3-, 5-, and 7-
ns rise times.
4.4.3 Crosstalk on Lines with a Long Propagation Delay Relative to the

Rise Time of the Source
With the increased use of high-speed logic involving emitter-coupled logic (ECL) and Schottky
and gallium arsenide technology, designers have realized the importance of designing the inter-
connections as transmission lines terminated in their characteristic impedance. When the rise
time of the logic is equal to or shorter than the propagation delay of the line, the crosstalk
prediction is somewhatdifferent than described thus far in this chapter. Thesehigh-speed termi-
nated source transmission lines are the focus here.
The propagation delay of two PCB tracks side by side is given by
t,,,, = 1.017 4 0 . 4 7 5 ~+~0.67 [ndftl
150 Chapter 4
VN VF
Figure 4.25 Near-end and far-end crosstalk in a line where the propagation delay is longer than t,.
where E, is the relative dielectric constant of the PCB. Thus, for a typical glass epoxy PCB, for
which the dielectric constant (E,) ranges from 4 to 5, the propagation delay (t,,) is 1.62-1.77
ns/ft, which is approximately half of the rise time of TTL, equals the rise time of Schottky
TTL, and is approximately twice the rise time of ECL100K.
Figure 4.25 illustrates the inductive and capacitive crosstalk between two coupled lines.
Consider a positive pulse, with rise time t, and duration much greater than the propagation delay
of the line, that has just begun its propagation down the source line. A capacitively induced
positive voltage causes a current flow in the receptor line back toward the near end, N,and also
begins to propagate down towards the far end of the line, F. The inductively induced voltage
is negative and results in a current that flows in the N direction and thus adds to the capacitively
induced current. The same inductively induced current, I,,, subtracts from the capacitively in-
duced current,I(,,flowing toward the far end. When the source and receptor lines are terminated
in their characteristic impedances, I,, is greater than I(. and the voltage propagating toward F ,
the forward voltage, has a negative polarity. As the pulse propagates further down the source
line, the voltages induced in the receptor line add cumulatively to the forward crosstalk voltage,
which is also propagating toward the far end of the line, assuming the propagation delays of
the two lines are identical. Thus the negative-polarity forward crosstalk voltage, V,, increases
in direct proportion to the length of the line and has a pulsewidth approximately equal to the
rise time of the source voltage. The backward voltage propagated toward the N end of the line
results in a continuous, constant current flow, so the voltage developed across the near-end
termination impedance is constant, regardless of the length of the line, and of a duration longer
than the rise time of the source voltage. As the source voltage reaches the end of the source
line, the forward crosstalk voltage reaches the F end of the receptor line and appears across the
F termination impedance. However, the backward crosstalk voltage must still propagate toward
the N end of the line in a time equal to the propagation delay of the line. Therefore, the voltage
appearing across the terminating resistor at the N end has a duration equal to twice the propaga-
tion delay of the line, since it was developed from the moment the source voltage began its
propagation down the line until the last backward voltage returned from the far end of the line.
Logic does not typically respond to an input voltage pulse with a duration equal to the
rise time of the logic, even when the voltage level is above thelogic threshold. The input-pulse
duration must be several times the rise time of the logic before an output response occurs. It
is for this reason that near-end crosstalkis more likely to result in EM1 than is far-end crosstalk.
A method of computing crosstalk in high-speed digital interfaces when the mutual inductance,
mutual capacitance, and propagation delay of the line are known is provided in Ref. 7. An
alternative to this is the use of one of the computer programs described in the next section.
4.4.4 Crosstalk Computer Programs

Many of the latestcomputer-aideddesign (CAD) PCB layoutprograms do allowcrosstalk,
and these include the ‘Incases” and ‘Applied Simulation Technology” programs described in
L
Section 1 1.8
In addition to full PCB layout programs, other programs allow the characteristics of high-
speeds transmission on PCB tracks, such as impedance, crosstalk, ringing, and time delay. One
such program is GREENFIELD2 TM, from Quantic Laboratories. Also pWave SPICE, from
EESOF, allows the computation of crosstalk, delay, and ringing. This program was used to
compile the tables, presented in this section, of near-end and far-end crosstalk voltage for a
number of PCB layouts and pulse rise times. Clayton R. Paul has developed a simple model
that may be used with SPICE or PSPICE to predict crosstalk in coupled transmission lines.
SPICE allows the transient analysis of transmission lines with a specified characteristic imped-
ance and propagation delay but not the analysis of coupled transmission lines. The model devel-
oped by C. R. Paul extends the SPICE capability to coupled lines and allows the modeling of
a line immersed in an inhomogeneous medium, such as tracks on a PCB (Ref. 1 1). A comparison
of the crosstalk prediction with measured crosstalk data from PCBs shows excellent prediction
accuracy.
In order to examine the effect on crosstalk voltage, a number of PCB configurations as
well as source and receptor circuit impedances were modeled, using pWave SPICE. The initial
configuration was that described in Ref. 9 and shown in Figure 4.26, in which the PCB track
length was 7860 mils (20 cm), the track width, W, and distance between tracks, S, were 100
mils (2.5 mm), the PCB material had a relative permittivity of 5, and the height of the tracks
above the ground plane was 62 mils (1.6 mm). The predicted near-end and far-end crosstalk
voltage and circuit coupling parameter(Ref. 9), the measured voltage(Ref. lo),and the predicted
crosstalk using pWave SPICE are shown in Figure 4.27. The rise time of the source signal is
50 ns, with a peak-to-peak voltage of 2.5 V. The source-circuit termination impedance is 50
R, and the receptor-circuit termination impedances are 50 R in case 3 and 1000 R in case 4. A
very good correlation exists between the predicted crosstalk (Ref.9) and the measured crosstalk,
whereas an acceptable correlation exists between the pWave SPICE predicted values and the
measured. In the following pWave SPICE plots V[ l ] is the near-end source waveform, V[2] is
the far-end source waveform, V[3] is the near-end receptor waveform, and V[4] is the far-end
receptor waveform.
The waveforms for correctly terminated (50-R) source and receptor circuits with a source
rise time of 2 ns and a peak voltage of 0.8 V are shown in Figure 4.28. The positive near-end
crosstalk exhibits an amplitude approximately twice the value of the negative far-end crosstalk,
with a slightly greater pulsewidth, as expected.
Decreasing the distance S between the two tracks to 13 mil (0.33 mm) not only increases
152 Chapter 4
W = 2.5 mm (100 mils)
S = 2.5 mm (100 mils)
Connectedto
ground plane
T = 1.6 mm
(62 mils)
Ground plane
50 Cl (Conductorn+l)
Figure 4.26 Tracksona PCB forming a coupled microstrip configuration.
the crosstalk voltage but increases the near-end and far-end crosstalk voltage pulsewidths, as
shown in Figure 4.29. The pulsewidth increase is dueto a modification in the microstrip charac-
teristic impedance caused by the proximity of the two tracks.
Retaining the 50-!2 terminations but removing bothsource and receptor tracks from close
proximity to the ground plane also changes the characteristic impedance of the line, resulting
in an increase in the amplitude and pulsewidths of the near-end and far-endcrosstalk, as shown
in Table 4.6. Figure 4.30 illustrates the waveforms. The rise time of the voltage at the far end
of the source line is degraded by reflectionsdue to the mismatch between the line and the load
impedance.
The case where the characteristic impedance of the source line matches the source load
impedance (50 a)but the receptor terminations are 1000 SZ and are mismatched to the line is
shown in Figure 4.31. Here we see that although the far-end crosstalk is initially negative, it
changes sign and equals the near end crosstalk in amplitude. Due to the multiple reflections,
which are clearly visible, the pulsewidths at 30 ns are much greater than in the matched case.
The potential for EM1 to analog-signal lines may not be high with a 30-11s crosstalk
pulsewidth. However, when the pulse repetition rate is in megahertz, a very real potential for
EM1 exists.
In examining the original matched configuration andextending the lengthof the line from
20 cm to 40 cm we see that the far-end crosstalk amplitude and the near-end crosstalk pulsewidth
are both twice the value of the 20-cm-long line. Table 4.6 contains the predicted crosstalk for
a number of risetimes, receptor-circuit termination impedances, distances between tracks, and
Measured Predicted crosstalk

crosstalk' (pWave SPICE)
(mv) (mv)
5022 Termination
25 1 29
25 22
Per-UnitlengthParameters
C I I= 1377pFlm CZl= 5 15pF/m

Cl2 = 5.15pF/m C22= 1377pF/m
L I I = 0.3 I4pWrn LZl= 0.036pWm

L12= 0.036ptWm Lzz = 0.3 14pWm
Figure 4.27 Coupled-microstrip parameters with predicted and measured crosstalk for 50-11s rise time
and a 2.5-V transition.
heights above the ground plane. As expected, the crosstalk is greater where the tracks are closer
together and/or higher above the ground plane.
The microstrip model terminated in passive loads, used thus far, is useful in evaluating
factors that mitigate crosstalk, such as the useof ground planes under coupledtracks, increasing
the distance between tracks, and matching the termination impedance to the line impedance. In
addition, the crosstalk with 1000-R receptor-circuit termination impedance may apply to the
prediction of crosstalk from a logic-to-analog circuit, because analog-circuit input and source
impedances are often close to 1000 R. The crosstalk voltage may be scaled when the source
voltage is other than 0.8 V. For example, with a logic voltage of 3.6 V at a 2-ns risetime, a
1000-R termination impedance at both ends of the receptor track, I = 20 cm, W = 2.5 mm, S
= 2.5 mm, the far-end crosstalk voltage is (3.6/0.8) X 0.6 V = 2.7 V.
Further information on modeling crosstalk on printed circuit boards is provided in Ref.
10. Reference 13 describes a finite element method that may be used for modeling crosstalk on
multiple PCB tracks in either a microstrip or stripline configuration. The author of Ref. 13 has
described a computer program that can model crosstalk between 5 tracks when run on a PC
and up to 50 tracks when run on a mainframe computer.
154 Chapter 4
*COUPLEDPCB 20CM.
v L31 - v t41 v til
REAL REAL REAL
,9500
,3500
1500
0.00000E+00 TIME 1.00000E-08 2.00000E-08
Figure 4.28 Crosstalk with V , = 0.8 V, t, = 2 ns, W = 100 mil, S = 100 mil, l = 7860 mil, I? = 62
m i l , t = 0.001 mil, R,. = R,, = 50 R.
In predicting the crosstalk to a line connected to IC gates, the line source and load imped-
ances are not the same and are complex (i.e., with real and imaginary components). Also, they
change with input or output voltage level. Consider the receptor circuit shown in Figure 4.32,
in which the input of a TTL gate is connected at the near end of the line and the output of a
TTL gate is connected at the far end. For the positive excursion of the source voltage step, the
Figure 4.32 configuration may be considered the worst case for crosstalk. The input of a TTL
gate sources current that flows out of the gate and is sinked by the driver gate at the far end
of the line. Thus, a TTL input tends to rise to a 1” level when disconnected from a low
“
impedance. The positive near-end crosstalk is therefore developed across an impedance that is
effectivelyconnected to thelogicsupplyand not to ground. The far-endimpedance is low
referenced to ground, for it is formed by the “on” impedance of a transistor.
yWave SPICE has the advantage that discrete, logic, and analog ICs and reactive loads
may be modeled directly, whereas GREENFIELD offers only a SPICE interface. The worst-
case TTL crosstalk configuration shown in Figure 4.32 was modeled using yWave SPICE. TO
ensure that this is indeed a worst-case configuration, the crosstalk was compared tothat predicted
for a negative source-voltage step and when the driver and input gate locations were inter-
changed. The Figure 4.32 configuration was found to be indeed the worst case. This configura-
tion was used for cases where the track widths were fixed at 12 mil (0.3 mm) and the distance
between the tracks was varied, as were the lengths for two values of board thickness (i.e., 34
mil [0.86 mm] and 71 mil [1.8 mm]).
The near-end and far-end waveforms for two 96-cm tracks located 0.86 mm above the
ground plane with a spacing of 0.6 mm are shown in Figure 4.33. The amplitude of the near-
*COUPLED PCB 2 0 C M .
. v 131 . v l41 . v til
.g000
.4000
1000
0.00000E+00 TIME 1.00000E-OB 2.00000E-06
Figure 4.29 Crosstalk as a result of decreasing track spacing to 13 mil (0.33 mm).
Table 4.6 Crosstalk Values for thc CoupledMicrostrip

L
W S H RI., RI2 1, N,. FI.
[mils][mils] [mils] [cm] [mils] [Q] [Q] [nsl [VI [VI
Source voltage = 0.8 V into Ro = 50 Q, E, = 5
100 100 7,860 20 62 50 50 2 +0.03 -0.019
100 13 7,860 20 62 50 50 2 +0.13 -0.11
1 00 13 7,860 20 62 1000 +0.23
1000 2 +0.2
100 IO0 15,720 40 62 50 50 2 +0.03 -0.027
IO0 100 7,860 20 62 1000 1000 2 +0.6 -0.3
+0.5
100 500 7,860 20 62 50 50 2 +0.0024 -0.0025
100 IO0 7,860 20 62 50 50 4 +0.02 -0.01
100 100 7,860 20 62 50 50 8 +0.01 +0.005
IO0 100 7,860 20 500 50 50 2 +0.12 -0.08
100 IO0 7,860 20 5,000 1000 1000 2 t0.4 +0.06
Source voltage = 3.6 V into Ro = 50 Q, E, = 5
l00 100 20 7,860 62 50 50 2 +0.14 -0.08
156 Chapter 4
*COWLED PCB 20W.

. v 131 . vr41 .v M
O.OOOOOE+OO TIME 1.00000E-O8 2.00000E-08
Figure 4.30 Crosstalk with S = 100 mil, W = 100 mil, and H = 1000 mil.
end crosstalk is higher than that of the far end, and the far end exhibits both a negative and
positive voltage excursion, which is common with an unmatched load impedance. The far-end
positive excursion is clamped to between 0.4 V and 0.6 V by the “on” transistor in the driver
output circuit. In the pWave SPICEplot, V[7] is the output of the near-end TTL gate. A summary
of the near-end and far-end crosstalk for line lengths up to 192 cm and tracks as close as 0.3
mm are shown in Table 4.7. Very often the receptor track is sandwiched between two or more
source tracks, especially true for a data bus, and the impact of this configuration is shown in
Table 4.7, where the far-end crosstalk voltage is seen to be approximately 1.62 times and the
near-end 1.76 times that for a single source track. When the receptor track is on the outside of
the two source tracks, the far-end crosstalk is 1.62 times and the near end 1.17 times that for
a single source track.
Electromagnetic interference does not occur until the length of the track is 384 cm for a
distance between tracks of 0.3 mm, as shown in Figure 4.34. The input voltage is 1.7 V, with
a pulsewidth of 45 ns. The measured input current spike is 1 1 mA. so the input noise energy
at which EM1 occurs, given by flV (where t is the pulsewidth, I is the current, and V is the
voltage), is 0.87 nJ. At a line length of 192 cm, the input level is well above the TTL DC ‘‘ 1”
level voltage of 1 V; but with a pulse width of only 26 ns, the TTL gate does not have time
to respond. Had we modeled a faster typeof logic, the permissible linelength before EM1 occurs
would almost certainly be less than 384 cm. The near-end crosstalk voltage is independent of
line length, and the 1.7-V level at a pulse width of 13 ns, developed with a 96-cm line length,
may upset some fast logic types, such as 74H and FACT.
When the ground plane is removed from under the source and receptor tracks, source
*COUPLED PCB 20CM.

. v [41 . v r31 . vtil
REAL REAL REAL
0.0600
0.0100
-0.0350
0.00000E+00 TIME 1.00000E-OB 2.00000E-08
Figure 4.31 Crosstalk with W = 100 mil, S = 100 mil. H = h2 mil,and Z , = 50 L2 butwiththe
receptor load resistors changed to 1000 R.
1R
Figure 4.32 Worst-case configuration lor crosstalk to TTL gates.
158 Chapter 4
MCRSg.TU< COUPLED PC0 AND INTEAC. %CM.

. v t41 -vM . v [71 - Vti1
REAL #AL REAL REAL
i .200 6.502
0.4000 2.502
V I
-0.4000,. I -1 .498
0.00000E+00 TIME 5.00000E-08 1.00000E-07
Figure 4.33 Crosstalk to TTL gates with S = 0.6 mln, I = 96 C I X 11 = 0.86 n m , V , = 5 V. and I, =
2 ns.
line-to-load impedance mismatch is created. This results in an increase in the rise time of the
source voltage developed across the far-end termination impedance and i n an increase in the
crosstalk pulsewidth, as illustrated in Figure 4.35 for 96-c111 tracks with 2.~-111111spacing and a
5-V source voltage with a 2-ns risetime.
4.4.5 ElectromagneticCoupling
When the distance between conductors, or the distance between the signal conductors and a
returnconductor or groundplane, is large, the coupling prediction may be moreaccurately
accomplished using the transmitting and receiving properties of electric current elements and
loops, as described in Sections 2.2.2-2.2.6. Signal tracks on a PCB that are terminated in a
high impedance and are far removed from a ground plane may be conveniently modeled by the
electric current element using either the electric field receiving or the electric and magnetic field
radiation characteristics of the element. Whena track forms a loop, either circular orrectangular,
then the receiving or transmitting properties of the loop may be used in a coupling prediction.
The coupling may be loop to loop, loop to element, or element to element. When two loops
are formed on the sanle PCB surface, the loop coupling is coplanar; when the coupling is from
a loop on one printed circuit board to a loop on a second, adjacent board, the coupling is coaxial.
The impedance of the loop and the load impedance must be included when predicting the loop
current Row and the voltages developed around the loop. Chapter 7 addresses electromagnetic
field-to-cable coupling and provides an equation for the inductance of a loop that may be used
Table 4.7 Crosstalk on a TTL Signal Track in a Microstrip Configuration
H L S Nl NI Fl Fl
[mml [cml [Ill I l l ] IVI llSl 1Vl ",,!\ 11sl
0.86 96 0.3 + 1.7 13 -0.37 4
+0.38 13
0.86 96 0.6 + I .o 13 -0.46 4
+0.2 13
0.86 96 7.2 10.65 I3 -0.35 4
- -
0.86 96 2.5 +0.42 to +0.70 13 -0.25 4
+0.05 13
0.86 96 12.5 +0.008 13 -0.0035 4
10.0015 13
0.86 I92 0.3 + 1.7 36 -0.8 4
(3.1 pk) +0.38 26
0.86 384 0.3 +1.7 47 -0.82 4
+0.4 47
1.8 96 0.3 +2.3 13 -0.3 4
+0.35 13
1.8 96 I .2 +1.1 13 -0.3 4
+0.15 13
1.8 96 2.5 +0.4 to +0.6 -0.25 4
+O.OS 13
Two source tracks. rcccptor on outsidc
0.86 96 0.3 +2 -0.6
+0.4
Two source tracks, reccptor on inside
0.86 96 0.3 +3 -0.6
+0.6
to calculate the loop impedance. Often, parallel impedances formed by 1C loads or decoupling
capacitors exist around the loop, in which case the loop may be divided into a number of loops
sharing a load impedance. One rather idealized example of loop-to-loop coupling. with the loop
dimensions, is illustrated in Figure 4.36. The receiving loop layout of Figure 4.36 is optimized
for minimum error in the predicted received voltage by making the width of the loop sinall and
the radius of the loop follow the radius of equipotential electric and magnetic fields from the
source loop.
Equations (2.26)-(2.28) are used to compute the radiation from a current loop, and Eq.
(2.211, which gives the receiving properties of a loop. is used to predict the induced voltage.
Figure 4.37 shows the measured and calculated values for receptor loops short-circuited at one
end and open at the other (Ref. 1 I ) . The resonance at approximately 70 MHz would typically
be caused by cable-to-source loop impedance mismatch. The more realistic situation. where a
driver output impedance and a receiver input iinpedance form the loads on either end of the
loop, is found in Eq. (2.22).
The electric and magnetic quasi-static near fields, as we have seen i n Chapter 2, are ex-
tremely nonuniform, reducing as a function of 1 /I-' or I /I.' with distance from the source. When
the receptor loop is in the form of a circle or square with an area larger than the source loop,
the nonuniformity of the field across the receptor loop and the change in the angle of the incident
field as it cuts the receptor loop results in an error in the predicted voltage rcceived by the loop.
160 Chapter 4
#CASS.nK C W m r O PCB AN0 INTERC. 96ccI.

. v I41 . V r31 . v [71 . v til
REAL REAL REAL
6.003
2.503
0.00000€+00 TIHE 5.00000E-00 1.00000E-07
Figure 4.34 Crosstalk-induced EM1 to a TTL-signal track. S = 0.3 nun, /I = 0.86 mm. I = 384 cm,
v = 5 v, l, = 2 ns.
. v MI
REAL
2.000 5.250
0.aooo 2.250
-0.2000 ,2500
0.00000E+00 TIME 5.00000E-OB 1.00000E-07
Figure 4.35 Crosstalk to a TTL-signal track when the ground plane is removed from under both source
and receptor tracks.
North Loop Receptor
26 mm
Source Loop l /
Figure 4.36 Dimensions of source and receptor current loops.
The error for both coaxially and coplanar-oriented loops has been calculated (Ref. 12).
Figure 4.38 presents the error in the open-circuitvoltagedevelopedat the terminals of the
receiving loop as a function of the ratio RIR,,, where R,, is the distance between the center of
the loops and R is the radius of the receiving loop, assuming the source loop is much smaller.
The error is defined as
e = V n u r - Vun,,orm
v,ln,l,,r,,,
where
V,,,,, = voltage induced in a nonuniform near field
V,,,,,,,,,,,,= voltage induced into the loop in a uniform field
The measured voltage must be corrected as follows:
v- Vrur
l + e
When the error is negative, which is true of the coaxially oriented loop, V is greater than V,,:,,;
when the error is positive, which is true for the coplanar-oriented loops, V is less than V,,;,,.
4.4.6 Computer Program for Evaluating Shielded and Unshielded Cable/

Wire-to-Cable/Wire Coupling
The following computerprogram was written using Microsoft’s QuickBASIC Version 3.0. As
with the programs in Chapter 2 , there are no line numbers, and alphanumeric labels are used
162 Chapter 4
100
10
8
6
4
Measured e
Calculated -S-
0.1
tU I I I I
1 2 6 8 1 0 100
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 4.37 Measured and calculated coupling voltages. (01985, IEEE.)
0.12 -
0.1 - CURVE A
(COPLANAR)
0.08 -
-
-
W
0.06 -
0.04 - H
_"-
4
,
1' CURVEB
0.02 - I'
I
(COAXIAL)
I
l /
0.1 0.2 0.3 I
W O
Figure 4.38 Near-field coupling error for coaxial and coplanar loops as a function of RIR,,. (01989,
IEEE.)
to identify subroutines, etc.

This program is available from EMC Consulting Inc.
'Initialize constants
C=3E+08: RC=377:PI=3.14159
'Initialize variables used in EMC program
I=1: F=lOOOOO!: L = l : W = l : R = l : THETAD=90: CUR=l: THETA=90
BB=l : CCABLE$="RG5B/U": VCABLE$="lOAWG": ACOTEXT$="AC": ICAC=l
VARIABLEl$="Frequency": VARIABLE2$="Current": VARl =F: VAR2=ICAC
UNITSl$="Hz": UNITS2$="Amps": RCC=200: D = l : L W = l : Z0=200: Z1=50:
L L = l : A=.006: 10=1: E O = l : RL=50: RD=50: H = l : ZW=377
CZ1=50: DS1=.181: Dll=.053: RSl=1.2: CZ2=1: DS2=.1019: D12=.1019: RS2=1.018
ICP=l: TR=.001
H=H*39.37 'Convertfrommeters to inches
D=D*39.37
LW=LW*3.28 'Convertfrommeters to feet
GOT0 ComputeCoupling:
WireToWireMenu:
c LS
PRINT "WIRE TO WIRE COUPLING-R.J. Mohr, IEEE, Vol.EMC-9 No.2, Sept, 1967:
PRINT " 'Coupling Between Open and Shielded Wire Lines Over a Ground Plane' "
PRINT
PRINT" [A] CULPRIT wire: ",$CABLE$
PRINT " [B] VICTIMwire:",,VCABLE$
PRINT " [TI Type of analysis: ",,ACOTEXT$
PRINT " [ l ] ";VARIABLEl$;"=":LOCATE 7,43:PRINT VARl;UNITSl$
PRINT " [2] ";VARIABLE2$;"=":LOCATE8,43:PRINTVAR2;UNITS2$
PRINT " [S] Source Impedance:",,RCC;" ohms"
PRINT " [L] Load Impedance:",,RD;" ohms"
PRINT " [H] Height above ground plane:",H;" inches"
PRINT " [D] Distance between wires:",D;" inches"
PRINT [C] Coupled Length:",,LW;" feet"
'I
PRINT " [X] End program"

PRINT " Which parameter would you liketo change (A,B,C...)?"
PRINT ".................................................................. "
PRINT " ";OUTtext$
PRINT " ";IDTEXT$;"=";OUTl ;"V"
PRINT ...................................................................
"
'Test for f>200kHz

FTEST=F/lOOO/lOO
IF FTEST>2 THEN
164 Chapter 4
PRINT “* WARNING, METHOD NOT VALID ABOVE 200kHz FOR SHIELDED

CABLES *”
’PRINT “Victim shield current calculated using unshielded-unshielded coupling
PRINT “Load and source impedance are the victim shield termination impedance”
END IF
IF (CCABLE$=VCABLE$) AND (CCNUM<16) THEN

PRINT “ *PROGRAM ASSUMES SAME CABLE FOR SHIELDED TO SHIELDED
CASE*
END IF
CouplinglnputLoop:
SEL$=INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN LOCATE 15,l
LOCATE 1 5 4
IF (SEL$=“A’) OR (SEL$=“a”) THEN GOSUB CulpritCable:
IF (SEL$=“B”) OR (SEL$=“b”) THEN GOSUB Victimcable:
IF (SEL$=“T”) OR (SEL$=“t”) THEN
INPUT “Enter A for AC or T for Transient ”,ACOT$
IF (ACOT$=“a”) OR (ACOT$=“A”) THEN ACOT$=“A” ELSE ACOT$=“T”
END IF
IF (SEL$=“S”) OR (SEL$=“s”) THEN INPUT “Enter source impedance ”,RCC
IF (SEL$=“L”) OR (SEL$=“I”) THEN INPUT “Enter load impedance ”,RD
IF (SEL$=“H”) OR (SEL$=“h”) THEN INPUT “Enter height above ground plane ”,H
IF (SEL$=“D”) OR (SEL$=“d”) THEN INPUT “Enter distance between wires ”,D
IF (SEL$=“C”) OR (SEL$=“c”) THEN INPUT “Enter coupled length ”,LW
IF (ACOT$=“A’) AND (SEL$=“l”) THEN INPUT “Enter frequency ”,F
IF (ACOT$=“A’) AND (SEL$=“2”) THEN INPUT “Enter current ”,ICAC
IF (ACOT$=“T”) AND (SEL$=“l”) THEN INPUT “Enter peak current ”,ICP
IF (ACOT$=“T”) AND (SEL$=“2”) THEN INPUT “Enter risetime ”,TR
IF (SEL$=“X”) OR (SEL$=“x”) THEN GOTO WireToWireExit:
IF LEN(SEL$)>O THEN GOTO ComputeCoupling:
GOTO CouplinglnputLoop:
CulpritCable:
GOSUB Database:
PRINT “Choose the CULPRIT wire from the above list [Number]:”;CCNUM
INPUT X$:IF LEN(X$)>O THEN CCNUM=VAL(X$)
RESTORE
FOR N = l TO 27
READ CCABLE$,CZl ,DSl ,Dl1 ,RS1
IF CCNUM=N THEN GOTO ComputeCoupling:
NEXT N
PRINT “Must be a number from 1 to 27”
GOTO CulpritCable:
Victimcable:
GOSUB Database:
PRINT “Choose the VICTIM wire from the above list [NUMBER]:”;VCNUM
INPUT X$:IF LEN(X$)>O THEN VCNUM=VAL(X$)

RESTORE
FOR N = l TO 27
READ VCABLE$,CZ2,DS2,D12,RS2
IF VCNUM=N THEN GOTO ComputeCoupling:
NEXT N
PRINT "Must be a number from 1 to 27"
GOTO Victimcable:
RETURN
ComputeCoupling:
IF ACOT$="A' THEN
ACOTEXT$="AC"
VARIABLEl$="Frequency"
VARl =F
UNITSl$="Hz"
VARIABLE2$="Current"
VAR2= ICAC
UNITS2$="Amps"
OUTtext$="Peak AC Voltage"
ELSE
ACOTEXT$="Transient"
VARIABLEl$="Peak Current"
VARl =ICP
UNITSl$="Amps"
VARIABLE2$="lnterference signal rise time"
VAR2=TR
UNITS2$="sec"
OUTtext$="Peak Transient Voltage"
END IF
THAU=TR/2.2
RS1C= RS1 *LW*.OOl
RS2C= RS2*LW*.001
M=7E-O8*LOG(l+ (2*H/D)"2)/LOG(l
O)*LW
IF CCNUMC16 THEN
IF VCNUM<16 THEN
VCABLE$=CCABLE$
CZ2=CZ1: DS2=DS1: D12=Dll: RS2=RSl
GOTO ShieldedToShielded:
ELSEIF VCNUM>15 THEN
GOTO ShieldedToOpen:
END IF
ELSEIF CCNUM>15 THEN

IF VCNUM<16 THEN
GOTO OpenToShielded:
ELSEIF VCNUM>15 THEN
GOTO OpenToOpen:
166 Chapter 4
END IF
END IF
OpenToOpen:
IF ACOT$="T" THEN GOTO OpenToOpenTransient:
IDTEXT$="AC UNSHIELDED-UNSHIELDED Coupling"
LS2=1.4E-O7*LOG(4'H/D12)/LOG(10)
AL2=1/(SQR(1+(2*PI*F*LS2/(RCC+RD))A2))
VD=2*PI*F*M*ICAC*(RD/(RCC+RD))*AL2
PEAK1=VD/RD
OUTl =VD
GOTO WireToWireMenu:
OpenToOpenTransient:
IDTEXT$="Transient UNSHIELDED-UNSHIELDED Coupling"
LS2=1.4E-O7*LOG(4*H/D12)/LOG(lO)
TM=THAU*LOG((RCC+RD)*THAU/LS2)/((RCC+RD)*THAU/LS2-1)
AAL2=1 / ( l -LS2/((RCC+ RD)*THAU))*(EXP(-TM/THAU)-EXP(-(RCC+ RD)*TM/LS2))
VDMAX=M*ICP/THAU*RD/(RCC+RD)*AAL2
OUTl =VDMAX
OpenToShielded:
IF ACOT$="T" THEN GOTO OpenToShieldedTransient:
IDTEXT$="AC UNSHIELDED-SHIELDED Coupling"
LC2=1.4E-O7*LOG(4*H/DI2)/LOG(lO)*LW
LS2=1.4E-O7*LOG(4*H/D12)/LOG(lO)
AS2=1 /(SQR(l +(2*PI*F*LS2/(RS2C))A2))
AC2=1/(SQR(1+(2*PI*F*LC2/(RCC+RD))"2))
VD=2*PI*F*M*ICAC*(RD/(RCC+RD))*AS2*AC2
OUTl =VD
OpenToShieldedTransient:
IDTEXT$="Transient UNSHIELDED-SHIELDED Coupling"
LS2=1.4E-O7*LOG(4*H/DS2)/LOG(l O)*LW
TM=THAU*LOG(THAU/(LS2/RS2C))/(THAU/(LS2/RS2C)-l)
AAS2=1/(LS2/RS2C/THAU-l)*(EXP(-RS2C*TM/LS2)-EXP(-TM/THAU))
VDMAX=M*ICP/THAU*RD/(RCC+RD)*AAS2
OUT1 =VDMAX
ShieldedToOpen:
IF ACOT$="T" THEN GOTO ShieldedToOpenTransient:
IDTEXT$="AC SHIELDED-UNSHIELDED Coupling"
LS1=1.4E-07*LOG(4*H/Dll)/LOG(10)
AL2=1/(SQR(1+(2*PI*F*LS2/(RCC+RD))A2))
AS1 =l/(SQR(1+(2*PI*F*FS1/RS1C)A2))
VD=2*PI*F*M*ICAC*(RD/(RCC+RD))*AL2*ASl
OUTl =VD
ShieldedToOpenTransient:
IDTEXT$=“Transient SHIELDED-UNSHIELDEDCoupling”
LS1=l .4E-O7*LOG(4*H/D1l)/LOG(lO)
TM=THAU*LOG(THAU/(LSl /RSlC))/(THAU/(LSl /RSlC)-l)
AAS1 =l/(LSl/RSlC/THAU-l)*(EXP(-RSlC*TM/LSl)-EXP(-TM/THAU))
VDMAX=M*ICP/THAU*RD/(RCC+RD)*AASl
OUTl =VDMAX
ShieldedToShielded:
IF ACOT$=“T” THEN GOTO ShieldedToShieldedTransient:
IDTEXT$=“AC SHIELDED-SHIELDEDCoupling”
LS2= 1.4E-O7*(LOG(4*H/DS2)/LOG(lO))*LW
L S l = l .4E-O7*(LOG(4*H/DSl)/LOG(lO))*LW
AS1 = 1/(SQR(l+(2*PI*F*LSl /(RSl C*RSl C))))
AS2=1/((1 +(2*PI”F*LS2/RS2CA2))”.5)
AC2=1/((1 +(2*PI*F*LS2/((RCC+RD))A2))A.5)
VD=2*PI*F*M*ICAC*(RD/(RCC+RD))*ASl*AS2*AC2
OUTl =VD
ShieldedToShieldedTransient:
IDTEXT$=“Transient SHIELDED-SHIELDED Coupling”
LS2=1.4E-O7*LOG(4*H/DS2)/LOG(lO)*LW
E2#=0
TM=LS2/RS2C
Transientconvergence:
DD#=l -THAU*RS2C/LS2
E#=EXP(-RS2C/LS2*TM)
E2NEW#=M*ICP*RS2C/LS2*((THAU*RS2C/LS2/DD#^2)*(EXP(-TM/THAU)-
E#)+TM*(RS2C/LS2)/DD#*E#)
IF E2NEW#-E2#>0 THEN TM=TM+.05*LS2/RS2C ELSE GOTO
OutOfConvergenceLoop:
€2#=E2NEW#
GOTO Transientconvergence:
OutOfConvergenceLoop:
VDMAX=RD/(RCC+RD)*E2#
OUTl =VDMAX
Database:
CLS:PRINT“ DATA BASE”: PRINT
PRINT “Number RG#/U Type Number ##AWG Type
PRINT “[l]RG5B/U [l61 IOAWG”
PRINT “[2] RG6A/U [l71 12AWG”
PRINT “[3] RG8A/U [l81 14AWG”
PRINT “[4] RG9B/U [l91 16AWG”
168 Chapter 4
PRINT “[5] RG13A/U [20] 18AWG”

PRINT “[6] RG29/U [21] 22AWG”
PRINT “[7] RG55A/U [22] 24AWG”
PRINT “[8] RG58C/U [23] 26AWG”
PRINT “[g] RG59A/U [24] 28AWG”
PRINT “[lO] RGl22/U [25] 30AWG”
PRINT “ [ l l] RG141/U [26] 32AWG”
PRINT “[l 21 RG142/U 34AWG”
[27]
PRINT “[l31 RG18O/U”
PRINT “[l41 RG188/U”
PRINT “[l51 RG223/U”:PRINT “”
RETURN
’CABLE DATA FOR PROGRAM

’RG(#)/U,Char. Imp.,Shield DiameterJnner Conducter DiameterResistance
DATA RG5B/U,50,.181,.053,1.2
DATA RG6A/U,75,.185,.028,1.l5
DATA RG8A/U,50,.285,.086,1.35
DATA RG9B/U30,.280,.085,.8
DATA RG13A/U ,75,.280,.043,.95
DATA RG29/U,535.116,.032,4.75
DATA RG55A/U30,. 116,.035,2.55
DATA RG58C/U,50,.116,.035,4.7
DATA RG59A/U,75,.146,.022,3.7
DATA RG122/U,50,.096,.029,5.7
DATA RG141/U,50,.116,.036,4.7
DATA RG142/U,50,.116,.039,2.2
DATA RG180/U,95,.103,.011,6.0
DATA RG188/U,50,.06,.019,7.6
DATA RG223/U,50,.116,.035,2.55
DATA 1OAWG,1,.1019,.1019,1.018
DATA 12AWG,1,.0808,.0808,1.619
DATA 14AWG,1,.0641,.0641,2.575
DATA 1GAWG,1,.0508,.0508,4.099
DATA 18AWG,1,.0403,.0403,6.510
DATA 20AWG,1,.0320,.0320,10.35
DATA 22AWG,1,.0253,.0253,16.46
DATA 24AWG,1,.0201,.0201,26.17
DATA 26AWG,1,.0159,.0159,41.62
DATA 28AWG,1,.0126,.0126,66.17
DATA 30AWG,1,.0100,.0100,105.2
DATA 32AWG,1,l ,.203,
DATA 34AWG,1,l,.160,
DATA ***
WireToWireExit:
H=H/39.37 ’Convert from meters to inches
D= D/39.37
LW=LW/3.28 ’Convert from meters to feet

GOTO ENDER:
Spacebar:
PRINT “Press the spacebar to continue”
SBLOOP:
SPCBR$=INKEY$
IF SPCBR$=“ ”THEN GOTO Returner:
GOTO SBLOOP:
Returner:
CLS
RETURN
ENDER:
END
REFERENCES
1 R. J. Mohr. Coupling between open wires over a ground plane. IEEE EMC Symposium Record.
Seattle, WA, July 23-25, 1968.
2. R. J. Mohr. Coupling between open and shielded wire lines over a ground plane. IEEE Trans. on
Electromag. Compat. Vol. EMC-9, September 1967.
3. G. L. Matthaei, L. Young, and E. M. T. Jones. Microwave Filters, Impedance-Matching Networks
and Coupling Structures. Artech House, Dedham, MA, 1980.
4. J. A. Defalco. Predicting crosstalk in digital systems. Computer Design, June 1973.
5. N. Holte. A crosstalk model for crosstranded cables. International Wire and Cable Symposium Pro-
ceedings,1982.
6. J. A. Krabec. Crosstalk and shield performance specifications for aluminum foil shielded twisted
pair cable (MIL-STD-49285). International Wire and Cable Symposium Proceedings, 1987.
7. A. Feller, H. R. Kaupp, and J. J. Digiacomo. Crosstalk and reflections in high speed digital systems.
Proceedings Fall Joint Computer Conference, 1965.
8. C. R. Paul. A simple SPICE model for coupled transmission lines. Proceedings of the IEEE EMC
Symposium. Atlanta, CA, 1988.
9. R. L. Khan and G. I.Costache.Considerationsonmodelingcrosstalkon printed circuitboards.
Proceedings of the IEEE EMC Symposium, 1987.
IO. C. R. Paul and W. W. Everett. Modeling crosstalk onprinted circuit boards. RAdc-TR-85-107. Rome
Air Development Center, Griffiss AFB, New York, Phase Report, July 1985.
11. W. J. A d a m , J. G. Burbano,and H. B. O’Donnell. SGEMP inducedmagnetic field coupling to
buried circuits. IEEE EMC Symposium Record. Wakefield, MA, 1985.
12. S. Iskra. H field sensor measurement error in the near field of a magnetic dipole source. IEEE Trans.
on Electromag. Compat. Vol. 31, No. 3, August 1989.
13. R. L. Khan and G. I. Costache. Finite element method applied to modeling crosstalk problems on
printed circuit boards. IEEE Trans. on Electromag. Compat. Vol. 31, No. 1, February 1989.
Components, Emission Reduction
Techniques, and Noise Immunity
5.1 COMPONENTS
5.1.1 Introduction to the Use of Components in Electromagnetic
Compatibility
Components are used either to reduce noise current by increasing the impedance of the current
path or to reduce noise voltage by decreasing the impedance of a shunt path. A combination
of these functions is often used in the design of a filter.
All components andinterconnectionscontainunintentional(parasitic)circuitelements,
such as inductance, capacitance,and resistance, and often a combinationof these. An understand-
ing of the magnitude of these parasitic elements and the characteristics of components over a
range of frequencies will ensure the correct choice andapplication of a component. Some com-
ponents are lossy and have the property of converting RF noise energy into heat. Loss may be
preferable to shunting the noise energy intoan alternative path. All components and interconnec-
tions resonate, and an understanding of the effect of resonance is often vital in achieving EMC
or solving an EM1 problem.
Other uses of components in EMC are to slow down the edges of a waveform (thereby
to reduce emissions) and to clamp voltages to a specific level and thus suppress transients.
5.1.2 Impedances of Wires, Printed Circuit Board Tracks,

and Ground Planes
A common mistake in an EMC/EMI evaluation is not including the impedance of a conductor,
especially when theconductor isused to make a ground connection ora cable shield termination.
Conductors exhibit an intrinsic or internal impedance composed of an internal inductance, due
to the internal magnetic flux, an AC resistance, due to the concentration of current near the
outer periphery of the conductor, known as the skin effect, and a DC resistance. In addition,
conductors exhibit an external inductance, giving rise to an external magnetic flux. This external
inductance is often referred to as self- or partial inductance and, when it is unintentional, as
parasitic inductunce. Above some frequency, the AC resistance is higher than the DC resistance
of the conductor and increases as thesquare of the frequency. At the same frequency, the internal
inductance begins to reduce by thesquare of the frequency. Theexternal inductance is frequency
independent.
Wires with a circular cross section are commonly used as interconnections. In circular
wires the frequencyabove which the AC resistance beginsto increase and the internal inductance
171
172 Chapter 5
decrease is when the skin depth approaches the radius of the wire. The AC resistance of a copper
wire is given by the following equation:
R,,(. = (0.244ddF+ 0.26)RIlC
where
d = diameter of the wire [cm]
f = frequency [Hz]
R,,(. = DC resistance [Q]
Wires invariably exhibit higher inductive reactance, due to self-inductance, than resis-
tance, even at low frequencies. The self-(external) inductance of a wire is usually higher than
the internal inductance. The impedance of a wire with a circular cross section at least 15 cm
from a ground structure is given by
L = 0.0021( 2.303 log( %)-
where
I = length of wire [cm]
d = diameter [cm]
Equation (5.1) assumes that the relative permeability of the conductor is 1. When p, is
not 1, the self-inductance is given by
In comparing the inductances of a square conductor and a circular conductor wefind that
when the diameter of a circular wire equals the dimension of the sides of a square conductor,
the squareconductorexhibits a lower self-inductance and AC resistance. Whenthecross-
sectional area of the square and circular conductors are the same, the inductance is the same.
The inductance of a square conductor is approximately
where
W = width of the conductor [cm]
t = thickness of the conductor [cm]
Equation (5.3) applies approximately to a rectangular conductor. For a PCB or similar

ground plane where 1 < O.O25W, the inductance approximately equals
L = 0.0021
(
2.303 log -
We see that replacing a circular

1
+ 0.5 [pH] (5.4)
wire with a strap that has a thickness approximating

the diameter of the wire but that has a much greater width will result in reduced inductance.
Components, Emission Reduction, and Noise Immunity 173
Table 5.1 illustrates the impedance of some straight copper wires with circular cross section.
At 10 Hz, the impedance equals the DC resistance of the wire; but even at frequencies as low
as 10 kHz, the impedance is significantly higher than the DC resistance due to the self-induc-
tance. The impedance values in Table 5. I are for wires at some great distance from ground and
below the frequency at which the length of the wire equals a quarter wavelength (h/4). In
practice, conductors such as wires, PCB tracks, and ground straps are typically close to grounded
conductive structures or other wires. One effect on the inductance of the conductor due to prox-
imity effects is to reduce the inductance, as shown in Figure 4.1 1.
Published data, even in the most recent publications, on the impedance of a square ground
plane based exclusively on the intrinsic or metal impedance of the I-oz copper foil conductor
gives the impedance as follows (the unit R/sq is explained in Section 6. I .3):
10 Hz 0.812 mR/sq
10 MHz 1 .S3 mR/sq
100 MHz 3.72 niR/sq
To disregard the self-inductance of the plane, which presents an impedance to an AC

current Howing from one end of the plane to the other, is to minimize the impedance. Table 5.2
Table 5.1 Impedance of Straight Circular Copper Wires

Impedance of wire (R)
AWG #2, d = 0.65 cin AWG #lo, d = 0.27 cm
Freq. 1 cm 10 cm l m 10 m 1 cm 10cm Im 10 m
~
10 Hz 5.13 p 51.4 p 517 p 5.22 m 32.7 1 327 p 3.28 m 32.8 m

I kHz 18.1 p 429 p 7.14 m 100 m 42.2 p 632 p 8.91 m 116m
100 kHz 1.74 in 42.6 in 712 m 10 2.66 m 54 m 828 m 11.1
1 MHz 17.4 111 426 in 7.12 100 26.6 m 540 in 8.28 111
5 MHz 87.1 in 2.13 35.5 500 133 m 2.1 41.3 555
10 MHz 174 m 4.26 71.2 266 m 5.4 82.8 -
50 MHz 870 in 21.3 356 1.33 27 414
100 MHz 1 .I4 42.6 2.66 54
150 MHz 2.61 63.9 4.0 81
Impedance of wire (R)
AWG #22, d = 0.065 cm AWG #26, d = 0.04 cm
Freq. 1 cm 10 cm I m 10 in 1 cm 10 cm Im 10 m
10 Hz 529 p 5.29 m 52.9 m 529 m 1.33 m 13.3 m 133 m 1.33
1 kHz 531 p 5.34 m 53.9 m 545 m 1.38 m 14 m 144 m 1.46
10 kHz 681 p 8.89 in 113 m 1.39 1.81 m 21 m 239 m 2.68
100 kHz 4.31 in 7 1.6 in 1.o 12.9 6.1 m 90.3 m 1.07 14.8
1 MHz 42.8 111 714 111 10 129 49 m 783 m 10.6 136
5 MHz 214 in 3.57 50 645 241 m 3.86 53 676
10 MHz 428 in 7.14 100 - 481 m 7.7 106
50 MHz 2.14 35.1 500 2.4 38.5 530
100 MHz 4.28 71.4 4.8 77
150 MHz 6.42 107 7.2 1I5
174 Chapter 5
shows the impedance for a number of ground straps and a square 1 -oz (0.03-mm-thick) copper
ground plane based on Eq. (5.4) and the measured values. The voltage across these structures,
due to a controlled current flow at frequencies of 2 MHz, I O MHz, and 20 MHz, when measured
differentially, results in good correlation between predicted and measured values. The measure-
ment setup must ensure that the conductors carrying current to and from the conductor under
test are shielded and are far removed from the conductor under test. In a practical PCB layout,
current may flow in a conductor that is in close proximity to the ground plane and return in the
ground plane. In this configuration the return current tends to be confined to the ground plane
immediately below the supply conductor.This current concentration may be expected to increase
the impedance of the ground plane, whereas above approximately 2 MHz the impedance is
lower than when the supply conductor is far removed from the ground plane.
Although inductance is defined only for completeloops, the assigning of partial inductance
values to a section of a current loop, such as the ground plane, and signal trace inductances of
PCB layouts is described in Ref. 8. In Ref. 9 the inductance of the ground plane with a signal
trace located above it is determined using Maxwell's equations. The value of ground plane
inductance when it is used as the signal return is given by Eq. (5.4b).
(5.4b)
Where l is the length of the ground plane under the trace (i.e., the current returnpath), in meters
h is the height, in metres, and W is the width of the ground plane in meters.
The inductance of the trace above the ground plane can be found by replacing the width
of the ground plane ( W ) with the width of the trace, assuming the thickness of the trace is much
smaller than the width. Equation (5.4b) is used to calculate the impedance of the ground plane
with the trace located at 1 cm and 1 mm above the ground plane. The calculated impedance at
1 cm is close to the measured impedance. A measurement made at 2 mm does not agree well
Table 5.2 Impedance of Ground Straps and a l-oz Copper Ground Plane
Measured
Calculated
Measured 1 Calculated
Calculated
Frequency
impedance
above
impedance
cm 1 cm above trace 1 mm
(MHz) [Q]" [Q1
GP GP" above GP
I-oz copper ground plane 12.6 cm long by 10 cm wide
2 0.3 12 0.45
0.4310 0.641.67 2.25
20 2.46 4.5 0.091.14 0.86
50 2.15 1.76 0.225
IO-oz copper ground plane 3.2 cm long by 3.2 cm wide
10 0.36 0.47
0.94
20 0.56
Impedance of a 12.6-cm-long by 2-cm-wide 3-mm-thick braid
IO 2.84 4.77
20 9.5
Impedance of a 12.6-cm-long by O.S-cm-wide, 1S-mm-thick tinned copper wire
10 5.5 6.2
12.4 20 14.3
" Measured inductance with the supply conductor 1 cm above the ground plane.
" Measured impedance wlth the supply conductor far removed from the ground plane
with the calculation, the reason is almost certainly due to radiated coupling to the measurement
probe in the test setup, resulting in a higher measured voltage across the ground plane.
The reason for the reduction in the ground plane impedance is the mutual inductance
between the supply conductor and the ground plane, which facilitates the return current flow
in the plane. Table 5.2 illustrates the reduction in the impedance of a 12.6-cm-long by IO-cm-
wide ground plane with the supply conductor 1 cm and 1 mm above the plane compared to the
return conductor far removed from the ground plane. The reduction in impedance due to the
proximity of a wire, used for either a supply or signal, to a return wire is discussed in further
detail in Chapter 7, on cable shielding.
The importance of including conductor impedance in any EMC prediction or EM1 investi-
gative work is illustrated in Case Study 12.1 in Chapter 12. One common practice is the tempo-
rary grounding of circuits or structures by use of an approximately 3-ft-long wire in order to
determine if agroundconnection is required. If no detectable change occurs as aresult of
grounding, the reason may be that the impedance of the conductor, which may be up to 300
R, is just too high to function as an effective ground connection.
The influence of conductor impedance on the performance of a component can also be
beneficial. For example, high-frequency attenuation in a filter may be higher than predicted,
due to the self-inductance of a wire. It can also be detrimental, as in the case of increased
radiation from an enclosure when a small-diameter high-impedance ground wire is replaced
with a lower-impedance ground connection.Thus, forthe purpose of EMC, all conductors should
be considered as components exhibiting impedance.
In equipment designed for space applications, the need may arise for a high thermal resis-
tance between structures and, at the same time,a low-impedance bond. One technique that may
be applicable when the structures are close together is the use of a shorted transmission line
and increased parasitic capacitance between the two structures. A practical example is shown
in Figure 5.1. Decreasing the distance between the tracks of the line andincreasing the lengthof
Figure 5.1 Shorted transmission-line ground connection.

176 Chapter 5
the adjacent filled-out sections of the line reduces the line impedance and increases the parasitic
capacitance, respectively. Unfortunately, the thermal resistance decreases as well. An equation
for the impedance of a short-circuited transmission line is (Ref. 1)
Z,, = Z,, tan(nlfiigll50) (5.5)
where
Z,, = characteristic impedance of the line
1 = length of the line
f = frequency [MHz]
E, = relative permittivity of the material between the conductors of the line
d c may be replaced by (3 X lox)dE.

The measured impedance of the capacitor and shorted transmission line with a characteris-
tic impedance of 215 Q and the geometry as shown in Figure 5.1 is compared to the same
length of straight track in the following table:
Impedance (R)
Shorted
Frequency transmission Straight
tMHzl line track
15 - 19
54 20 -
63 - 50
108 40 -
162 - 447
287 - 350
364 200 -
1000 - 125
1100 51 -
1200 10 -
A conductor used as an interconnection is usually only part of a larger circuit that contains
a return path. Intentional or parasitic capacitance, typically across a load or between the conduc-
tor and a ground structure, may form a series resonant circuit with the inductance of the conduc-
tor. The input impedance of a series resonant circuit is low, and the output voltage may be
higher than the input voltage, depending on the Q of the circuit. The Q will be high when the
load resistance is high. An equation for the calculation of the Q of a series resonant circuit is
provided in upcoming Figure 5.29. Due to the high currents and high voltages present, a series
resonance is very often the cause of high levels of radiated or conducted emissions.
Conductors in close proximity to ground may also form a quasi-parallel resonant circuit
that exhibits a higher impedance of the wire, and these effects may be measured on a network
analyzer. When the distance between a conductor and a return path is not much less than the
length of the conductor, the circuit may be modeled as a loop. In practice it is the parasitic
capacitance to a grounded structure or across a load included in series with the loop that dictates
the resonant frequency. However, assuming a loop far removed from a grounded structure and
terminated in a low value of resistance, the resonance may coincide with the distance around
the perimeter of the loop. When the perimeter of a loop reaches a resonant length, the input
impedance variesfroma very high to a very low value,asdescribed in Section 2.2.5. The
resonant frequency and impedance of LC circuits with and without resistance is provided in
Appendix 4.
When the return path, or a grounded structure, is closer to a conductor than the length of
the conductor, a transmission line is formed. For most practical applications the transmission
line can be considered lossless, above approximately 100 kHz, the characteristic impedance is
The characteristic impedance of a numberof conductor and PCB track configurations is provided
in Appendix 1.
The velocity of a wave traveling down a transmission line is
where E, is the relative permittivity of the material between the conductors of the line.
The propagation delay of a line is
T = 1453
where l is the line length, in meters. And the propagation constant per unit length of the line
is
y = G
When a transmission lineis terminated in its characteristic impedance, Z,,, the input imped-
ance equals Z(,.
When a transmission lineis formed unintentionally, the terminating impedance is unlikely
to equal the characteristic impedance of the line. The input impedance of a short-circuited line
is given by Eq. (SS). When the short-circuited line length equals h/4, 3h/4, 1.2Sh, . . . , the
input impedance is theoretically infinite, and when the line length is h/2, h, lSh, . . . , i t is
zero. The measuredimpedance of the shortedtransmission line is lower at frequencies that
correspond to a line length of h/4 or multiples thereof because of the intentionally increased
capacitance at the input of the line.
The input impedance of an open-circuited line is
The input impedance is theoretically zero when the line length equals h/4 and infinite when
the line length is h/2. When the termination impedance of a transmission line is higher than
the characteristic impedance, the output voltage will be higher than the input voltage when the
line length equals h/4 or 3h/4, etc.
For a transmission line terminated in an impedance 2, that does not equal Z,,, the input
impedance of the line, Z,, equals
178 Chapter 5
Low-impedance power distribution and returns on PCBs are important for both digital
and analog circuits. For example, a lower connection impedance results in a smaller voltage
developed by noise currents flowing on the line. A useful method of achieving a low-impedance
power distribution for digital logic, plus some built-in decoupling capacitance, is by the use of
a “Q Pac” bus bar containing +Vc.(.and 0-V tracks soldered either perpendicular to the PCB
or horizontally under the ICs. The use of such bus bars does not fully eliminate the need for
decoupling capacitors located closeto ICs and designedto reduce the area of the “current loop.”
However, the number of decoupling capacitors required may be reduced.
5.1.3 General Wiring Guidelines

These wiring guidelines are useful for design engineers and for incorporation into EMC control
plans but are no substitute for a detailed prediction, which should be carried out for potentially
critical designs and layouts. Many exceptions to the following guidelines exist!
5.1.4 Circuit Classification

Circuits that interfacebetweenunits or subsystems shouldbeallocated a classification.For
example, the following classification scheme might be used:
Class Type of signal

I Digital, low current
control,
filteredlregulated
and
power
I1 Analog or video
111 High
current control, e.g., relay
switching
IV AC and unfiltered
DC line
voltage
5.1.5 Wire Separation

Wire bundles of differing EMC classification should be physically separated from each other.
Where no metallicbarrierexistsbetweenthem, the followingminimumseparationdistance
should be maintained:
A IO-cm minimum between Class 111 wire bundles and Class I1 wire bundles
A 5-cm minimum between all other categories of wire bundles.
Maximum separation must be maintained between “clean” wires and “noisy” wires. This is
especially important in wiring of filters, where the input and output wires of the filter must be
isolated as much as possible.
5.1.6 Internal Unit/Equipment Wiring

The area of current loops on PCBs, board interconnections, and unit interconnections should
be the practical minimum. The design aim should be that the maximum loop area be less than
4 cm’. Larger loops should be subdivided into smaller loops arranged so that their generated
fields cancel. Loops and wires should cross at right angles to reduce coupling. Analog wiring,
digital wiring, and RF wiring should not be bundled together and should be separated as far as
possible. Power lines should be twisted two-wire circuits or in some cases twisted shielded pair.
Care must be taken to ensure that the distance between the twisted pairs is at least 1.5 times
the twist length for proper isolation. Twist length is defined as the reciprocal of the number of
Components, Emission Reduction, and Noise immunity 179
full twists per inch. Compliance with this guideline usually requires that separate harnesses be
used for each of the twisted pairs. If the distance cannot be increased, this criterion can be met
by increasing the number of twists per inch, thereby reducing the twist length.
5.1.7 External Unit/Equipment Wiring
Circuits that interconnect equipment should provide minimumloop coupling and maximum field
cancellation by twisting the return with the high side wires.Bothsignalandpower circuits
should be twisted with their respective returns and assigned adjacent pins i n connectors when
safety permits. Multiple circuits using a common return should be twisted as a group. Twists,
where possible, should be as high as 16 per foot. Wires between units should follow the most
direct route, since interference coupling is a direct functionof length. Twisted-pair wiring should
be used for balanced or quasi-balanced circuits to reduce magnetic field coupling, as well as in
energized circuits requiring a high DC current, in order to reduce the DC magnetic field. COU-
pling caused by common-mode current flow is not reduced by twisting; instead, source reduction
or shielding must be used.
5.1.8 Wire Shielding
When unit/subsystem designers use wire shielding to meet emission requirements or to protect
susceptible circuits, these shields should cover the twisted pair or twisted group rather than
individual wires. The shield should be connected concentrically around the backshell to mini-
mize radio frequency (RF) potentials at the cable termination. If one outer shield is used (e.g.,
twisted shielded pair), the shield should be connected to chassis at both ends. High E field
susceptibility circuits may include an additional inner electrostatic shield connected to signal
ground at the analog source end only,but isolated from the chassis. No shield should intention-
ally carry current except for coax cables used for RF.
High-voltage and high-frequency high-power circuits are likely to be E field generators.
Circuits that carry large currents at low frequencies are likely to be H field generators. These
circuits should be shielded to control emissions. Sensitive circuits having low-current, high-
impedance inputs are likely to be susceptible to E fields andshould be shielded.Shielding
effectiveness is a positive function of a shield’s thickness, conductivity, and percent coverage,
as described in Chapter 7.
When circuits are transformer coupled, common-mode noise can be reduced by using
transformers with shielded primary and secondary windings. The reduction in common-mode
noise due to the use of a single shield connected to case ground is approximately 20 dB from
100 Hz to 1 MHz.Withthreeshieldsconnected in a single transformer-one connected to
the input ground, the second to case ground, and the third to output ground-the reduction in
common-mode noise may be as high as 80 dB at 20 kHz, reducing to 35 dB at 1 MHz. The
shield must be connected to a quiet ground, such as a chassis, for if a single shield is used that
is connected to a noisy signal ground, the common-mode coupling may increase with the shield
in place.
Cable shield continuity should be maintained over the entire length of the cable. When
a shielded wire goes through a junction box, the wire should be shielded inside the junction
box. Unshielded segments of shielded wires should be kept to an absolute minimum. Peripheral
shield termination hardware at the connector or conductive epoxy potting of connector back-
shells can be used to obtain this objective.
5.1.9 Radio Frequency Shielding
Where high-RF currents have to be carried and it has been determined that an EM1 emission
problem may arise, the following shielding recommendation shouldbe followed. A second shield
180 Chapter 5
over the shield carrying RF current return should be used, as is the case in a triax cable, or the
RF return may be via a second center conductor, as in a twinax cable. Multiple connections of
triax shield introduce ground current loops or common-mode currents and therefore should not
be used to shield sensitive input circuits.However, reduced emissions may result for high-power
RF when the connections to the ground plane are made at distances less than h/4. If multiple
grounding of triax is impractical, apparent continuous RFgrounding may be possible. Apparent
continuous RFgrounding of a triax cable isachieved by routing the triax cable, with its insulating
outer sheath, close to case and structure, thus causing significant capacitance between the triax
shield and structure.
Cables connecting sensitive RF input circuits should be shielded by use of semirigid coax
where possible. If this is not possible, then a triax cable should be used with the outer shield
connected to chassis at both ends. The inner shield should be used for the signal current return.
When such cables are routed external to a unit and are located unavoidably close to a high-
power RF emitter (e.g., an antenna), the cable should be routed as close to a metal ground plane
as feasible.
5.1.10 Components Used in Emission Control and to Increase

Noise Immunity
5.1.10.1 Capacitors
Capacitors are used for filtering, for control of riseandfall times, and to provide a low-
impedance path at high frequencies. The impedance of an ideal capacitor decreases linearly
with increasing frequency. The AC equivalent circuit of a practical capacitor, shown in Figure
5.2, contains an equivalent series resistance (ESR) and an equivalent series inductance (ESL).
At some frequency, a capacitor is a series resonance circuit with an impedance equal to the
ESR. Above this resonance, the impedance of the capacitor increases with frequency due to the
ESL. The length of the leads is an important factor in assessing the self-inductance, and thus
the resonant frequency, of a capacitor. The followingare examples of the typical self-inductance
for a number of low-inductance-type capacitors.
Metallized polyester lead length = 6 mm each, L = 12 nH

MKT Radial polyester (Mylar) capacitor stacked film
Lead spacing (mm) 7.5 10 15

Self-inductance (nH) 5 6 7
1
I
ESR ESL C I
l
Figure 5.2 AC equivalent circuit of a capacitator.

Polypropylene capacitors-radial
Capacitor’s body height (11) 9 12 15
Self-inductance (nH) 15 17 20
High rel. polyester (Mylar)
Lead length = 3 inm each, L = 20 nH
The self-resonant frequencies (SRF) of a number of values of ceramic CCR series capaci-
tors, with lead length of 1.6 mm each, were measured, with the following results:
Capacitance SRF [MHz] L [nH1

1 CIF 1.7 9
0.1 pF 4 16
0.01 pF 12.6 16
3300 pF 19.3 16
1800 pF 25.5 16
1100 pF 33 21
820 pF 38.5 21
680 pF 42.5 21
560 pF 45 22
470 pF 49 22
390 pF 54 22
330 pF 60 21
The equivalent series resistance of a capacitor is given by the Q of the capacitor, which
is typically quoted for a frequency of 1 MHz. The Q of a capacitor is given by X,/ESR, where
X,. equals 1/27cfC, with f in hertz and C in farads or f in MHz and C in pF. Thus for a typical
30-pF capacitor with a Q of 931 at 1 MHz, the ESR is 5.7 Q, for a typical 0.01 = pF capacitor
with a Q of 168 at 1 MHz, the ESR is 95 mQ.
When the noise voltage to be attenuated covers a wide frequency range, the impedance
of a single capacitor may not be sufficiently low, especially above and below the resonant
frequency of the capacitor. The use of two, three, or even four different capacitances in parallel
will ensure a low impedance over a wide range of frequencies. For example, a 10-pF tantalum,
a I-pF ceramic, a 1000-pF ceramic, and a 200-pF ceramic all in parallel will ensure an imped-
ance lower than 50 Q from 350 Hz to 100 MHz. The resonant frequencies of capacitors are
valid for the extremely short lead lengths quoted. As seen in Section 5.1.2, the impedance of
a conductor due to self-inductance is appreciable even when the length is short. Thus, the induc-
tance of conductors used to connect capacitors will reduce the resonant frequency of the capaci-
tor in circuit and therefore increase the high-frequency impedance. When an EMI/EMC problem
occurs at a specific frequency, the value of the capacitor should be chosen so that the resonant
frequency of the capacitor and its connections matches the problem frequency, thereby achieving
the lowest possible impedance.
The traces of a PCB should go to the capacitor connection and then continue from there
as shown in the correct connection of Figure 5.3. In the incorrect connection of Figure 5.3, the
PCB trace inductance is in series with the capacitor self-inductance, which lowers the resonant
frequency. Better still is the connection in which the capacitor is directly between the traces,
as shown for surface-mount capacitors in Figure 5.4, without the use of vias. If vias must be
182 Chapter 5
I
.; x
Figure 5.3 Correct and incorrect PCB trace connections for a capacitor
used, they should have a large diameter. Surface-mount chip capacitors may have extremely
low inductance when the traces connecting them are properly laid out, as shown in Figure 5.4.
The total inductance of a chip capacitor is determined by its length and width ratio and
by the mutual inductance coupling between its electrodes. Thus a 1210 chip size has a lower
inductance than a 1206 chip. An 0805 chip size, NPO-type ceramic chip capacitor with values
from 0.5 pF to 0.033 p F manufactured by AVX has a resonant frequency of 150 MHz for a
1000-pFvalue; thus the self-inductance is 1.2 nH.A100-pF 0805 capacitor has aresonant
frequency of 380 MHz; thus the self-inductance is 1.76 nH. Both the resonant frequency and
the impedance above resonance varies with chip size. Thus the 1210 has a lower impedance
S I G N A TL R A C E
R E T U R NT R A C E
S I G N A LT R A C E
S U R F A C E MOUNT C A P
G R O U N DP L A N E
Figure 5.4 Ideal PCB connection, shown for a surface-mount capacitor.

above resonance than does the 1206 size. The ceramic formulation also affects the impedance
at resonance, so the NSPO 1000-pF 0805-size chip has an impedance of 0.1 Q at the resonant
frequency of 150 MHz, whereas an 1000-pFwith X7R ceramic formuation has the same resonant
frequency, but the impedance is 0.4 R.
AVX has manufactured a low-inductance capacitor, the low-inductance chip array (LICA);
the self-resonant frequency and the approximate inductance of the LICA versus other capacitor
designs are shown in Figure 5.5.
Multilayer chip (MLC) capacitors are constructed of a monolithic block of ceramic con-
taining two sets of offset, interleaved planar electrodes that extend to two opposite surfaces of
the ceramic dielectric. The great advantage of the MLC capacitor is its low ESR and low ESL,
making it ideal for use in the input and output filters of switching-power supplies. High-value
MLC capacitors have an inductance of approximately 3 nH. A 24-pF MLC capacitor manufac-
tured by AVX has an ESR of 0.001 L 2 at the resonant frequency of 50 kHz compared to an ESR
of 0.1 R for a low-ESR tantalum. Low-inductance MLC capacitors have a resonant frequency of
25 MHz for a 0.1-pF with an ESR of 0.06 R at resonance. The typical inductance of a O.I-pF
with a 0.508 chip size is 0.6 nH, and for the 0612 chip size it is 0.5 nH. Thus these 0.1-pF
low-inductance MLC capacitors are an ideal choice as decoupling capacitors.
Microwave capacitors are designed with extremely high resonant frequencies and therefore
extreniely low self-inductance. Although the series resonant frequency is invariahly lower, a
Capacitance, Nano-Farads
Self Resonant Frequencies vs. Capacitance and Capacitor Design
Figure 5.5 Sclf-resonant frequency and inductance for the LlCA versus other chip capacitors. (Repro-
duced by kind permission of AVX.)
184 Chapter 5
parallel resonant frequency also exists. Figure 5.6 shows the variation of impedance wth capaci-
tor value, chip size, and ceramic formulation.
For an AVX AQI 1-14 capacitor with a 100-pF capacitance, the series inductance is 0.4
nH, and the ESR is 0.034 R at 100 MHz and 0.062 R at 500 MHz.Figure 5.7 shows the
series resonant frequency of a single-layer (SLC) capacitor, which has a series inductance of
an incredibly low 0.035 nH. ATC manufactures a low-ESR microwave capacitor with a series
inductance of 0.129 nH and, for a 20-pF capacitor, an ESR of 0.04 R at 500 MHz and 0.055
R at 1000 MHz.
It has been found empirically that when two similar surface-mount capacitors, for which
the capacitance values and resonant frequencies are close together, are mounted either one on
top of the other or side by side, the upper resonant frequency disappears. However, if the two
capacitors are moved further apart, the two distinct resonant frequencies can be seen. Figure
5.8 shows the series resonant frequency of SLC pWave capacitors from 1 pF to over 5000 pF.
The feedthrough type of capacitor exhibits characteristics closest to those of an ideal ca-
pacitor. The constructionandinsertion loss for tubular- and discoidal-typefeedthroughsare
shown in Figures 5.9-5.12. The insertion loss is valid only when used with a 5042 series resis-
tance. When the noise voltage source impedance is low, the attenuation will be much reduced
and is limited at resonance by the ESR of the capacitor. In these situations, a series resistance
and/or inductance may be required to achieve sufficient attenuation. When both source and load
impedances are low, the capacitor may not be the correct component to use to achieve a signifi-
cant attenuation. When using a capacitor to attenuate low-frequency noise or noise from a low-
impedance source, values of one to hundreds of microfarads may be required.
The feedthrough capacitor, due to its construction, has a very low self-inductance. The
correct method of mounting the feedthrough is to bolt or solder the case directly to the chassis,
bulkhead, etc. When a length of wire is used to connect the case to ground, the performance
is severely compromised, as shown in Figure 5.13.
The discoidal capacitor exhibits a lower impedance than the feedthrough type and has
found a use in filtered connectors.
For modern LSI or VLSI IC packages, the use of surface-mount capacitors between VCC
planes and ground planes, as discussed in Chapter 1 I , is the correct decoupling method.
Figure 5.6 shows that the use of a 0.1-yF capacitor with an X7R formulation has a low
impedance and very low ESR over the 20-100-MHz frequency range and would be ideal if
used as decoupling for digital circuits with clock and data frequencies operatingover this range.
For other materials and capacitors with higher inductance, a lower value of capacitance should
be used over the same frequency range, but this will result in an increase i n ESR.
Sufficient decoupling capacitors, at least one per three ICswhen they are in close proximity
and one per IC when they are spaced apart, should be the goal.
For surface-mount capacitors connected directly, or through vias, to the VCC and ground
plane, an added trace between the capacitor and the VCC pin of the IC can reduce radiation
from the IC and reduce ground bounce if the trace is long enough. The additional trace does
not reduce the resonant frequency of the capacitor. Although this practice is controversial, in
many practical cases it has been slightlybeneficial. The addition of a resistor between the capaci-
tor and the VCC pin of the device will increase the bounce in the VCC at the IC but will reduce
ground bounce and reduce emissions from the IC. Figure 5.14a illustrates the recommended
decoupling capacitor connection and Figure 5.14b the resistor.
Choice of the correct value of decoupling capacitor is important both in reducing supply
and return-line noise voltage and in reducing radiation from the supply and return connections.
Consider a case where the combined inductance of the supply and return tracks is 100 nH and
the combined series resistance is I O mm. Two TTLgates are connected at the end of the supply
IMPEDANCE VS. FREQUENCY IMPEDANCE VS. FREQUENCY

-
0612 0.1 CIF X7R
1O.Oo0
0805 VS. 0508 0.1 CIF- Y5V
FREQUENCY. MHz
1.o 10 1M)
FREQUENCY (MHz) TYPICAL INDUCTANCEFOR
lOOnF CAPACITANCE
ESR VS. FREQUENCY
lZFlS4
Chip Size
0612 0.luF - X7R
RECOMMENDED SOLDER LANDS
1 10 1W 1 .Ooo
FREQUENCY (MHz)
TYPICAL CAPACITANCEVS. TEMPERATURE

400
350
1 I
~~
Chip Siza "A" "B"

m 0508 I ,020' I .080'
:-
U
250
0612 I ,030' [ .120'
V
3200
V
5
V
150
100
50
0
-60 -10 ?? 40 90 125
TEMPERATURE,"C
Figure 5.6 Variation of impedance with capacitor value, chipsize, and ceramic formulation from AVX.
(Reproduced by kind permission of AVX.)
186 Chapter 5
Variation of Impedance with Chip Size Variation of Impedance with Cap Value
Impedance vs. Frequency
-
1000 PF NPO
0805 - NPO
10pFvs. 1OOpFvs.1OOOpF
Frequency, MHz
Frequency. MHz
Variation of Impedance with Ceramic Formulation

1000 PF - N W VS X7R
0805
Frequency, MHz
Figure 5.7 Series resonant frequency versus capacitance for

an AVX SLC.(Reproducedby kind pemis-
sion of AVX.)
and return connections. The following table shows the influence of the decoupling capacitor on
themagnitude ofa 5 4 s current pulse, is,R, and of a5-nsnegativevoltagespike, onthe
supply and return connections that is generated by the l T L gates changing states at the same
time:
- - 0.15 16
300 pF 22 0.1316
0.1 pF 16 2 0.03
Capacitance (pF)
Figure 5.8 Series resonant frequencies of single-layer capacitors. (Reproduced by kind permission of
AVX.)
The 0.1-pFdecoupling capacitor supplies the remaining 14 mA during the gate transition, and
the reduced current flow in the supply connections results in less radiation from the circuit.
The importance of locating a decoupling or reservoir capacitor close to the IC, which
requires or supplies the transient current, is illustrated in the following example. A MOSFET
analog switch connects a 3-V supply to a device that has a capacitance of 5800 pF. A large
transient on the 3-V supply is observed as the analog switch connects the 3 V to the load device.
The circuit and transient voltages are shown in Figure 5.15a. The reason for the transient was
that the reservoir capacitor was located approximately 10 cm from the analog switch. By moving
the capacitor to the pins of the analog switch, the transient voltage was reduced, as shown in
Figure 5.15b, and the load device functioned correctly.
The feedthrough capacitor is designed for use between compartments of equipment or as
the power line connection through the case of a filter, as shown in Figure 5.16a. However, the
1 1
Figure 5.9 Tubular ceramic feedthrough capacitor construction.

188 Chapter 5
10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GH,
FREQUENCY
Figure5.10 Insertion loss for typical ceramicfeedthroughcapacitor.(Reproducedcourtesy of Erie
Technological Products.)
Ground
plate plate
Signal conductor
Figure 5.1 1 Typical construction of a discoidal capacitor.
c
.P 40
t!
f 20
100 KHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100MHz 1 GH,

FREQUENCY
Figure 5.12 Insertion loss of a discoidalcapacitor in a 50-C2 system.(Reproducedcourtesy of Erie

Technological Products.)
lOIH, IHH, IWH, 100MH,
FREDUENCV
Figure 5.13 Effect of adding a lead to a feedthrough capacitor. (0MuRata Erie. Reproduced courtesy
of Erie Technological Products.)
low impedance of the feedthrough capacitor may be applied to an RF ground connection, as

shown in Figures 5.16 b, c, and d. The ground plane may be a copper PCB or the metal wall
of the enclosure, and the electrical connection is made to one terminal of the feedthrough only.
When use of a feedthrough is impractical, an axial or radial lead capacitor, as shown i n Figure
5.17a, may be used. Figures 5.17b and 5 . 1 7 ~illustrate incorrect connection of the capacitor,
since the impedance of the wire between the power and signal ground reduces the effectiveness
of the capacitor. In Figure 5.17a the impedance of the wire is in series with the noise currents
and increases the effectiveness of the capacitor. I n reality the inductances of the wires form a
T-type filter with the capacitor. Figure 5.3 and 5.4 show the correct and incorrect PCB trace
layout for a capacitor. Erie has manufactured a three-wire capacitor in which the inductance of
the wires is further increased by the inclusion of ferrite beads. Theextremely low self-inductance
of MLC, SLC, and microwave chip capacitors can be lost if the traces to the capacitor are not
as shown in Figure 5.4.
Capacitors are available in miniature feedthrough types with capacitances from 2 pF to
2pF. Feedthrough capacitors designed for use on AC or DC power lines may have capacitance
values as high as 10 pF rated at up to 600 VdcI440 Vac and a current of 100 A with a size of
7 cm by 8.2 cm. Thecurrent rating of the feedthrough refers to the current-carrying capability of
the bolt, which goes through the filter, and the terminations. A 100-V, 1 S-yF, 5O-anlp capacitor
feedthrough, or a filter feedthrough, may conveniently be used as the terminations of a power
supply. When a feedthrough cannot be accommodated in an existing design, a PCB may be
used to connect capacitors between the terminals and the metal case of the supply. Figure S. 18
illustrates this method, which achieves the lowest possible impedance.
A capacitor does not dissipate noise energy; rather, it shunts it to another path, typically
ground. When the ground impedance is high, an additional noise voltage appears across the
ground. When the connection is made to an imperfectly shielded enclosure, the radiation from
190 Chapter 5
VCC pin
1Ground ‘ SM
Capacitor 1 Ground
vcc
-
VCC pin
Ground
SM
C
SM
R I Ground
Plane
P
Figure 5.14 (a) Adding a trace between the VCC pin and the decoupling capacitor. (b) Adding a resistor
between the VCC pin and the decoupling capacitor.
the enclosure may increase. Thus, the inclusion of a capacitor between power or signal ground
and chassis, to reduce common-mode voltages, may not be without a secondary effect on EMC.
5.1.10.2 Inductors
The impedance of an ideal inductor increases linearly with increasing frequency. The AC equiva-
lent circuit of a practical inductor, shown in Figure 5.19, contains series resistance and parallel
capacitance. At some frequency, an inductor becomes a parallel resonant circuit with a very
high impedance. Above this resonance, the impedance decreases due to the parallel capacitance.
The inductance ( L ) , resistance ( R ) , DC current-carrying capacity (I,),.), and the resonant
frequency (.f;)) of a number of heavy-duty hash chokes wound on molded powdered iron forms
are as follows:
f,,c
[A1
3.35 0.0 10 45 20
8.8 0.02 1 28 10
68 0.054 5.7 5.0
125 0.080 2.6 3.5
500 0.260 1.17 2.0
15,800
Load
pF
BV
Figure 5.15 (a) Reservoir capacitor far removed from an analog switch. (b) Reservoir capacitor located
close to an analog switch.
Iron powder is invariably used in preference to ferrite, because its permeability, although initially
lower than ferrite’s, remains high at high levels of DC magnetizing force and high levels of
AC flux density, as shown in Section 5.1.10.6 on power-line filters.
However, when the inductor is wound as a common-mode choke, as shown in Figure
5.20, the permeability of the material, the number of turns, and therefore the inductance of the
choke may be very high without the danger of saturating the core material due to very high DC
currents. Both supply and return conductors are threaded through the inductor. Therefore, the
DC flux generated by the supply and return tend to cancel in the core material. The disadvantage
with the common-mode inductor is that no attenuation of differentialmode noise currents is
achievedwhen bifilar wound; i.e., both conductors woundtogetherthroughthe core. If the
192 Chapter 5
(a)
Feedthrough
Endosure or chassis
7 Endosure or chassis
I 14-Endosure or chassis
-
. .
Power or ground
is
Figure 5.1 6 Proper installation configurations for a feedthrough capacitor.
conductor is enamel-coated magnet wire, then the insulation of the enamel may not be considered
adequate when the inductor is used on AC or DC power lines. In reality this is true only if the
enamel has become abraded during the manufacturingprocess. To increase the insulation, thread
the magnet wire through a Teflon tube or use Teflon-insulated wire. If the common-mode wind-
ings are separated around the circumference of the core, then the increased insulation has been
(a) Standard capacitor correct connection
Ceramic capacitor
Short, thickstrap or
preferably ground plane
losure
(b) Incorrect connection

Power or signal ground
%
(c) Feedthrough type incorrect connection
% 1
V
Enclosure or chassis
14-
Figure 5.17 Correct and incorrect connection of axial, radial lead, and feedthrough capacitors.
achieved and somedifferential-mode(leakage) inductance. Be aware that with very highinduc-

tance C/M coils wound on high-permeability cores and used on high-DC-current supplies that
the leakage inductance may be enough to reduce the permeability of the core. This is because
the DC flux is not totally cancelled unless the supply and returnconductors are kept very close
together using a bifilar winding.Some leakage inductance can be introduced when thewindings
are spaced apart around the toroid. This will add some differential-mode inductance but make
the core inductance more sensitive to DC current and can degrade high-frequency signals.
The use of a coil wound in sections, each exhibiting a different inductance and, therefore,
a different capacitance, has the effect of increasing the useful frequency range of the inductor.
The alternative is to use a numberof individual inductors in series, each with a different induc-
tance value and different resonance frequency. When the problem frequency or frequencies are
known, the resonant frequency of the inductorls may be chosen or tailored by additional capaci-
tance in order to match the problem frequency and achieve maximum impedance.
194 Chapter 5
Flgure 5.18 Low-impedance connection of capacitors between terminals and chassis.
Molded RF coils are available in a form similar to a resistor. These use either phenolic
(air), iron, or femte as the core material and are available from 0.022 pH (resonance frequency
50 MHz, DC resistance 0.01 Q, and current capacity of 3.8 A) to 10 mH (0.25 MHz, 72 Q,
and 48 mA).
The permeability of core material is often quoted in inductance per 100 turns or inductance
per turn.To obtain the numberof turns for a given inductance when the inductance is specified
per 100 turns, use the following formula:
Required inductance [pH]

T = 100
Inductance per 100 turns [pH]
I
L ESR l
Figure 5.19 AC equivalent circuit of an inductor.

Figure 5.20 Common-mode choke.
When the inductance is specified in mH/lOOO turns, use
Required inductance [mH]

T = 1000
Inductance per 1000 turns [mH]
When the inductance is specified per turn or inductance per N’, use
Required inductance [pH]

T=.\i
Inductance per turn [pH]
When the source and load impedances are high, the attenuation of the inductor may not
be adequate and a high-value resistor or a combination of series resistor and shunt capacitor or
series inductor and shunt capacitor may be more effective. This type of filter is described in
detail in Section 5.1.10.6.
The inductor will reduce noise-current flow and may be used in reducing ground or supply
currents. However, a low-loss high-Q inductor does not dissipate noise energy but rather devel-
ops a noise voltage across it. Thus, the inclusion of an inductor may increase the noise voltage
at the source of the noise. When the source is digital logic or load switching and the inductor
is in the supply line, the potential increase in noise voltage across the logic or load may result
in EMI. When the inductor forms a filter with load or on-board decoupling capacitance, the LC
combination may exhibit insertion gain, as described in Section 5.1.10.6 on filters.
5.1.10.3 Ferrite Beads

Ferrite material exhibits a frequency-sensitive permeability and quality factor (Q = X,,/Rs).In
this section, beads or balms are assumed to have either a wire passing through the material or
a limited number of turns of wire through the material. As frequency is increased, the reactance
of the bead increases, as does its residual core loss represented by a resistance. Above a given
frequency, the inductive reactance (permeability) X decreases and the resistance R continues to
196 Chapter 5
increase, and so does the impedance Z. Figure 5.21 illustrates this change with frequency. This
figure is valid only for a single wire through the center of the bead, which we will refer to as
a halfturn. The ferrite bead is one of the few components in which the noise energy is converted
into heat within the component. Figures 5.22a-f show the impedance-versus-frequency charac-
teristics for a number of ferrite materials made by the Steward Manufacturing Company and
Fair-Rite Products.
As the number of turns in the core is increased, there is an increase in the interwinding
capacitance and the impedance at higher frequencies is reduced. Figure 5 . 2 2 ~shows impedance
versus frequency for 2- 1 /2 turns of wire as compared to a half-turn and 1- 1/2 turns. The perme-
ability of ferrite, in addition to its frequency dependence, is very sensitive to line DC current,
this is shown in Figure 5.23.
Due to the relatively low impedance (30-800 Q) at most frequencies above 1 MHz, ferrite
beads are most effective in low-impedance circuits or in conjunction with shunt capacitance.
Also at low frequency, the losses are small and the Q of the bead may result in the resonance
effects described in Section 5.1.10.6:
The inductance of a single wire through a bead is given by
where s = length of the bead [cm]

r, = inner diameter [cm]
r2 = outer diameter [cm]
p,,= 47c X lo-' [H/m]
p, = relative permeability
The physical parameters included in this equation are shown in Figure 5.24. The magnetic force
within the bead is given by
where
I = magnetizing current [mA or A]
P = r? - r , [cin or m]
To obtain the magnetizing force in oersteds, divide the force in anips per meter by 79.6.
The number of ferrite beads on a line also effects the high-frequency performance, as can
be seen from Figure 5.25. Although the low-frequency impedance of the line with multiple
beads is higher than that for the single bead, the impedance at higher frequency is much reduced.
One material that should have a very useful application at microwave frequencies is "lossy
sleeving," manufactured by Capcon International Inc. This material is flexible and can be used
over a temperature range from -55" to +250"C. It comes with an internal diameter of from
0.04 inches to 1.25 inches and in a shielded or unshielded version. The specification shows an
attenuation of 45 dB at 1 GHz and 100 dB at 9 GHz for a 1-inch length of the unshielded type
and 100 dB at 1 GHz for a 1-foot length and remaining at 100 dB up to 100 GHz. Although
this material should have many applications at gigahertz frequencies, it has not proven so in
practice. In one case, a %-inch length was placed over a pair of conductors, used for a differential
signal, to function as a balun to reduce common-mode currents at 2.5-10 GHz. This was not
as effective as a '/-l-inch bifilar wound and twisted magnet wire balun, with the magnet wire
wound with one turn through a two-hole core made of a material rated to be effective up to
IMPEDANCE VS. FREQUENCY

25F0428-0
10 100 500
FREQUENCY (MHz)
IMPEDANCE VS. FREQUENCY

29F0428-0
10 100 500
FREQUENCY (MH
IMPEDANCE vs. FREQUENCY

29FO430-2
1 10 100 500
FREQUENCY (MHz)
Figure 5.21a Frequency dependence of the impedance, inductance, and resistance of a ferrite material.
(Reproduced by kind permission of Steward.)
198 Chapter 5
FIGURE l FIGURE 2
I
PA- A
-\- I
H (dia)
LH (dia)

28FO448-6 IMPEDANCEvs. DC BIAS
300 28wa6
250
E
6
- 200
W
150
4:
n
F loo
E
50
0
1 10 100 500 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
FREQUENCY (MHz) DC H A S CURRENT (AMPS)
Figure 5.21 b Steward common-mode poweddata line EM1 suppression ferrite. (Reproduced by kind
permission of Steward.)
only 3 GHz. One problem with the use of baluns at gigahertz frequencies is coupling around
the balun. Ideally the traces up to PCB-mounted baluns used at high frequency should be in
stripline and the connections should be routed through a PCB-mounted local shield, typically
used to shield one section of a circuit from a different section (either higher or lower power or
a different frequency).
5.1.10.4 Balms
The balu~zis a wideband transformer used to transfer energy from a balanced to an unbalanced
line. A common application for a balun is in matching a balanced antenna to an unbalanced
600
25Fa430-2
500
h
E"
6 400
Y
w
g 300
a
Q
k! 200
E
100
0 ~~
1 10 100 500 10 100 500

FREQUENCY (MHz) FREQUENCY (MHz)
Frequency Initial Saturatlon Resldual Coedve Curle Volume

Property Range Permeability (pi Flux Density (Ed Flux Density (Br) Form Tempe:tun, (TJ Resistivity (p)
Units MHz Gauss Gauss HC c Ohm-Centimeters
25 Material 100 - 500 125 3650 @ 10 Oe 2600 1.6 2 225" C 108
28 Material 30 - 300 850 3350 @ 10 Oe 2200 0.4 2 175" C 105
29 Material 30 - 300 600 3300 @ 10 Oe 1500 0.35 2 165" C 10 8

- - ~
Figure 5 . 2 1 ~ Comparison of Steward femte materials and the effect of increasing the number of turns on a 25F0430-2. (Repro-
duced by kind permission of Steward.)
200 Chapter 5
30
20
10
1
1 10 100 lo00
FREOUENCY (MHz)
1lY lV 10' 10
FREOUENCY INHERTZ
Figure 5.22 Impedance-versus-frequencycharacteristicsfor differentferrite materialsand COnfigUra-

[ions. (b-f) Effect of different types of material used in a bead with similar physical dimensions. (Repro-
duced with kind permission of Fair-Rite Products Corp.)
cable. In this section we use the term balun to describe a special use of a ferrite or metal oxide
bead or toroid. The simple case we will discuss is a balun core with two wires passing through
its center. When the two wires carry differential currents, the impedance to these currents at all
frequencies is effectivelyzero. Thus, where the differential currents are caused by a signal,
neither the signal amplitude nor rise time is affected by the presence of the core. However,
common-mode current due to either current induced by an incident electromagnetic field or
noise voltage present between the grounds of two systems is reduced by the series impedance
of the balun. A differential-input amplifier with common-mode noise rejection is often compro-
105 100 10' 108 100

FREQUENCY IN HERTZ
.I
1(P 1P 10' 1
u 1
u
FREQUENCY IN HERTZ
Figure 5.22 Continued
mised in its rejection by the conversion of common-mode (C/M) currents todifferential-mode

(D/M) voltage. For example, when twisted shielded pair cable is used to carry the differential
signal, an imbalance in the pair to shield impedance may result in the conversion of C/M noise
to D/M noise. When the circuit impedances are sufficiently low, use of a balun will reduce the
C/M current and thereby any D/M induced noise. It is imperative that the two wires be threaded
202 Chapter 5
Frequency In Hz
IO' 10' 10' 10'
Frequency In Hertz
through the same hole in the bead when using a multihole bead. When a single hole is used,
the differential signal remains unaffected by the presence of the bead up to 1 GHz and above.
However, when the two wires are threaded through different holes, signals with repetition rates
as low as 1 MHz are degraded by inclusion of the balun. The high-frequency common-mode
noise rejection of an amplifier is invariably compromised by capacitive imbalance to ground
on input wiring and PCB tracks and by the poor common-mode noise rejection of operational
amplifiers at high frequency. Here the addition of a balunover input wiring may cure the problem
by a decrease in the C/M current flow. When the input impedance of the differential circuit is
too high, the inclusion of two capacitors, matched as closely as possible in value, located after
the balun and between each of the inputs and ground may be the solution.
Components, Emission Reduction,and Noise Immunity 203
0 400
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
Magnetic Field, H [mAlcrn]
Figure 5.23 Permeability versus DC current. (Reproduced courtesy of Electronic Design, June 7, 1969.)
Figure 5.26illustrates the useof the balun where the inputis unbalanced and the common-
mode current flowing in the ground results in a low voltage whereas the current flow in the
high input impedance of the amplifier results in a much higher voltage (i.e., a differential-mode
voltage is developed). Decreasing the magnitude of common-mode current at the source is a
viable option in the configuration shown in Figure 5.26a. Also, increasing the number of turns
to between 1 and 5 may improve the performance of the balun. The effectiveness of the balun
on the shielded cable in Figure 5.26b will be higher than that of the Figure 5.26a configuration
due to the low impedanceof the shield to the equipment case connection below resonant frequen-
cies.
204 Chapter 5
-50
F ~ R O c U b eType FXC 50 beads
Une current = 1 A
Figure 5.25 Effect of 30 and 300 ferrite beads on a wire. (Reproduced with kind permission from
Electronic Designs, June 7, 1969.)
5.1.10.5 Resistors
Resistors are also frequency dependent, exhibiting capacitance and resistance as shown in
Figure 5.27.
The inductance and capacitance of several types of resistors, reproduced from Ref. 10, is
shown in Table 5.3. The inductance of a normal metallic film (MR25) resistor is reported to
be 20 nH, of the 1206 chip resistor 2 nH, and of the 0603 chip resistor 0.4 nH. For low resistance
values, the series inductance has the predominant effect of modifying the impedance at high
frequency; and for high resistance values, the parallel capacitance has the largest effect. For
example, a 5042 MR25 resistor will have an impedance of approximately 170 R at 1 GHz, and
a 50-R 1206 chip resistor has an impedance of approximately 62 R at 1 GHz due to inductance.
Due to the parasitic capacitance, a 2.2-kR metal oxide resistor will have an impedance of approx-
imately 320 S2 at 1 GHz, whereas a typical chip resistor will maintain an impedance just below
2.2 kR.
5.1.10.6 Power-Line Filters
Power-line filters are available in a number of different configurations, including feedthrough
types used for a single AC or DC line and chassis-mounted types for either single- or double-
DC-line or two- or three-phase AC applications. The supply connection may be via an integral
AC line socket or connector or via terminals. Figure 5.34 illustrates the packaging of typical
power entry filters, The current ratings of standard filters range from 0.2 A to 200 A, with
voltage ratings from 50 Vdc to 440 Vac.
The attenuation of a line filter is usually measured in accordance with MIL-STD-220A,
which specifies 50-R source and load impedance. MIL-STD-220A allows either a common-
mode or differential-mode attenuation measurement and does not require that the attenuation
measurement be made with the supply current flowing through the filter. It is typically easier
to achieve a high level of C/M attenuation by use of a high-permeability common-mode inductor
of small dimension, and the manufacturers data sheet may not indicate if the specified attenuation
is for differential- or common-mode noise.
I
I
HA l
I
I
I
I
I l
(b) I l
Figure 5.26 Uses of abalun.
l"---- I
ESL R
Figure 5.27 AC equivalent circuit of a resistor.

206 Chapter 5
Table 5.3 ParasiticCapacitanceandInductance of

Different Types of Resistor
Inductance
Capacitancc
Type of resistor (PF) (nH)
Wire wound, axial leads 100-1000 0.5- 1
Composite, axial lead 2-10 0.05-0.3
Carbon film, axial lead 5-200 0.3- 1
Metal f i l m , axial lead 5-200 0.3- 1
Metal oxide, chip 0.5-2 0.05-0.1
Source: Ref. IO.
When a manufacturer of a filter of small dimensions and a current capacity of 5 A or

greater claims a greater than 20-dB level of attenuation over the low-frequency range ( 1 0-50
kHz), the attenuation may apply to common-mode noise only. When a manufacturer does not
specify attenuation above 30 MHz, one of two assumptions may be made. The first is that the
filter is specifically designed to meet a commercial conducted-emission requirement, such as
contained in FCC Part 15, in whichthe maximum specified test frequency is 30 MHz. The
second possibility is that the filter exhibits a parallel resonance close to or just below 30 MHz,
and so attenuation above 30 MHz decreases linearly.
H. M. Schlicke quite rightly exhorts us to throw away our conventional filter books, be-
cause they illustrate filter performance in highly idealized and simplified conditions that are not
valid for many EMC situations (Ref. 3). Figures 5.28a, b, and c illustrate how far load and
source impedances may deviate from 50 R. The graphs in Figure 5.28 are based on statistical
data obtained from many hundreds of outlets and devices used in households, factories, and
laboratories and aboard naval vessels. We see that impedances vary from 0.1 R to above 1000
R; with the exception of common-mode loads, low Q’s are dominant.
Other measurements on the source impedance of AC power lines above 10 MHz have
resulted in a maximum of 1000 R, average of 100 R, and minimum of 25 R at 15 MHz decreas-
ing to a maximum of 100 R, average of 40 R, and minimum of 10 R at 400 MHz. A more
realistic filter source and load impedance for testing and analysis purposes is 1 R and 100 R,
respectively.
During MIL-STD-461 CEO1 and CEO3 conducted emission measurements, the equipment
power-supply source impedance below 50 kHz is typically the output impedance of the supply
connected to the input of the equipment under test. Above 50 kHz the impedance is limited by
the impedance of the 10-pF capacitors specified between the line and the ground plane on which
the equipment under test is mounted and between the return and the ground plane. As the fre-
quency of the emissions increases,the source impedance decreases. The filtersprocured or
designed for equipment that mustmeetMIL-STD-461requirementsmustthereforefunction
adequately with the normal variation of supply impedances and the very low impedances of the
10-pF capacitors at RF. Adding lower than 10-pF common-mode or differential-mode capacitors
on filters that will be tested using the IO-pF capacitor has no value, for the RF high-quality 10-
pF capacitor in the test setup will carry the bulk of the current, and it is this noise current that
is the subject of the test. Adding low-value C/M capacitors (approximately 0.1 pF) does have
a value, because the power lines between the filter and the IO-pF test capacitor exhibit some
impedance at high frequencies, and the filter capacitors will shunt the RF current at the filter.
This is a case of designing a power-line filter around a test setup and incorporating the 10 p F
intothedesign of the filter. This is surelyvalid,because the specified test setup should be
representative of the real world. An alternative to the 10-pF capacitor, which is proposed for the
1 T7 4 ,
1 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 1
Figure 5.28a Differential-mode interface impedances (U.S.)120 V, 60 Hz. (a) Unregulated outlets
(generators). (b) Regulated outlets (generators). (c) 60-Hz loads (with the top less densely shaded area
representing high-voltage, low-current power supplies; the middle range pertaining to motors, TV sets,
and so on; and the low limit dominated by high-current devices). (d) Regulated power supplies.
latest version of MIL-STD-461 CEO1 and CEO3 measurements, is a line impedance stabilization
network (LISN) with an impedance of 50 ZZ above some specified frequency.
This section is intended to aid in either the design or the selection of a filter that is adequate
for the job but not overdesigned. The required level of attenuation for impulsive noise generated
by digital logic and converters, for example, may only be achieved by careful selection of a
filter design tailored to the specific type and level of emissions and susceptibility test levels.
When designing or procuring a filter for equipment it is advisable to wait for the breadboard
or engineering model and then measure the level and type of emissions as well as the response
to the susceptibility levels. The filter may then be an optimum EMC design and of minimum
size and weight. In general, series inductors are used for low source or load impedance. Thus,
the following types of filter are most suitable for the various combinations of source and load
impedance:
Impedance
Filter
Source Load type
LOW LOW T
LOW High L
High LOW It
208 Chapter 5
Figure 5.28b Common-mode interface impedances(U.S.) 120 V, 60 Hz.(a) 60-Hz outlets (generators).
(b/d) Outlets and loads in heavily filtered installations. (c) Loads.
In designing filters it must be understood that componentsdo not maintaintheir identities

over wide frequency ranges.Components have natural resonantfrequencies beyond which they
no longer follow their low-frequency impedance characteristics. Capacitors become inductive
and inductors become capacitive beyond their natural resonant frequencies.
It is usually impossible to achieve a power-line filter design that achieves high
attenuation
over a frequencyrange of 10 kHz to 1 GHz with asingle filter section. A combination of sections
or filters is usually required. Feedthroughcapacitors and low-valuebypass capacitors and induc-
tors must be used at high frequencies in order to reduce the self-capacitance of inductors and
the self-inductance of capacitors. The Q of the filter must be low under all load and source
impedances to minimize insertion gain. When a transient noise source is applied to a filter with
a high Q and the transient is at the resonance frequency or a harmonic thereof, the filter output
waveform may be an undamped sinewave!
The equivalent circuit and equations for Q for a single-section filterare shown in Figure
5.29 (Ref. 2). In a multisection filter, where the series inductances have different values and
the shunt capacitances have different values, the equations will provide an approximate value
for Q when the highest value of inductance ( L ) and capacitance (C) are used.
The use of an AC and transient circuit analysis program like SPICE is invaluable in the
design or selection of filters. The program allows the modeling of the filter and noise sources
and is especially useful in the analysis of complexload and source impedances. As anexample,
consider a single-section filter with 500-pH
a inductance, a 2-pF capacitance, and a 72-S2 load.
The filter response to an AC waveform, supplied from a low-impedance source, peaks (reso-
nates) at 5 kHz. At this frequency it exhibits 13 dB of.insertion gain. Changing the filter to a
:C'
-IO'
I
IOb
(WC1 ".
10'
Figure 5 . 2 8 ~ Impedances and Q of DC power supplies loaded and unloaded.
R0 degree of damping atW,

Q =-
Rte
where = fi
W,="
2 n m
R t e = R , + R c +k2
F
= total effective damping resistance
Figure 5.29 Q of an LC filter. (From Ref. 2.)

210 Chapter 5
three-section type with equal-value inductances and capacitances does not change the insertion
gain but changes the frequencies at which insertion gain is a maximum (i.e., 2-6.3 kHz). When
a second section is added, with a 100-pH inductance and a I-pF capacitance, the original reso-
nance occurs at 4 kHz, with a second resonance at 20 kHz. In filter selection the magnitude of
the load capacitance must be considered. For example, a low-Q filter may exhibit a high Q
when used atthe output of a supply that is loaded by a number of on-board decoupling capacitors.
The Q of a filter such as the one in Figure 5.29 may be reduced by increasing the value
of R,. or R, via the additionof a resistor or via placing a resistor across the inductor,L. Increasing
R,. is the best option, for it does not degrade the attenuation performance of the filter. In high-
current, low-voltage supply applications, the voltage drop across the additional resistor, R,, is
probably unacceptable. However, in applications with low current requirements and voltages
above 12 V, a loss of 0.5-1 V may be acceptable. Another practical option is shown in Figure
5.30. Here, a second, larger-value capacitor with an appreciable value of added series resistance
is placed in parallelwiththeexistingcapacitor. Very often the combined load capacitance
formed by decoupling capacitors on PCBs is higher than the highest value of filter capacitor
that will fit into the filter available footprint. In this case an additional series inductor with the
damping resistor in parallel with the inductor is very effective, although the filtering effective-
ness of the inductor is lost. The sole purpose of the inductor is to reduce the DC voltage drop
and to present a higher impedance than the resistor at the resonant frequency of the filter. If
damping cannot be incorporated into the filter design, make sure that the resonant frequency is
no higher than 1/10 of the frequency of switching-power supplies (typically 100 kHz) and at
least 10 times the AC power-line frequency. Also, if the frequency of high-level noise sources
sharing the same power line are known,try to shift the filter resonance away from these frequen-
cies.
The reason all filters performwell in a MIL-STD-220 test is that theinputattenuator
effectively increases the value of R,. and decreases the Q of the filter. Although a ferrite bead
has a low Q at high frequency, when used to filter a supply on a board that contains decoupling
capacitors, the Q of the resultant LC circuit at low frequency may result ina sinewave impressed
on the board supply. Here, the addition of a series resistor or replacement of the bead by a
resistor may be the solution.
Manufacturers of commercial filters are invariably willing to provide the component val-
ues and schematics of their filters. From this information and a knowledge of the minimum and
maximum load and source impedances, a filter with a low Q and, therefore, either minimum or
no insertion gain may be chosen using either the equations of Figure 5.29 or a circuit analysis
program. The design of a filter exhibiting common-mode attenuation and a low Q when used
with a supply or load isolated from enclosureground is difficult. In this application, thecommon-
mode LC combination is not damped by a load resistance (due to the isolation requirement).
Load
Figure 5.30 Reducing the Q of a filter with an additional capacitor and damping resistor.
Components, Emission Reduction, and Noise Immunity 21 1
Very high levels of undamped sinewave may then be generated due to the high Q of the filter.
One solution is to move the resonance to a frequency at which the load is least susceptible or
at which the conducted emission limit is at a maximum.
Lossy line or dissipative filters perform well at high frequency (500 MHz to 10 GHz) and
have the great advantage of removing the noise energy in the form of heat. In lumped n or L-
type filters, the noise energy flows in the capacitors and into the structure or power or signal
ground, andthis in turn can cause EMI/EMC problems. Where T-type filters are used,the
magnitude of capacitor ground current is reduced. A potential disadvantage is that the noise
energy generated-by logic, for example-typically results in a higher, and sometimes unac-
ceptably high, level of noise voltage across the load (noise source) due to the input or output
impedance of the T-type filter. Some examples of lossy components and filters are
Ferrite beads
Ferrite rods
EM1 suppressant tubing (permeable)
“Lossy line” EM1 absorptive filters
The disadvantage of lossy filters are their typically poor perfornlance at IOW frequency.
The remainder of this section provides a set of general filter guidelines. SUpply-line filters
should have their output lines shielded from the supply line, preferably by mounting the filterls
outside the unit enclosure or within a shielded compartment inside the unit enclosure.
The first choice in filter selection is the type that has built-in connectors for input power
and terminals for connection to the load. With this type, the filter case may be mounted on the
exterior of the enclosure or to the rear wall, with the connectors accessible through an aperture
in the wall. When the filter must be located inside the enclosure, shielded cable should be used,
with the shield connected to the filter case at one end and to the wall of the enclosure, as close
to the rear of the connector asfeasible, at the other end.In designing a filter, the output terminals
should be feedthrough capacitors or a feedthrough filter with a low value of inductance.
Inverters are a major cause of noise, as described in Chapter 2 . Filters for use with power
regulators employing inverters should be designed or chosenspecifically to match the character-
istics of the inverter they are used with.
Filters should bedesigned to damp self-resonances, which cause problemswith impulsive-
type noise. Resonant peaking in the filter frequency response should, where possible, be no
greater than 3 dB.
When incorporatingACpower-linefilters,considerationmustbegiven to a potential
change in the power factor as a result of the filter inductors and capacitors. When the load is
reactive, the power factorof the load and the filter combination should be calculated. The values
of the inductances and capacitances in the filter may then be chosen to achieve a power factor
as low as feasible. A second consideration is the level of power-line frequency current flowing
in the ground due to the parallel filter capacitance. Capacitors used on AC power lines must be
of the correct X or Y type and rated for the AC power line voltage as well as the frequency.
Some X- or Y-type capacitors are rated at 250 V AC, 60 Hz and are not suitable for use at 250
V and 400 Hz. Some EMC requirementslimit the value of filter capacitance used on AC power
lines. When the supply to a DC power-line filter is switched via arelay or contactor and the filter
input component is aninductor, it is good practice to incorporate a diode orrectifier between the
supply line and the case ground to clamp the voltage spike as the input power is interrupted.
Where the filter contains capacitors connectedto the metal enclosure of the filters, designed
to reduce common-mode noise voltages, the enclosure of the filter must be connected back to
the ground at the noise source via a low-impedance connection.
212 Chapter 5
Filters used with switching-power supplies or converters may compromise the stability
of the supply unless certain precautions are taken. The input power of a linear regulator power
supply increases with increasing input voltage, unlike a converter, where the input power re-
mains relatively constant. Figure 5.31 compares the input characteristics and illustrates that the
converter input is represented by a negative resistance.
When proposing the addition of a filter to the input of a converter, or where the addition
of a filter results in a change in the converter line or load regulation, the stability criteria may
be checked by referring to Appendix B in Ref. 2 .
The usefulness of power-line filters is not confined to reducing conducted noise levels.
When RE02, DO-160, or similar radiated emission levels are exceeded due to radiation from
shielded cables. either a filter is required in order to reduce the radiation from the cable or
source reduction must be used. We shall see in Chapter 7 that the use of double-braid, braid-
and-foil, or triple-braid shielded cables brings only a limited reduction in radiation compared
to a single-braid cable. Thecommercially available and relativelyinexpensive power-entry filters
are designed tci reduce conducted emissions overthe range 150 kHz to 30 MHz, and the attenua-
tion is typically specified over this range. However, these power-line filters do provide significant
10 20 30 40 50
I in
(a) Linear mode regulator.
lo t 1
II 1 I I I
U
10 20 30 40 50
I in
(b) Switch mode regulator.
Figure 5.31 Input characteristics of linear-modeand switch-mode regulators

attenuation at higher frequencies, and if this is not adequate and the noise has been determined
as C/M,then an additional ferrite balun on the wires inside the equipment tothe filter may be all
that is required. Also, the transfer impedanceof the connector and its interface to the enclosure
contributes to the radiation from the cable. One case is where noise is generated on a shared
power line by equipment contained in one enclosure or rack, with the power line connected to
equipment in a second rack. The resultant noise currents flowing on the inside of the braid of
the shielded cable diffuse through to the outside or couple through the apertures, resulting in
an above-specificationlevel of radiated emissions. The solution is one, or more power-line
filters. Only one filter may be required when the noise source is confined to equipment in one
enclosure. When both enclosures contain equipment that places noise on the shared power line,
the use of one filter may still suffice. The filter should be of the L- or T-type and contained,
where possible, in the enclosure/rack that houses the source of the highest noise. The inductors
in the filter should be the load presented to the equipment in enclosure 2, without filter.
The common-modenoise currents generated in enclosure 2 , which flow out on the power-
line conductors and return on the inside of the shielded cable, are reduced in magnitude due to
the high impedance presented by the filter inductors.
Filters are commerciallyavailable that are extremelyeffective at reducingswitching-
power supply output noise. This enables a switching-power supply to be used in sensitive elec-
tronic equipment, where in the past only a linear supply provided sufficiently low noise. Typical
applications for this high level of filtering has been found in satellite communication, lasers,
sonar buoys, and microwave simulators.
Also by use of these filters a single switching-power supply can be used for both digital
boards and low-signal-level analog and RF circuits. In this case the supply outputis used directly
for the digital boards and the filter is placed between the supply and the sensitive. These filters
will typically attenuate noise spikes (as high as 40 V) and ripple (as high as 1.5 V) to an output
ripple of 30 pV at the switching frequency of the converter. No measurable high-frequency
component is seen when measured with a number of different manufacturers’ switching-power
supplies. The full attenuation effectiveness of the chassis-mounted filter can be achieved only
if it is mounted directly to a dividing bulkhead or shielded cables are used for both input and
output connections. Figure 5.32 shows the use of a bulkhead-mounted filter to maintain isolation
betweena“noisy compartment” anda“quiet compartment” in apiece of equipment. The
PCB-mount version must have the input and output connections via striplines at different levels
Switching Power Filter
Sensitive
Circuit
“Noisy“
Compartment
“Quiet“
compartment
Bulkhead Wall-
Figure 5.32 Bulkhead mounting of a tilter to maintain compartmentalization of equipment.

214 Chapter 5
in the PCB to achieve maximum effectiveness. The effectiveness of these filters is measured
by mounting them to the wall of a shielded room, with the signal source outside the room and
the measuring device inside the room. The room is used to isolate the input test signal from
the filter output level.
If commot1-mode noise appears on the power return, then this may require it be filtered.
Figurc 5.33 shows the topography of typical filters. If no impedance is possible between the
unfiltered supply-power return and the filtered-power return, then only differentialmode filtering
is required, as shown in the single-line and two-line DIM filters of Figure 5.33. Also, if the
power return is connected to chassis at the power supply as well as on the load PCB, or more
likely on a signal interface connection, then adding return-line filtering would be redundant. If,
however, the supply return is isolated from chassis at the switching power, then power return
filtering not only is possible but should be included, as shown in the two-line D/M and C/M
filter and the three-line D/M and C/M filter. Very often the value of the C/M capacitor islimited,
due to the required voltage rating and the limit on leakage current and because nonpolarized
capacitors may not be allowed, even on DC power lines, since the polarity of the C/M DC
voltage is typically unknown. This excludesthe use of high-value tantalum or aluminum electro-
lytic capacitors unless they are unpolarized or placed back to back. Luckily, the permeability
of the C/M inductor core is not affected by the powersupplycurrent,especially when the
inductor is bifilar wound.Typically, a high-permeabilityferritecore is used for the C/M
inductor/s, resulting in a high (500 pH to I O mH) inductance, and the C/M components’ resonant
frequency can be optimized.
A surface-mount pi filter that may be used as a power-line or signal-line filter is manufac-
tured by Tusonix. This 4700 series filter is available with capacitors from 100 pF to 8200 pF
and with a typical inductance of 100 nH. The performance of all filters is compromized by
coupling between the input and output connections. TheTusonix filter is designedto be shielded
by, typically, a PCB-mount shielded compartment, as illustrated in Figure 5.35. The insertion
Line
+(-)V
RTN zL
Single DIM (D)
+(-)V, (+V) -
RTN, (-V) -
DIM
C/M
C/M
Two Line DIM a n d C/M (2D/C)

m
+v -
:R
: RTN - D/M
-V
-v ~
Two Line D/M (2D)

m
Three Line D/M a n d C/M (3DICj
Figure 5.33 Number of secondary powcr lincs filtered and attenuation mode.
1 I -m-)
EF8
Figure 5.34 Typical power entry modes. (Reproduced by kind permission of Corcom.)
216 Chapter 5
Figure 5.35 Connectorized,terminal,andPCB-mountfilterconfigurations.
loss of the shielded filter is shown in Figure 5.36 and for the unshielded filter in Figure 5.37.
A potential insertionloss of 70 dB above 1 GHz for the 8200-pF, 5000-pF, and 2000-pF versions
when shielded is degraded to 30 dB when the filter is used unshielded.
5.1.10.7 Case Study 5.1:FilterDesign
We shall examine the design of a +28-V power-line filter designedto attenuate the MIL-STD-
461 conducted susceptibility test levels CSO1, CS02, and CS06 and to provide adequate reduc-
tion of transient noise from 17 converters and 12 boards of logic in order to meet CEO1, CEO3
conducted emission levels. The filter schematic is shown in Figure 5.38. The design was made
with the aid of the SPICE computer program using theequivalent circuit of the filter shown in
1MHz lOMHz 100MHz 1GHz 10GHz

FREQUENCY
Figure 5.36 Typical shielded insertionloss versus frequency for the Tusonix4700 series surface-mount
filter.
J
!! 10
- 0
1MHz loMHz 100MHz 1GHz 10GHz
FREQUENCY
Figure 5.37 Typical unshieldedinsertion loss versus frequency for the Tusonix 4700 scries surface-
mount filter.
Figure 5.39. A large ferrite bead with l-inch length and 'h-inch diameter was used on the +28-
V input line and another on the return line. The first iron dust toroidal-core inductor was wound
with 70 turns of No. 18 AWG magnet wire with a method designed to reduce interwinding
capacitance. The capacitance of this core is 30 pF, and the permeability at a DC current of 6
A (magnetizing force = 81 oersteds) results in a minimum inductance of 230 pH. The self-
resonant frequency of this inductor is 1.2 MHz.
Figure 5.40a illustrates how the permeability of the core decreases with an increase in
DC current flow (the permeability of a core may increase with high levels of AC current flow).
If the permeability of the core reduces to below 50% at the maximum current, the use of a core
with a lower initial permeability that is less sensitive to DC current may be advisable. When
used with AC power, the permeability increases at high AC flux density, and this increase is
applicable at all frequencies, not just the power-line frequency. This nleans the inductance may
be higher than predicted and any filter resonance lower. Figure 5.40b shows the variation in
permeability with AC flux density for the Micrometals cores. Although iron dust cores exhibit
a high permeability at high frequency with some materials, the permeability does reduce. Figure
5 . 4 0 ~shows the permeability at high frequency for the micrometals cores.
F1 - F4 - US MICROTEK
CK3AA(AB)-P12
Connector
"
,N561
CRNNN
L L L
"/ -
L
BUS
25
5
L
m -
I L
,\
Enclosure F:
I
vH
T- PF
, V
Figure 5.38 +28-V DC line filrcr schematicandconstructlon.

218 Chapter 5
LINE
- - LOAD
T L L
Figure 5.39 Equivalent circuit of one line of the t-28-V power-line filter.
The second inductor exhibited 30-42 pH of inductance and a self-resonant frequencyof

17 MHz and was wound in a manner to achieve the low self-capacitance of 3 pF. The feed-
through filteris either a CapconLMP-50 500 or a US pTeK GK3AA-Pl1, both of which exhibit
a high level of attenuation at high frequencies (up to 1 GHz).
The filter was analyzed with the configurations correspondingto the MIL-STD CSO1, 2,
6, CEO1, 3, and MIL-STD-220 test setups. These configurations, as well as the attenuation
characteristics or transient response as computed using SPICE, are shown inFigures 5.41-5.48
and in the nearby tables. In the conducted emissionCEO1 configuration, the transientresponse
to a typical load noise waveform was analyzed. The test setup is shown in Figure 5.43. A
summary of the filter performance is given in the nearby tables.
1 2 5 10 i0 50 100 200 350

H-DC MagnetizingForce (Oersteds) NOTE: A/cm = .7958 Oersteds
Figure 5.40a Permeability of the metal oxide toroidal-core versusDC magnetizing force. (Reproduced
by kind permission of Micrometals.)
Rfi ~ Peak AC Flux Density (Gauss) Note: Tesla =Gauss x lo4
Figure 5.40b Variation in permeability with AC flux density for Micrometals cores. (Reproduced by
kind permission of Micrometals.)
Mn-STD-462-CSOl Conducted
Susceptibility Test Levels (5-Vrms
input, 30 Hz-1.5 H z )
output
referenced Output
Frequency to input [dBl [Vl
30 Hz 0.0 5.0
960 Hz 2.4 6.6
1.3 kHz 0.0 5.0
1.5 kHz -2.0 4.0
50 lcHz -40 ' 0.05
MIL-STD-462-CS02 Conducted
Susceptibility Test Levels (1-Vrms
input)
output
referenced to
Frequency input [dB] Output
50 kHz -50 10 mV
400 MHz -99 11 pv
220 Chapter 5
1 KHz 10 KHz l00 KHz 1MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz

Frequency (Hertz)
Figure 5 . 4 0 ~ Variation in permeability with frequency for Micrometals cores. (Reproduced by kind
permission of Micrometals.)
"D-220A Insertion Loss

(Attenuation) Test
Insertion
Frequency loss [dB]
100 Hz 4
500 Hz 15
1 kHz 21
10 kHz 28
100 kHz 40
1 MHz 80
100 MHz 90
1 GHz 94
The attenuated conducted emission level, measured in accordance with CEO1 and CEO2
test methods, from the simulated input current from one 15-Wconverter power supplyof 0.2 mA
into 10 pF gives 46 dBpA. The input current from 17 converters must be attenuated. Assuming a
worst-case addition of input currents gives 59 dB@. The specification limit at the frequency
of maximum emissionis 90 dBpA. Thus, the filterprovides adequate attenuationfor this source
of emission.
Figure 5.41 Configuration for analysis of the +28-V power-line filter response to CSOl and CS02 input
levels using "SPICE."
4 8
-20
-40
dB -60
-80
-100
-120
10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100 1

(Hz) (kHz) (MHz) (GHz)
Frequency
Figure 5.42 CSOl and CS02 frequencyresponse of the power-line filter.
10 DF
FILTER
-0.4 V m
+0.4 V
'
Figure 5.43 Configuration for analysis of the +28-V power-line filter response to converter-generated
O/P noise in accordance with the CEO I , 3 tesl setup using "SPICE."
-
222 Chapter 5
pfiq
FILTER
I
1
1 9
-
CS06
SPIKE
+28 v
INPUT OUTPUT
b
Figure 5.44 Configuration for analysis of the +2X-V power-line filter response to theCS06 +2X-V
spike using “SPICE.”
We see that the attenuation of the filter used in a realistic test setup exhibits an insertion
gain of 2.4 dB, whereas in the MIL-STD-220 test an attenuation of 21 dB is predicted at the
same frequency.
5.1.10.8 Continuation of Case Study 3.1

The first part of Case Study 3.1, in Chapter 3, presented the measured waveforms and noise
currents generated by +5-V and 2 15-V DC-to-DC converters. In order to choose a suitable
commercially available filter, six different miniature feedthrough filters were tested. During the
test, the filters were connected through the sides of a small enclosure on which the converter
was mounted, as shown in Figure 5.49.
Figure 5.45 Result of the “SPICE” transient analysis of the +28-V power-line filter to the CS06 spike.
FILTER
120 n
OUTPUT
INPUT
t 14dB j
Attenuator
Figure 5.47 Configuration for analysis of +28-V power-line filter response to the MIL-STD-220A test
using "SPICE."
224 Chapter 5
-40
-60
dB
-80
-100
Figure 5.48 Result of the “SPICE” AC analysis of the +28-V power-line filter response to the MIL-
STD-220-A test.
‘“SEE NOlE 6
Table 5.4 Published Minimuin Insertion Loss of Filters Measured in Accordance

with MIL-STD-220A
Frequcncy
Current
Filter A 30kHz 150kHz 300 kHz 1 MHz 10MHz 1 GHz 10GHz
1 3 9 25 45 70 70 70 -
2 15 15 25 34 44 60 70 -
3 15 20 32 36 46 64 80 80
4 1 18 50 66 80 80 80 80
5 1 15 31 42 63 70 70 -
The input noise current with and without the filters in the circuit was measured in accor-
dance with MIL-STD-462 CEO 1 and CE03. In addition, the differential- and common-mode
noise at the output of the supply with filters was measured in both the frequency domain and
the time domain. The test setup is described in Section 3.3.1. The published minimum insertion
loss of the filters measured in accordance with MIL-STD-220A is shown in Table 5.4.
In the CEO1 and CEO3 input test on filters 1, 2, 3. and 6, only certain frequencies of input
noise current were reduced at or close to the major frequency of emission, which was 250 kHz
(twice the switching frequency of the converter). Only filters 4 and 5 reduced the emissions
close to the switching frequency and at or close to 36 MHz. The magnitude and frequency
components of the noise currents without filters are shown in Plots 1-4 of Section 3.3.3.
Table 5.5 provides a summary of the performance for the six filters. Only filters 4 and 5
achieved any common-mode insertion loss at 250 kHz; the remaining filters exhibited insertion
gains as high as 12 dB. The output of the majority of the filters measured in the time domain
was either an undamped or a damped 250-kHz sinewave. These measurements on available
filters highlights the difficulty of choosing a suitable filter based on the manufacturer’s published
data, whereas using the equations of Figure 5.29 with a 12.5- or 2542 load resistor, as used in
the measurement setup, results in an accurate prediction of those filters that exhibited insertion
gain.
5.1.10.9 Signal-Line Filters
Commercial filters are available covering frequencies from audio up to tens of gigahertz. These
filters are designed and specified for a specific load impedance, typically 50 Q, 75 Q, 125 Q,
or 600 Q. The filters may be active or passive and of the following types: LC high pass, low
Table 5.5 Measured Insertion Loss When Used at Input and Output Terminals
of a 15-W + 5-V Convertcr
Input output
CEO 1 CEO3 DIM CIM
Filter 210 kHz 36 MHz 206-263 MHz (3) 250 kHz Wideband
~
1 -11 dB 30 dB
2 -12 dB
3 -5 dB
4 38 dB 30 dB 6.5 dB to -3.8 d B 8.7 dB 39 dB
5 18 dB 34 dB 0 dB 27 dB
6 -2.6 dB 42 dB
226 Chapter 5
pass, bandpass, bandsplitter, diplexer, band reject or notch, tunable notch, tunable preselectors,
narrowband helical resonator filters, comb-line, interdigital cavity resonator, and digital elec-
tronic. The amplitude and delay response of filters may be chosen and include: delay equalized
low pass, Bessel, Butterworth, elliptic, Chebyshev, transitional Gaussian low pass, transitional
Gaussian linear-phase bandpass, Gaussian linear-phase bandpass, and delay equalized bandpass.
The relative merits and weaknesses of the different filter types are described in books on filter
design. Simple filter facts are contained in a catalog of precision LC filters published by Allen
Avionics, Inc. In addition to books, computer programs and nomographs are readily available
and ensure a suitable design for all but complex and variable source and load impedances. Very
often a single-section or double-section LC circuit is unnecessary and a simple RC filter will
suffice.
At frequencies higher than the maximum operating frequency of the circuit, the noise
immunity of control, analog, video, or digital interface circuits may be increased by inclusion
of an RC filter without the resonance problems encountered with the LC filter. For differential
or balanced input circuits, the values of resistance and capacitance in each of the input lines
should be matched, to minimize the conversion of common-mode noise to differential at the
input.
As with all filters, the radiated coupling between the input wiring/PCB tracks and the
output wiring/PCB tracks should be minimizedto the extent feasible. With surface-mount filters,
the coupling betweeninputandoutputtracescan be reduced by imbedding the traces in a
stripline PCB configuration. Regardless of filter type, in applications where the filter is designed
to exhibit high insertion loss, the components should be contained in a metal enclosure with
either a central compartment and feedthrough capacitor or the use of a feedthrough capacitor
mounted in the enclosure wall to bring the “clean” signal out of the enclosure. The “noisy”
input signals should be connected via a shielded cable, or, where the environment is noisy, the
“clean” signal should be shielded.
5.1.10.10 Case Study 5.2
Case Study 5.2 illustrates the effectiveness of a simple RC filter. In this case we have a 50-kW
transmitter, at a frequency of either 4.8 MHz or 2.2 MHz, located approximately 40 nl from a
IO-14-kHz Omega timecode receiver antenna. A 4-V/m E field incident on the timecode rod
antenna was measured.The antenna is connected at the base to a high-input-impedance preampli-
fier. The preamplifier gain reduces sharply above 50 kHz, and the preamplifier normally func-
tions as an effective filter. However, the voltage generated at the input of the preamplifier by
the interfering transmitter is approximately 26 V peak to peak, which is above the preamplifier
supply voltage. The interferingvoltage resulted in compression in the first stage of the preampli-
fier and amplitude modulation of the timecode signal, thereby destroying its integrity.
The antennaimpedance is 1.18 M R at 10 kHz, and the input impedanceof the preamplifier
is 3 MQ; thus a standard 5 0 4 low-pass filter cannot be used in this application. The RC filter
shown in Figure 5.50 achieved an attenuation of 22 dB at 2.2 MHz and 28 dB at 4.83 MHz.
The filter is contained in a small metal enclosure connected between the base of the antenna
and the preamplifier. The inside of the filter was compartmentalized to avoid radiated coupling
between the input and output, which was almost inevitable due to the very high level of the
interfering signal as well as the high input impedance and low capacitance of the preamplifier.
The feedthrough is of a standard type, with no intentional capacitance. However, the measured
parasitic capacitance was 1.5 pF, and this was accounted for in the filter design along with the
1.5 pF of preamplifier input capacitance. An additional 4.7-pF capacitor was included in the
filter, resulting in the approximately 7.7-pF capacitance shown in the schematic. The insertion
loss at the timecode signal frequency of 10 kHz was an acceptable 0.3 dB, and the EM1 problem
was solved by inclusion of the filter.
5.1.10.1 1 Filter Connectors
Filter connectors are connectors with intrinsic filter components such as capacitors or capacitors
and inductors inT, L or TC configurations or simply bulk ferrite forminga balun. Filter connectors
may be used to filter either signal or power up to 15 A and 200 Vdc or 120 Vac. The connector
types available include D-type and the majority of military types, such as MIL-C-389999,5015,
83723, 26482, TKJL, TKJ, TKJA, manufactured by Amphenoland ITT Cannon, as well as
BNC and TNC types manufactured by Erie. Filter connectors are available with moderate levels
of attenuation at low frequency, suitable forpower orcontrol lines, or with minimum attenuation
at 1 MHz, 10 MHz, or 100 MHz, resulting in negligible pulse degradation in signals.
Figure 5.51 Filter box enclosing thc rear of a D-type connector.

228 Chapter 5
Spectrum Control, Inc.. manufacturers D-type filtercons or filter adapters that, depending
on type, result in good signal pulse performance at 0.13, 0.16, 0.26, 0.64, 1.3, 2.8, 3.4, 6.4, and
130 MHz. One disadvantage of the filter connector when used in balanced, differential circuits
is the 20% or so tolerance on the capacitor value, which effectively unbalances the input and
converts common-mode noise to differential mode.
There are filter adapters available that are inserted between the existing unfiltered plug
and socket and are useful in a diagnostic test or to cure an EM1 problem. In the MIL-STD-462
test setup for the radiated emission (RE02) test, the equipment under test in the shielded room
may be controlled by a test set, computer, or ground-based equipment located outside of the
room. The RE02 limits are very often exceeded when the interface cables entering the shielded
room are connected to the test set outside the room but disconnected from the equipment under
test (EUT). The reason is typically common-mode noise on signal or supplies sourced by the
test set, resulting in radiation from the interface cables, which are usually shielded. The solution
is to use D-type connectors on the test set and include filter adapters where required.
When filter connectors are too expensive or unavailable “space qualified,” or the capaci-
tance must be matched closely for differential circuits, the filter box arrangement illustrated in
Figure 5.51 may be used. Flexible wafers containing filter surface mount (SM) components,
available from TRW and Metatech, fit over the pins of existing connectors.
5.2 EMISSION REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

5.2.1 Signal and Power Generation Characteristics
Pulsewidths and rise timesof signals as well as power control and conversion shouldbe selected
so as to use no more of the frequency spectrum than required. This means that pulsewidths
should be as narrow as possible and that the rise and decay times should be as long as possible
within the limits of the required signal characteristics. High current pulses due to switching
charge in diodes and other semiconductor devices as well as the rapid charge and discharge of
capacitors should be minimized, typically by inclusion of series impedance.
The rise and fall times of switching transistor and rectifier diodes, usually tailored for the
fastest possible switching times to improve efficiency, will produce an incredibly rich frequency
spectrum of emissions. Selection of “soft” fast-recovery rectifiers and slowing down the transis-
tor rise and fall times (at the expense of efficiency) will significantly suppress high-frequency
(greater than 1 MHz) components. Where possible,the use of thyristors or triacswiththeir
associatedhigh dV/dt or dl/dt characteristicsshouldbereplaced with transistors or power
MOSFETS, where the transition from “off” to “on” may be slowed down.
The heater switching circuit shown in Figure 5.52, without the additional 0.01-pF miller
capacitor between Q16 base and collector, switched “on” in 1.5 p and “off” in 1.4 ms. The
capacitor slowed the switching speed to 4 ms “on” and 4 ms “off”. The reduction in the level
of broadband conducted noise on the line is shown in Figure 5.53.
Broadband noise is often generated by linear power supplies at the AC power-line fre-
quency and appears on both the input and output terminals. The reason for the noise voltage/
current is the commutation of the rectifiers from a conducting to a nonconducting state. This
commutation may be speeded up by the use of fast-recovery rectifiers; however, some time is
still required to extract the charge from the rectifier junction during turnoff. During the charge
switching time, a short circuit appears across the AC input terminals. The use of series induc-
tance, as shown in Figure 5.54a, will very effectively reduce the input-current spike causing
broadband noise.
The inclusion of a series inductor between the bridge and the smoothing capacitor may
+%V RTN
Figure 5.52 Hcaterswitchingcircuit.
be used to isolate the supply from current spikes generated by the load switching or to reduce
the input ripple current, as shown in Figure 5.54b. The trade-off is that the inclusion of the
inductor reduces the maximum voltage developed across the smoothing capacitor. The ripple
current at the input power frequency may be further reduced by adding a capacitor across the
inductor and thereby creating a parallel tuned circuit at the power-line frequency.
It is understood that at very high switching frequency it may not be possible to increase
rise and fall times. For example, the trend toward converter designs with switching frequencies
in the megahertz region requires short rise and fall times to ensure high efficiency.
However, there are techniques available to the designer to reduce the generation, radiation,
and conduction of unwanted noise. Four of these techniques are discussed next.
Figure 5.53 Reduction in the levcl of broadband emissions due to the inclusion of C 2 (0.01 pF).
230 Chapter 5
Figure 5.54 Inductor between bridge and capacitor used to reduce ripple and transient current spikes.
5.2.1. l CircuitTopology
All switching-power supply topologies will produce conducted and radiated emissions, but some
are better choices than others. For example: (a) Forward converters are better than flybacks,
because peak currents are lower and secondary AC currents are much lower. (b) Topologies
that operate at a duty cycle greater than 50% (e.g., pulsewidth modulation or push-pull) also
result in lower peak currents. The use of input power factor correction will reduce input spikes
on AC power.
5.2.1.2 ReservoirandDecouplingCapacitors
It is better to provide transient current from a capacitor, with a low ESL and low ESR, mounted
as close to the switching transistors or MOSFET as feasible, than from the supply. Series resis-
tance or inductance may further isolate the supplyto the converter from transient current require-
ments. Theconductive paths fortransient current flow should cover as small an area as possible.
5.2.1.3 Heatsinks
The major cause of high common-mode noise in converters is the switching waveform on the
collector/source of the switching transistor/MOSFET, which is usually connected to the case
of the device. The caseof the switching device is then typically heatsunk to the enclosure. Thus
the noise source is referenced to the enclosure via the high-quality capacitance formed between
the case of the switching transistor or MOSFET and the enclosure, with the heatsink insulator
acting as the dielectric. The capacitance between the device and the enclosure may be reduced
by using a beryllium oxide heatsink insulator (capacitance 18 pF, 41 pF assembled) instead of
a mica insulator (capacitance 150 pF, 156 pF assembled). A better solution is the use of an
insulator that contains an imbedded shield. With the shield connected to the return of the power
supply of the switching devices, the capacitively coupled transient currents flow back into the
supply and not into the enclosure, andthe common-mode noisevoltagesareconsiderably
reduced.
AC iz
Figure 5.55 Snubber circuits.

232 Chapter 5
5.2.1.4 Circuit Layout

Confining high transient or RF current-carrying conductors and devices into a small area with
the use of short low-impedance connections will reduce both conducted and radiated emissions.
The circuit should be as far removed from the enclosure as feasible in order to reduce capacitive
coupling. The use of a small secondary enclosure, shielding the source of noise, or compartmen-
talization with the use of feedthrough capacitors or filters may be required for sources of high
radiation. When switching inductive loads by either a relay or semiconductor device,high volt-
ages may be generated during switch-off. The magnitude of the voltage is determined by the
rate of change of current as follows: V = L(dl/dr).The high voltage developed when dlldt is
high may couple capacitively to circuit conductors, to the inside of an enclosure, or across the
capacitance of the semiconductor device. When the inductive load is switched by a relay, damage
to the relay contacts may result due to arcing. The snubber circuits shown in Figure 5.55 may
be used to reduce the voltage generated. Omission of the resistor that is in series with the diode
in Figures 5.55b and 5.55d decreases the voltage furtherbut will result in a high transient current
flowing in the diode, which in turn may result in an EM1 problem. When switching a load with
high in-rush current, such as a converter or filament lamps, a series inductor may be used to
reduce the magnitude of the transient.
It is not uncommon in an EMI/EMC investigation to find that in switching a load, the
resultant voltage or current transients are the cause of EM1 or emissions above a specification
limit. However, the following case concerns a load that would not be expected to cause a prob-
lem. A piece of commercial equipment made up of a mix of TTL and CMOS logic on a single
PCB contained in a nonshielded enclosure failed FCC radiated-emission requirements, but only
when a beeper sounded. The cause of the problemwas the piezoelectricbeeper.When the
transistor switching the beeper at an audio frequency switched off, the beeper resonated at a
frequency above 30 MHz and a 100-Vpk-pk voltage was developed across the beeper. Adding
a resistor in parallel with the beeper dampened the resonance but reduced the audio output to
a lower, albeit acceptable, level. Chapter 11 describes PCB layout for reduced emissions and
further circuit-level reduction techniques.
5.3 NOISE IMMUNITY

5.3.1 Interface-Circuit Noise Immunity
It is important to assess the EM environment before deciding on the level of differential-mode
and common-mode immunity required of an interface. It is not unusual for common-mode noise
between the grounds of systems separated by appreciable distances to reach levels of several
volts. This type of noise can be considerably reduced by the correct grounding scheme, carefully
realized.
Digital equipment communicatewith low error using standard interfaces in an office envi-
ronment. However, when a computer is located in such an electromagnetically benign environ-
ment and interfaces to equipment located in a hostile environment, such as the shop floor in a
process and control facility, the noise immunityof standard interfaces may be insufficient. When
the computer is located in the hostile environment, EM1 is likely caused by power-line tran-
sients.
As described in Chapter 7, the level of achievable shielding of an incident field with
flexible shielded cables is limited. It is therefore not uncommon to experience failures during
a radiated susceptibility test due to interface circuits with insufficient noise immunity. When
EM1 occurs in the passband of the interface, filtering as a solution is precluded.
After the EM environment has been estimated, using the examples of Chapter 2, the speci-
fied susceptibility test limits, or the techniques described in Chapter 11, an interface can be
chosen that, in addition to meeting speed and power consumption constraints, will meet the
EM1 immunity requirements.
Manufacturers of commercial equipment exported to the European Community must make
the EMC Declaration of Conformity, and this will typically be made after emission and immunity
testing. One of the signal cable tests is the C/M capacitive injection of an electrical fast transient
(EFT) pulse of 500 V for domestic equipment and 1 kV for nondomestic equipment. The EFT
pulse when measured into a 50-R load has a rise time of 5 nS and a pulse width of 50 nS at
the 50% amplitude value. The pulsewidth induced in a cable may be significantly longer than
50 nS, dependent not only on the C/M load seen by the EFT generator but on the EFT generator
design.
Another test is bulk C/M injection into a cable of a 1-kHz 80% am signal from 150 kHz
to 100 MHz.
Standard EIA interfaces using unshielded cables, or shielded cables with a poor shield
termination technique, commonly fail the EFT test, and less commonly the C/M signal injection.
It is important to ensure that sufficient noise immunity is built into the interfaces. Low-frequency
unbalanced inputs may require high-frequency filtering and high frequency. Balanced input lines
should have equal path lengths and present equal impedances to ground, to very fast pulses.
The noise immunity of standard TTL, CMOS, and ECL logic is shown in Table 5.6. The
noise immunity of standard logic can be increased by the use of low-impedance drivers and
terminating networks as well as Schmitt trigger receivers, as shown in Figure 5.56.
Table 5.6 Noise Immunity of Standard TTL, CMOS, and ECL Logic
TTL CMOS CMOS CMOS TTL TTL ECL ECL

64 HTL 5V IOV 15 V 74L 74H lOk 100k
Typical propagation de-
lay (ns)
tPHL 12 85 150 65 50 30 8 2 0.5
tPLL 17 130 150 65 50 35 9 2 0.5
DC-noise margin (min-
imum)
VNL (V) 0.4 5 1 2 2.5 0.4 0.4 0.155 0.155
VNH (V) 0.4 4 1 2 2.5 0.4 0.4 0.125 0.125
Typical output imped-
ance (R)
Low 30 140 400 400 400 30 30 8 8
High 140 1.6 k 400 400 400 510 55 6 6
Typical noise energy im-
munity
ENL (nJ) 1.7 60 1 3.7 7.2
Pulsewidth (ns) 20 125 155 70 50
ENH (nJ) 1 5 0.9 3.1 8.5
Pulsewidth (ns) 25 145 280 90 15
234 Chapter 5
1 Driver, R,= R,= 1 kn

2 Drivers, R,= R, = 500 fl
I
+ 15V
I I
CMOS BUFFERE I Schmitt trigger
4049 I4050 I
I I
I I +5 v
+5 v I I
l 220 fl
- I
I
I
330 fl
TTL 74 I I Schmitt trigger

I I
I l
+ I 1
I
- 1
nl
50 fl
ECL I
I
I
Figure 5.56 Standard TTL, CMOS, and ECL line driverslreceivers.
5.3.1 . l Standard Line Drivers and Receivers, RS232, RS423A, RS422A,

RS485, RS449, RS530, IEEE (488-1978) (GPIB), IOBASE TX,
100BASE TX, 155Mb/s ATM, and MIL-STD-l553 Interfaces
Line driver and receiver ICs are available that have some or all of the following features:
Built-in termination resistors

Clamp diodes at input
Clamp diodes at output
High current outputs
Individual frequency response control
Input hysteresis
High DC noise margin
High common-mode noise rejection ratio

EIA standard
GPIB standard
Single-ended transmission
Differential data transmission
Input threshold reference input
5.3.1.2 Receivers and Drivers

Typical differential line driver andreceiver configurations are shown in Figure 5.57. When more
than one transceiver shares the line shown in Figure 5.57, this configuration is termed a parry
line or bus system. The transmission line is typically a twisted pair individually shielded or
with an overall shield over a number of twisted pairs. The differential configuration has the
advantage of high common-mode noise immunity below5 MHz, increased immunity to crosstalk
from pair to pair, and the possibility of added "in band" common-mode noise filtering. The
input impedance to ground in the lower circuit in Figure 5.57 is typically in the kiliohm range
4=F I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
TRo R, = Z,
I I
I I
I l
I I
l I
I l
I I
Figure 5.57 Typicaldifferentiallinedriversandreceivers.

236 Chapter 5
due to the relatively low input impedance of most commercially available line receiver ICs.
Thus these devices are not suitable for the isolation of equipment-equipment or system-system
grounds. Conversely, the input impedance to ground of the device in the lower circuit of Figure
5.57 is too high to achieve effective C/M filtering by the use of a balun. The impedance of a
ferrite balun is approximately 50-1000 R , and with a C/M input impedance of 1-10 kR, the
C/M attenuation is likely to be lessthan 6 dB. Baluns areoften placed on line driverand receiver
connections to the interface cable to reduce radiated emissions, and these will have very little
effect on increasing C/M noise immunity when used in the Figure S S 7 circuit. However, when
the terminating resistor is split as shown in the upper circuit of figure 5.57, significant C/M
attenuation is achieved. For example, assumeZ,, is IO0 R and the impedance of the balun shown
in Figure 5.58a is 500 R over a wide frequency range. The impedance line to ground R , is 50
R, and the C/M noise voltage attenuation is 21 dB. The C/M noise current divides between
the two lines and flows in the two 50-R impedances, so the total impedance seen by the C/M
noise source is 25 R. The C/M power noise immunity is therefore high.
Noise voltages are typically generated C/M due to a ground noise potential between the
driver and receiver ground and due to common-mode injection onto the signal cable.
Differential receiver inputs that are well balanced to ground and exhibit high C/M noise
rejection over the in-band frequencies should be chosen. Where out-of-band signals are a prob-
lem, the addition of a high-pass filter for low-frequency noise or a low-pass filter for high-
frequency noise can be added to the circuit, as shown in Figure 5.58b.
The noise immunity to in-band noise of a single-ended system is much lower than the
differential input, because C/M-induced noise is converted to D/M noise at the receiver input
0
High- speed
differential
0
5 0 Ohm 5 0 Ohm
Figure 5.58 (a) Increasing differential receiver C/M input noise immunity. (h) Low-speed single-ended
receiver input filter.
by the unbalanced impedance of the input. Additional filtering can be added to a single-ended
receiver input for out-of-band noise rejection.
A receiver’s differential input impedance is typically dependellt on the input frequency
and the input signal. Adding a termination resistor to the receiver input will reduce the reflections
and improve the signal quality and often the noise immunity of the circuit. This increased noise
ilnlnunity is achieved because noise spikes with voltages lower than the signal level and impres-
sed on an undistorted signal are less likely to exceed the receiver input switching threshold than
spikes impressed on a distorted signal. The noise input power required to generate voltages
above the threshold is also much higher for a 45-4604 input impedance than a 1- 10-kQ input
impedance. The increased noise immunity achieved with a termination resistor is offset to some
extent by the reduction in signal level due to the loading. To maintain noise immunity, choose a
driver with a low output impedance. In a party line system, the driver output is often open collector
with a low-value pull-up resistor. The pull-up resistor should be no higher than 20 Q when the
receiver input resistance is 50 Q. If the interface is not party line, then an active pull-up should be
used, because as a “high” output is pulled down, more current flows out of the active driver.
The DC noise margin and the power noise margin shown in Table 5.6 assumes no AC
or DC loss between the driver and receiver, which may be true for very short line lengths.
Where longer line lengths are used at high frequency, the cable attenuation plays an important
role in reducing signal level and decreasing the signal/noise ratio. The 50-Q impedance
RG 188A/U and the unshielded twisted pair have a higher attenuation than the 50-Q RG581U.
and even lower is the 7542 RG59/U.
The DS26LS32 receiver, manufactured by National Semiconductor, has a differential- or
common-mode input range of 2 7 V and an input sensitivity of k0.2 V and is therefore ideal
for the EIA RS-422, RS-423, RS-499, RS-530, and federal standards 1020 and 1030 for balanced
and unbalanced data transmission. The DS26LS32 has a t 15-V differential- and common-mode
voltage range and a 50.5-V differential sensitivity, and this device, although it does not conform
to the EIA standards, will exhibit a much higher noise immunity. Table 5.7 shows the characteris-
tics of drivers and Table 5.8 those of receivers, reproduced from the AN781A application note
from Motorola Inc.
Figure 5.58a illustrates the common-mode filtering circuit. For low-frequency single-
ended signals, such as the RS232C, the high-frequency noise immunity can be increased by
adding a filter or filter connector at the receiver input. Filter connectors containing a n-circuit
can be selected with a 3-dB frequency appropriate for the data rate of the signal. The only
problem with filter connectors is the capacitive imbalance between the pins. Very high levels
of C/M noise applied to the connector are converted to differential noise by this imbalance.
Figure 5.58b illustrates a filter suitable for a low-speed single-ended receiver. The input
impedance is maintained at a low 100 Q to increase the amount of input noise power required
Table 5.7 EIA-Compatible Line Drivers from the Motorola ApDlication Note AN781A
~~ ~~
Drivers per Riselfall Hi-Z output

RS Std. Device # package Power supplies Prop. delay time comments
232-C MC1488 4 “9 to -c 13.2 v 175/350 nS Adjustable No inverting
232-C MC3488 2 210.8 to 213.2 V 20 nS Adjustable No inverting
422 MC3487 4 +5 v 20 nS 20 nS Yes
423 MC3488 2 + I 0 3 to 13.2 V - Adjustable No inverting
485 SN75 172 4 +5 v 25/65 nS 75 nS Yes
485 SN75 174 4 +5 v 25/65 nS 75 nS Yes
238 Chapter 5
Table 5.8 EIA-Compatible Line Receivers from Motorola AN78 1A

Drivers per Input Input
RS Std. Device # package hysteresis threshold Prop. delay Comments
232-C MC1489 4 0.25-1.15 V 3v 85 nS
4221423 MC.3486 4 30 mV typical 200 mV 35 nS 21 V CIM
input range
485 SN7513 4 50 mV typical 200 mV 35 nS
at in-band frequencies before an upset occurs. The values of L and C are chosen to produce a
low-pass filter with a frequency response that does not degrade signal quality but may increase
the signal rise and fall times within acceptable limits. The input impedance of the receiver is
high, and so the 2-R resistor is required to damp the filter resonance. The resonance frequency
of the filter should be far removed from the maximum clock rate of the signal.
Where in-band differential-mode noise at a differential receiver input, or common-mode
noise, which is converted to D/M at a single-ended receiver input, is causing a problem, the
solution is to use a shielded cable for the interface. If the cable is already shielded, then it is
important to ensure the shield termination is made via a low impedance to the equipment enclo-
sure or to use a double-braid shielded cable or at least a foillbraid shielded cable.
Line drivers are often capable of driving a large number of receivers and have sink and
source capabilities of typically 40 mA and up to 200 mA. Load impedances of 78-250 R are
common, and the interface may be used with a twisted pair that exhibits an impedance of 80-
130 SZ or a twisted shielded pair of 70-12042 impedance. The DS26S31 line driver meets all
the requirements of EIA RS-422, RS-530, and RS-449 and federal standard 1020. The DS26S3 1
can supply a minimum high output voltage of 2.5 V at an output current of -20 mA and a
maximum low voltage of 0.5 V at 20 mA. The output short-circuit current is limited to between
-30niA and a maximum -150mA. Table 5.6 shows the characteristics of the EIA standard
interfaces. The RS449 standard was developed to provide a new definition for RS232-C intercon-
nection lines. RS449 uses 30 lines in a 37-pin connector, whereas RS232 uses 20 lines in a 25-
pin connector. RS449 does not define electrical characteristics, because those defined for RS422,
and RS423 are to be used. RS530 is just like RS422 and uses differential signaling on a DB25-
RS232 format.
To decrease crosstalk in a cable containing a number of interface circuits, a maximum
dV/dt is specified, as is the transition time.
The maximum cable length for any interface is dependent on the attenuation characteristics
of the cable: higher resistance shortens the maximum permissible length and higher capacitance
shortens the maximum length at the higher baud rates. The required noise immunity and maxi-
mum bit error rate also limits either the cable length or the baud rate. The maximum cable
lengths recommended in RS232, RS422, and RS423 are recommendations only; longer lengths
are possible with high-quality cable and/or using signal waveshaping, signal distortion compen-
sation, or interface conditioning techniques, which may also be used to improve noise immunity.
The min/max cable lengths for the RS422 in Table 5.9 is based on the use of twisted-pair,
24AWG cable and a balanced interface.
Table 5.10 shows the characteristics of a typical bidirectional instrumentation bus (IEEE-
488, GPIB) transceiver. The input termination resistors of 2.4 kR to VCC and 5 k R to ground
do not represent a low impedance input, and thus the coupling, either capacitively line to line
or from an incident electric field, is higher than expected for a low- (50- 130-R)-input-impedance
receiver.
s3
Table 5.9 EIA Standard Interfaces ’LI
0
a
Specification RS232-C 1969 RS423-A 1978 RS422-A 1975 RS485 1983 ma
Single-ended Single-ended Differential Differential “S
Type
G Line length 50 ft (15 m) 1200 m (4000 ft) 1200 m (4000 ft) rn
Application dependent 3
E (4000 ft) l6
u)
N Max. frequency 20 kbaud 10 Mb at 10 m (33 ft): 100 kbaud 10 baud 8
‘
E 80 kbaud at 1200 m 3
R (3937 ft) 3
P
A Transition time <4% of y or < 1 mS (in ~ 300 pS
Lesser of 0 . 3 and Greater than 20 nS or C0.3~ (54-R, 50-pF load s
L undefined area between (time for 10-90% of fi- <O.ly (time for 10- (time for 10-90% of fi- g.
0
“0” and .‘1”) nal value) 90% of final value) nal value) 3
nl
No. of Drivers 1 1 1 32 3
P
D
Open-circuit output 3.0 V < lV,,l < 15 V 4.0 V < lV,,l < 6 V IV,,l < 6 V IV,,,,I. IV,,,,I 1.5 V < /V,,l < 6 V z
R
I
<6V g.
V
V, (loaded output) 5 v < IV,J < 15 v ]V,/ 0.91V,,l450-Rload > 2 V or ’/:V,,< IV,] < 1.5 V < V , < 5 V m
E
6 V 100 R balanced z3
Short-circuit I < 500 mA < 150mA < 150mA < 250 mA
R C
S
output 2 - <so R < 100 R balanced - -.
a
Driver load 3-7 kQ 460 R 100 R 54 R u“
No. of receivers I 10 10 32
Input range +I5 v +I2 v -7 v to +7 v -7 v to + I 2 v
Min. receiver response >-t3.0 V 200 mV differential 200 mV differential 200 mV differential
Input resistance 3-7 kR, 2500 pF 4.0 kR min. 4.0 k R min. 15 kR dynamic
12 k R (+12 V)
8.75 k R at -7 V
C/M voltage for balanced - - 7.0 V. V,,,, < 7 V 7.0 V, V,,,, < 7 V
receiver
DC noise margin 2 v 3.4 v 1.8 v 1.3 v
Power noise margin 1.3 (mW) 25 (mW) 32 (mW) 31 (mW)
N
W
(D
240 Chapter 5
Table 5.1 0 Characteristics of Typical Bidirectional Instrumentation Bus

(IEEE-488. GPIB) Transceivcr
Voltage or current
GPIB input GPIB output Logic
(receiver) (driver) state Minimum Maximum
v low “I” -0.6 V +0.8 v
V high “0” +2.0 v +s.s v
v low “1” 0.0 v +0.4 V
V high “0” +2.4 V +5.0 V
I low “1” - 1.6 niA
I high “0” +50 PA
I low “I” +48 niA
I high “0” -5.2 niA
Input iinpedance tcrmiiiated = 1.6 kR.Input hysteresis = 6UO mV.
Typical noise margin: high to low = 1.5 V; low to high = 1.2V.
Although the GPIB is a single-ended transmission line, the immunity of the cable and
receiver to magnetic fields is surprisingly high. Using a 6.7-111 single shielded GPIB cable with
plastic backshells, the differential-mode noise detected at the receiver input with the cable ex-
posed over a 1-m length to 0.7 A/m at 30 MHz was approximately 600 mV (i.e., 200 mV above
the receiver noise threshold). When the GPIB cable was changed to a double-braid, single-foil
type with metal backshell (so called EM1 hardened), the differential-mode induced voltage was
reduced to 150 mV (i.e., - 12 dB) and the receiver was immune to the reduced level of combined
common and differential noise. The local area network “Ethernet” has been tested and shown
immunity to high levels of E field (20 V/m from 10 kHz to 1 GHz) (Chapter 4, Ref. 4).
The MIL STD 1553B data bus exhibits a common-mode noise immunity of 10 Vpk-pk,
1 Hz to 2 MHz, and a differential-mode noise immunity of 140 niVrms (Gaussian 1 kHz to 4
MHz) for a transformer-coupled stub and 200 niVrms for a direct-coupled stub.
The IOBASE-TX interface transmits ~ 2 . 5Vpk Manchester encoded data at 10 Mb/s. For
100BASE-TX, a 1 Vpk MLT-3 encoded data stream at 100 Mb/s is transmitted. A suitable
receiver circuit for either 1 OBASE-TX or 100BASE-TX is the National Semiconductor DP83223
TWISTER High Speed Networking Transceiver Device. The DP83223 allows links of up to
100 meters over shielded twisted pair (Type- I A STP) and category-5 datagrade unshielded
twisted pair (Cat-5 UTP) or equivalent. The receiver is specified with a maximum 700-mV
signal detect assert threshold. The signal detect threshold is a measure of the pk-pk differential
signal amplitude at the RXI 2 inputs at the RJ45 connector of Figure 5.5923 required to cause
the signal detect differential output to assert. The signal detect de-assert threshold is mininiuni
200 mV and the signal de-assert is defined as a measure of the pk-pk differential signal ampli-
tude at the RXI 5 inputs at the RJ45 connector of Figure 5.59a required to cause the signal
detect differential output to de-assert. The typical hysteresis is therefore 500 mV. The RXI
differential input resistance is 7-9 kO, and the common-mode impedance is not defined. A
typical receiver circuit recommended by National is the DP83223 for a 100BASE-TX physical
medium dependent (PMD) circuit, shown in Figure 5.59~1.The data stream is AC coupled from
the RJ45-8 media connector to the DP3223 twisted-pair receiver by an isolation transformer.
The DP83223 then equalizes the receiver signal to compensate for signal degradation caused
by the nonideal transmission line properties of the twisted-pair cable. The resistor values shown
in the schematic are chosen to match an insertion loss of approximately 0.4 dB, which with the
12.142 and 37.942 dividers will result in a final amplitude of approximately 1.45 V pk-pk
differential as seen across the RXI inputs for zero meters of cable and with a standard 2-V
input. The noise immunity at the RXI input is 0.75 V and at the RJ-45 input is 1.03 V for zero
meters of cable. An 0.0 1 -pF capacitor is included as a common-mode noise filter. This, along
with the 3 7 . 9 4 resistors and the isolating transformer primary to secondary capacitance will
determine the level of common-mode voltage developed at the receiver input. If available, an
isolating transformer with an electrostatic shield between primary and secondary and connected
to ground will reduce the capacitive coupling significantly. The alternative receiver circuit de-
scribed by National Semiconductor andrequired to allow full support of autonegotiation is
shown in Figure 5.59b. In this circuit the common-mode termination is immediately after the
RJ45 connector. The impedance to common-mode currentspresented by the transformer winding
on the RJ45 connector side is low, for the C/M currents flow out of phase through the trans-
former. The total receive C/M impedance is therefore a 49.9-52 resistor and a 0.0 I -pF capacitor.
The C/M noise power required to generate a specific voltage is almost certainly much higher
than Figure 5.59a, where the C/M input impedance through the primary-secondary capacitance
should be high. The problem with the Figure 5.59b circuit is that the receiver-to-ground imped-
ance is unknown, and probably high, which means that neither the isolating transformer nor the
common inductor is as effective at reducing C/M noise as in the Figure 5.59~1circuit. At first
glance, the transformer and C/M inductor in Figure 5.59b should effectively attenuate C/M
noise currents flowing out on the interface, and this is true when the 0.01-pF 2-kV capacitor
is connected to the enclosure close to the RJ45 connector. On no account should the 0.01-pF
capacitor be connected to digital ground, which will have C/M noise impressed upon i t and
through the O.OI-pF and 49.942 resistor out on the twisted-pair cable.
The DP83223 driver transmit current is from 38.2 mA to 41.8 mA, and this is a measure
of the total differential current present at the TXO t outputs into a standard 5042 differential
load. In Figure 5.5921, the R,,, resistor is adjusted to achieve the standard specific 2.0-V differen-
tial TXO 5 output amplitude as measured across the RJ45 transmit pins.
DP83223A Twister can also be used for binary or three-level signaling at data rates up
to 155 Mb/s. The ATM Forum Physical Layer Subworking Group has drafted a working docu-
ment that specifies the protocol for 155-Mb/s STS-3c signaling over 100-R Cat-5 UTP (un-
shieldedtwistedpair) or 150-R STP (shieldedtwistedpair)cabling and the DP83223A
TWISTER transceiver is compliant with this document. Figure 5 . 5 9 ~provides a typical circuit
used for either 10042 UTP or 150-0 STP cable. The step-up transformer in the 150-R version
of the receiver matches the 100-R receiver input resistance and the 100-R transmitter output
impedance to the 150-R STP cable. The receiver must exhibit a C/M noise immunity of 1 V
pk-pk from 0 to 155 MHz when injected via a 75-R resistor into the center tap of the receiver
side of the isolation transformer. With the l-V C/M test level, the bit error rate shall be less
than 1 X IO"". The transmitter differential output with the 100-R UTP load shall be from 960
mV to 1060 mV and for the 150-R STP load shall be from 1150 mV to 1300 mV. A channel
reference model is used to charactize the link between the transmitter and the receiver, and the
receiver shall function and meet link attenuation and a maximum 20-mV near-end crosstalk
requirements with this mode.For the category-5 10042 UTPsystem, thechannelreference
model is defined as 90 meters of category-5 UTP cable, I O meters of category-5 flexible cords,
and four category-5 connectors. The channel reference model for the 150-R STP is defined as
90 meters of STPA cable, 10 meters of STP-A patch cord, and four STP-A connectors. The
unshielded UTP system can meet FCC and CISPR Class B limits when the transmitted signal
imbalance (C/M component) is minimized, when the category-5 cable is used, and when each
line is referenced to a low-noise ground. As with all interfaces, C/M noise current flowing out
on the cable can be reduced by adding the balun at the transmitter, as shown in Figure 5.59a.
The C/M immunity of the receiver can be improved by adding the balun at the receiver, as
shown in Figure 5 . 5 9 ~ Additional
. receiver C/M noise immunity and reduced C/M current on
the interface can be achieved by connecting all unused pairs in the cable to a low-noise chassis
242 Chapter 5
AtoB l:lforUTP(100Olun)
DP83223A
AtoB 1:1.225forSTP(150Ohm)
DP83223A
-
12.1 ohm
"5
""C
Magnetics
U P 100 ohm cable
- M 4 5
Connector
%
12.1 ohm
37.9 ohm 37.9 ohm
0.0luF
A lo B I ' I for UTP (100 Ohnl)
UT]Ip=. A lo B 1: 1.225 for STP ( 1 5 0 Ohm)
Interface
Connccto1
"PF6T 22pF T cIlnss,s ,J",,* 0.0lpF

kV
GND
RECEIVER
(W
Figure 5.59 (a) 100Base-TX driver and rcceiver connections to a Cat-5 UTP 100-R cable. (b) 100Base-
TX driver andreceiver circuit for full support of autonegotiation. (c) 155-Mb/s ATM recommendedtrans-
mitter and receiver using the National Semiconductor DP83223. (Reproduced with the kind permission
of National Semiconductor.)
OR
DP83223A A to B 1: I for UTP (100Ohm)
A t o B 1:1.225forSTP(I50Ohm)
ground via a capacitor. This configuration is also effective at reducing radiation due to C/M
currents on the cable.
Where a very high-EM ambient is predicted or where there is a requirement for ground-
to-ground isolation in the megaohms in circuits with multiple interfaces, either interface circuit
with very high input impedance and high noise immunity or fiber-optic links must be used.
There are commercially available fiber-optic links that provide a direct conversion of a
single serial TTL data channel into a fiber-optic link and conversion back to a TTL level at
the receiver. Other fiber-optic links are available with additional associated electronics that are
transparent to the GP-IB or RS232 data buses. No current will flow on a fiber-optic link due
to radiated or conducted noise. However, if the EM environment is very severe, it may be
important to reduce the radiated coupling through the aperture in the enclosure provided for the
fiber-optic cable. This reduction may be achieved by making the aperture into a waveguide
below cutoff, as described in Chapter 6 on shielding.
The following examples are of nonfiber-optic analog and digital interface circuits. The
general requirements for these interfaces are:
Low power consumption
Very high common-mode noise immunity (for use in a high-noise environment or over
long distances)
Good input isolation and in some instances well-balanced differential input and output
circuits
All of the circuits areshort-circuit proof to 0 V, with some circuits, designated protected,
short-circuit protected to + l 0 V at 200 mA. The circuits operate at different speeds, ranging
from DC-50 kHz, DC-200 kHz, or DC-2 MHz to 150 kHz-l7 MHz.
5.3.1.3 VMOSFET Driver and Optocoupler Receiver PLD2 and PLR2 DC-50
kHz Interface
The circuit in Figure 5.60 provides the maximum degree of isolation between grounds with
l .5 G R at 1500 V, input-output capacitance of 1 pF, and a common-mode transient noise immu-
nity of 1000 V/ps. Although designed to use 12542 characteristic impedance twisted-shielded-
pair cable, the interface circuit receiver load impedanceis not an exact match to 125 R. However,
h)
P
P
+ISV
t
TYPICAL
TI1
IH~LRFACL
'i"
I
PLR2
-- I
NOlCS: I. ALL RESISTORS ARC VlOW 1% U N L U S 07)IfRWI5E SPECIFIED
PL D2 2 DIGIlAL GND
I
3. 2 4 0 4 9 ' 5 M A Y BE U S E D TO
REPLACE ONE 4 0 5 0
4. CD4049UO RCOlllRCD IN 1lllS CKT
Figure 5.60 PLR2 and PLD2 circuit. (Reproduced with kind permission of Canadian Astronautics Ltd. and the Canadian Space Agency.)
because of the slow and controlled driver rise and fall times, no reflections were Seen when
using the interface circuit with 100 m of deliberately mismatched 7 5 4 impedance cable. The
relatively slow driver rise and fall times of 2 PS have the secondary advantage of reducing
radiated emission from the interface cable. The PLR2/PLD2 interfaces are ideally suited for
critical control lines or slow data buses used in a very high-noise environment or over long
distances. Theinterface has been tested with 100 m of interconnection cable and remains within
the following specifications over the temperature range 0°C to + 70°C.
PLD2 and PLR2 Typical Performance

Note: All parameters tested from 0°C to +70°C.
Cornmon-mode noise immunity: A Gaussian noise generator was connected between the
driver and receiver grounds in an attempt to induce errors in the output signal from the
LM 139 comparator. The outputwaveform in particularwas examined to ensure that
“double edging” did not occur at the output waveform transition points. With the follow-
ing peak-to-peak noise voltages covering the corresponding bandwidths, neither double
edging nor jitter was observed.
Noise bandwidth yk-yk voltage measured between Tx and Rx Grounds:

20 kHz 25 Vpk-pk
500 kHz 14 Vpk-pk
5 MHz 9 Vpk-pk
Maximum speed: 100 kHz with C, = 0.01 pF and 100 m of cable

Driver output: Single ended into 30042 impedance
PLD2 S/C protected to + 10 V and ground
Receiver Input Opto-coupler PLR:! S / C protected to + 10 V.

5.3.1.4 Transformer Coupled 10-MHz Interface HAD-l and HAR-l
The HAD-l and HAR-I interface, shown in Figure 5.62 is transformer coupled and thus the
data/clock must achieve a specific mark-space ratio toavoid saturation of the input transformer.
The CLC103AM device is no longer available and can be replaced by a video amplifier IC
followed by one of the many high speed video buffer ICs which are specifically designed to
drive coaxial cables. This interface is suitable for transmission of pulse width modulated or
Manchester coded data over long distances.
5.3.1.5 VMOSFET Driver, Differential Input Receiver, 2 MHz Interface. HD-1,

HR-1, and PHR-1
This circuit, shown in Figure 5.61, provides for high-speed transmissions over long distances
with highnoiseimmunity.Awell-balancedinputproviding 1 MR isolation in parallel with
approximately 10 pF and 1 kR in series to ground, and common mode voltage capability of
+ 10 V characterizes this circuit. It is importaant to use 120-130 Q twisted shielded pair cable
to ensure minimal line reflections as both the source and load impedances of this circuit are
125 Q. Maximum cable length tested was 100 m. Because of the inherent high current capacity
of the 2N6661 VMOSFET, it is necessary only to increase the wattage rating of the two 62 Q
resistors to 2 W to achieveprotectionagainsta S/C to+ I O V as well as to ground. The
maximumspeed of operation with 100 m of cable is 2 MHz with an adequate safety margin.
The measured rise and fall times of the driver output were both 20 ns when loaded with the
LM
Figure 5.61 HD-I and HR-1 circuit. (Reproduced with kind permission of Canadian Astronautics Ltd.)
0
0
3
0
0
S
m
S
"G
m
3
5
E.
HAR-I 0
S
W P I C A L RECEIVER
3
m
TI DTBC P
E
a
0
S
nl
a
P
z
2.
v)
ID
z
z
2.
2
I
10 Mllr 0.2SV DRIVER
Figure 5.62 HAD-1 and HAR-1 circuit. (Reproduced with kind permission of Canadian Astronautics Ltd. and the Canadian Space Agency.)
248 Chapter 5
receiver input via 3 m of 120 R twisted shielded pair cable. The receiver contributes 150 ns to
the overall transmitter input-receiver output delay, which was measured at 180 ns.
DifSerential mode voltage noise immunity:

High = 2.5 V
Low = 2.5 V
Input power noise immunity is 50 mW
Common mode voltage noise immunity: The common mode noise level at which double
edging occurred is recorded in the following table (the causeof double edgingwas a combination
of the common mode and approximately 100 mV of different mode noise present).
Broadband noise voltage level:

Noise
bandwidth Pk-Pk Voltage
20 kHz 20 v
500 kHz 10 v
5 MHz 8 V
Driver output, differential above groundinto 125 R loadimpedanceprotectedagainst

+ I O V and short circuited to ground with 62 S2 resistors rated at 2 W. The 2 MHz receiver
may be used as an analog receiver with the LMI 19 replaced with a differential amplifier. A
differential video amplifier version of the interface has been built, with a measured CM noise
rejection of 40 dB at 30 MHz.
5.3.2 Typical Integrated Circuit Response to Noise and Immunity

Test Levels
The available data on the immunity level of ICs describes the input voltage or power at which
upset occurs, i.e., the device malfunctions or some parameter such as DC offset, gain, frequency
changes, or a spurious response occurs.
With the conducted C/M RF and radiated RF immunity tests specified in EN 50082-1
and EN 50082-2the equipment is exposed toan incident RF field modulated at 1 kHz and 80%
and to a C/M RF (bulk current) cable injected test level, also modulated at 1 kHz and 80%.
Either of these injection methods will typically result in a common-mode (C/M) RF current
flow across a PCB. Despite the C/M nature of the current, IC junctions can be affected by the
radiation set up by the current flow, which in turn results in current flow in the semiconductor
junction. Also C/M current is easily converted to D/M voltage when the circuit is unbalanced,
and the C/M current can induce a noise voltage into the device.
The spurious response is typically demodulation of the audio frequency used to modulate
the incident field or the bulk RF current injected into cables. In RF circuits, the spurious response
appears as either FM of the received or transmitted carrier, or “close in” or “far out” (from
the carrier frequency) responses or an increase in broadband noise, or receiver desensitization.
Often a combination of these problems is seen.
Any semiconductor device can rectify an RF signal, and devices can be characterized by
their rectification efficiency. For example, bipolar devices rectification efficiency is proportional
to 1 /d%f whereas MOS devices exhibit an efficiency of ( 1/2nff?). Therefore, due to the higher
rectification efficiency of the bipolar device for the same emitter perimeter size, it tends to be
more susceptible than MOS devices.
Table 5.1 1 Power Induced in Microstrip and

Transmission Line PCB Layouts with an Incident 3-V/
m Field
Power (W)
f (MHz) T.X. Line Microstrip
30 9.6 X 10 9.6 X lo-"'
160 84 X 10 ' 8.4 X 10 "
1000 89 x lo-" 1.1 x 10
The rectification effect is also a function of the f r of the device (f7 is the frequency at
which the small-signal gain of the device equals unity). Abovef,, EM1 through the rectification
effect of the device manifests itself as audio rectification, in which the output of the device
follows the envelope of the input RF.
Also, frequencies well above the f, of the device may merely be transmitted through the
device and can cause EM1 to a device further down the chain.
If a PCB is not contained inside a shielded enclosure, the EN 50082 radiated immunity
test field is incident on the PCB. We assume an 18-cm-long PCB layout in the form of a transmis-
sion line (without ground plane) and an 18-cm-long microstrip PCB (signal trace above a ground
plane). If the incident E field is 3 V/m amplitude modulated at I kHz and SO%, what is the
effect on typical digital and analog devices? The first step is to predict the power level and
voltage level induced in the transmission line and microstrip PCB layout. Table 5.11 shows
the induced power calculated from the measured gain of the 18-cm microstrip and the 18-cm
transmission line. Table 5.12 shows the induced voltage based on the induced power, the struc-
ture, and the load impedance. The load impedance affects the voltage induced in the circuit.
The load impedance for the microstrip is calculated at 50 R at 30 MHz, 47 R at 160 MHz, and
40 Q at 1 GHz, which is approximately correct for RF and video circuits but is almost certainly
too low for analog circuits. Table 5.12 shows the induced voltage for both the =50-R load and
for a 10-kR load in parallel with a 0.4-pF capacitor. The 10 kR in parallel with the 0.4-pF load
has an impedance of 10 kR at 30 MHz, 2 kR at 160 MHz, and 390 R at 1 GHz.
Table 5.12 Voltage Induced in Microstrip and Transmission Line PCB

Layouts
.f (MHz) T.X. Line Microstrir,

Voltage induced in 5042 load
30 2.3 mV 0.26 mV
I60 20 mV 1.4 mV
1000 6.3 mV 9 mV
Voltage induced in 10-kQ 11 0.4 pF
30 31 mV 0.26 mV
160 320 mV (520 mV)" 13 mv
1000 80 rnV 19 mV
" This is a coITObot'atlng value obtaincd by the use of a high-level electromagnetic

analysis program.
250 Chapter 5
5.3.3 DigitalLogicNoiseImmunity
Logic noise immunity is usually expressed as a DC voltage, which is a valuable measure of
noise immunity for a nonimpulsive low-frequency induced noise.The voltage noise immunity of
a device is often specified as the voltage at which the device becomes susceptible,and therefore
immunity is achieved at levels below this voltage.
Where the induced noise consists of voltage spikes with a duration equal to or just a little
longer than the rise and fall times of the logic (which is typical of the crosstalk between logic
tracks on a PCB), the input noise energyis a useful immunity criterion. In addition, the immunity
of logic to an RF signal is often required. The input noise energy immunity (defined as the
voltage multiplied by the current for a specific pulse duration, i.e., that required to change the
logic output state) is an important factor in comparing the noise immunity of different logic
types. Typically, voltages much higher than the DC noise immunity level are required for short-
duration pulses before an output response is evoked. Table 5.6 shows DC noise margin, the
noise energy immunity, and signal-line impedance or the input/output impedance in parallel.
The energynoiseimmunityexpressed in Table 5.6 is valid onlyforthespecified
pulsewidth. For example, from the predictions of crosstalk to a TTL gate in Chapter 4, the gate
responded to a 2.5-V, 80-nS pulse, which produced a 1.6-mA current at the TTL input. Thus,
the input noise energy immunity of the gate with an 80-ns input pulsewidth is 0.24 nJ, whereas,
from Table 5.6, the input noise energy immunity at a 20-11s pulsewidth is 1.7 nJ.
From measurements, the immunity of a CMOS gate, type CD4013B, and an advanced
low-power Schottky, type 54ALS74A, to an RF sinewave signal from 1.2 MHz to 200 MHz
has been determined (Ref. 6). The RF was injected into the Vcc pin, the data input pin, and
the clock pin of the IC. In the case of the data and clock pins, the RF was combined with data
and clock wavefonns, so the RF was riding on these waveforms. The ICs were included in a
test setup that ran a functional test on the IC. At the same time, the level of RF voltage injected
into the IC was increased until the functional test program failed. Table 5.13 shows the RF
voltage at which an upset occurred (i.e., a change in the normal operating mode of the IC). Two
units of each device type were tested for RF upset susceptibility.
Figure 5.63 shows both the calculated and the measured input power required to upset
digital devices with different values offr.
The induced power calculated for the transmission line and microstripPCB layouts shown
in Table 5.1 1 is also plotted in Figure 5.63. The predicted induced power is far below that
required to cause an upset to TTL or ECL 10K; however, for VHSIC TTL or ECL, the power
induced into the transmission line or into the microstrip PCB at 3 V/m could cause an upset.
The major differencebetween the standard TTL and the phase I VHSIC is that the TTL has an
emitter perimeter of 12.5 microns and the VHSIC I devices have emitter perimeters of 1.25
microns. The phase I1 VHSICs have linewidths of 0.5 microns. To reduce the probability of an
upset to VHSICs at 3 V/m, reduce the length of the microstrip or use a stripline PCB layout.
Open pins on logic ICs degrade noise immunity. For example, with a 2-V 2-ns-wide pulse
applied to the input of a 7420 device,the output pulse is 2.2V with a 10-ns pulsewidth. Clamping
the unused inputs reduces the outputpulse to 1 V with an 8-ns pulsewidth. For standard saturated
logic types, the power induced into the 18-cm-long PCBs when illuminated at 3 V/m will not
result in an upset.
Some of the latest logic types include: ABT, LVT, LCX, LVX, LVO, AC, ACT, ACQ,
ACTQ, VHC, HC, HCT, GTLP, and FAST. No RF or noise energy immunity data is readily
available for these typesof logic; however, we have seen the importanceof the emitter perimeter
size in determining noise immunity. If a number of devices are suitable for an application and
noise immunity is a potential problem, a comparative test of the noise energy immunity can be
Table 5.13 RF Upset Voltage of a CMOS and ALS Devices

~
ALS 74 CD40 I3
SIN I SIN4 SIN I SIN2
f WHzl LVl 1VI [Vl [VI
vcc pin 14pser , d m , q e
1.2 0.44 0.34 0.006 0.006
5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.28
10 0.44 0.4 0.44 0.4
50 0.44 0.4 1.1 1.1
100 0.6 0.6 2.8 3.4
200 0.44 * * (r
Durn pin rrpser ~11ragc’ [invl llnVl [IllVl [invl

1.2 MHz 0.001 1 0.0010 0.0004 0.0005
5 MHz 0.0022 0.0022 0.0009 0.0012
10 MHz 0.0017 0.003 1 0.0024 0.0028
50 MHz 0.0044 0.0040 0.0 120 0.0 140
100 MHz 0.0070 0.0 I00 0.0220 0.0400
200 MHz 0.0070 .A 4: *
C l o d pirl rrpser wltnge
1.2 MHz 0.0008 0.0008 0.00044 0.00035
5 MHz 0.0008 0.0008 0.0015 0.00 12
10 MHz 0.00085 0.00085 0.0028 0.0040
50 MHz 0.0022 0.0020 0.0170 0.0200
100 MHz 0.0044 0.0040 0.0200 0.0440
200 MHz 0.0070 0.0055 * *
* Denotes that no upset could he induced.
performed. The test involves varying the high- and low-input voltage level at different input
pulsewidths and recording the energy at which an upset occurs.
5.3.3 Analog Video and Radio Frequency Circuit Noise and Immunity
5.3.3.1 Thermal Noise
Analog, video, and RF circuits generate noncoherent noise that is caused by thermal noise in
resistors, semiconductors, and 1Cs as well as l/f’noise in semiconductors. Analog-circuit noise
may be modeled as an input noise current and _ _an input noise
-~ voltage and is typically specified
by manufacturers at 1 kHz in units of I I V / ~ M H and

Z pA/dMHz. Thermal rms noise voltage in
resistors is given by the following equation:
E,,, = d4kTRBW
where
k = 1.38 X 10 ?‘
T = temperature in degrees Kelvin.
BW = bandwidth of the signal chain in which the resistor is used
R = value of the reisistor [a]
The noise at the output of an amplifier may be found by computing the total resistance
of the resistors included in each input and calculating the thermal-noise voltage developed by
252 Chapter 5
0.1
0.01
0.w1
3
I
o.ooo1
-; o.oooo1
>
U
B
g IE-06
I E47
IE-08
1E-09
IE-IO
1 IO 100 lo00
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 5.63 A = measured TTL level,B = measuredECLIO K level, 1 = calculated mLf, = 350
MHz, 2 = calculated ECLf, = 350 MHz, 3 = calculated VHSIC 1 TTLfr = 350 MHz, 4 = calculated
VHSIC I TTLf, = 5 GHz, 5 = calculated VHSIC I ECLf, = 5 GHz, 6 = calculated VHSIC I1 ECLf,
= 5 GHz, tx = induced power into 18-cm transmission PCB, E = 3 V/m, ms = induced power into 18-
cm microstrip PCB, E = 3 V/m.
the resistors, the noise voltage developed across the resistorsby the specifiedmaximum amplifier
input noise current, and the specified input noise voltage. Figure 5.64 illustrates the noisesources
referenced to the input of an amplifier. The noise sources are considered noncoherent, and the
rms sum of the noise sources is found by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of
the individual noise sources. The noise is referenced to the input of the amplifier, so the output
noise is the input noise times the gain of the amplifier.
In cascaded (i.e., a chain of) amplifiers, the maximum output noise may be computed by
finding the noise per stage of amplification and multiplying by the remaining gain of the chain.
The sumof the noise sources at the output, NI, is again the square root of the sum of the squares:
+ (N2G2)?
N I= d(N,G,G2)?
Figure 5.64 Noise sources referenced to thc input of an amplifier.

where
N, = total noise of the first stage referenced to the input
G, = gain of the first stage
G: = gain of the second stage
N : = noise of the second stage referenced to the input
The l(f noise in operational amplifiers is significant only at very low frequency, because
it reduces to the thermal-noise level at typically 6 Hz and, worst case, 30 Hz.
The rms noise voltage is less commonly used by RF engineersto characterize the intrinsic,
component, induced noise in RF circuits; more often, noise power is used. In calculating the
total noise power developed by an RF circuit or receiver, it is only necessary to add noise powers
algebraically, multiplied by the power gain of amplifier stages and divided by losses, where
applicable. One measure of noise is the noise factor, defined as
where
P J P , = available power gain of the receiver
N J N , = ratio of available noise output power and noise input power
The mailable power is that power density developed by a source into a conjugate load.
When the ratio N,,IN, equals the gain, the receiver contributes no noise and F = 1.
In measurements of noise factor, very often a noise generator is used as a source and the
noise factor is given by
where
P,,ll,i
= available power required from the noise generator to produce a power
carrier-to-noise ratio (power idnoise in) of 1
BW = bandwidth[Hz]
T(,= approximately 290 K(A 17°C)
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 X lo-?'
The noise figure of a circuit is either the noise factor expressed in decibels (thus, F (db)
= 10 log F ) or synonymous with the noise factor, as defined by the IEEE.
An alternative measurement of RF circuit and receiver noise is noise temperature. The
noise temperature of a receiver, in kelvin, is given by
T, = FT,, - T,,
Therefore the noise factor is
F= 1 + -T,
T<,
The limiting sensitivity of a receiving system is determined by the ratio of received power
to noise power that allows acceptable reception of information. In satellite communications a
254 Chapter 5
major source of noise is external atmospheric, cosmic, and ground radiation. The antenna is
then considered a noise source, due largely to the noise flux incident on the antenna.
The total noise temperatureof a receiving system is madeup of the antenna noise tempera-
ture and the noise temperature of the receiving system up to the demodulator.
Passive components suchas connectors, cables,and filters introduce a loss into the receiv-
ing system and increase the effective noise temperature. The effective noise temperature due
to loss L is
[
T,. = (1 - :)LIT,,
and the output noise is
A figure of merit used to describesatellite communication systems is gain over temperature

(GIT),which is defined as
G - (Po - N,NV',,, - N,,,)

T FT,, - T,,
Once the antenna noise temperature is known, the receiver noise factor and input losses
may be used to obtain GIT. In a cascaded receiver, GIT is constant regardless of the position
in the cascade at which GIT is calculated.
As an example, we will calculate G/T of a system after the antenna connecting cable and
input filter and at the input of the receiver. Assume an antenna noise temperature T,, of 50 K,
a cable loss of 0.15 dB (1.035), a filter loss of 0.3 dB (1.072), and a receiver noise factor of
0.5 dB (1.122). Thetotal loss is 0.45 dB (1.109) and the noise temperature at the receiver input
due to antenna and losses is
-~
-
50
1.109
+ (1 - 0.902)290 = 45 K + 28.42K = 73.42 K
The noise temperature due to the receiver is

T, = (1.122 X 290) - 290 35.38K
Thus, the total noise temperature is 73.42 + 35.38 = 108.8 K
The gain of the antenna is 30 dBi, from which the filter and cable losses are subtracted,
resulting in a gain of 30 dB - 0.45 dB = 29.55 dB (901). G/T is therefore 901/108.8 = 8.281
K = 18.3 dB/K.
Very often the design engineer makes a careful worst-case calculation of the maximum
intrinsic noise of an amplifier at the highest operating temperature but ignores induced noise
from the electromagnetic ambient in which the circuit must function. For example, when the
circuit is located in an enclosure that contains digital circuits or is powered by a switching-
power supply, the induced noise may be many orders of magnitude higher than the intrinsic
noise.
5.3.3.2 Coupling Modes to AnalogNideo and Radio Frequency Circuits

When analog/video/RF circuitry share a board with digital circuits, the probability of EM1 is
high. Chapter I I , Case Study 1 1. I , examines coupling modes between digital logic and analog
circuits contained on the same board. When the noise of an analog circuit must be restricted to
the intrinsic noise level, careful design and layout are imperative. Ideally, power supplies to
analog circuits should be dedicated to the analog circuit and not shared with digital circuits.
Linear supplies should be used and not switching-power supplies. Where the main power comes
from a switching supply used for a number of different circuits, thc most susceptible analog
circuits should be suppliedby a dedicated linear supply. For example, when the switching supply
provides 2 15 V, this may be used as the input of a 2 10-12-V linear supply. Radiated coupling
between the input and output of the linear supply must be controlled in order to reduce high-
frequency noise on the output of the supply. It is, however, possible to use a switching-power
supply for the most sensitive circuits with the correct secondary power-line filter.
As an alternative to a large and inefficient linear supply, bulkhead-mounted and PCB-
mount filters have been designed to allow the use of switching-power supplies for critical appli-
cations. These filters will reduce switching-power supply C/M and D/M noise to typically 30
pV of low-frequency ripple. With this type of filter, noise levels lower than the average linear
supply can be achieved. The potential for crosstalk between wires, cables, and PCB tracks, as
discussed in Chapter 4, should be examined.
In a very harsh EM environment, compartmentalization of the analog and digital circuits
with the use of feedthrough filters may be required. The calculation of noise effects on analog
circuits might be considered simply a function of circuit gain and bandwidth, and this is true
of noise at in-band frequencies.
The potential for EM1 at higherfrequencies (i.e., at whichthe open loopgain of the
amplifier is zero) should not be ignored. Nonlinearities due to input diodes, transistor junctions,
or saturation of an input stage due to very high levels of RF can result i n demodulation of AM
or FM RF. Where the source of RF is unmodulated, DC offsets or gain may be affected.
Analog circuits are not inmune to RF noise that is far out of band. For example, the
output level of a 1.5-GHz high-power amplifier(HPA) was controlled by the output of a detector.
The detector was contained in a shielded enclosure, but an op amp with a n f , of 100 kHz was
located outside of the enclosure. The unrnodulated field generated by the HPA was rectified by
the op amp’s input circuit, which changed the output power level. The solution to the problem
was to include a groundplaneunderthe op amp and to connect surface-mount microwave
capacitors with a low impedance at 1.5 GHz between each of the op amp’s input pins and the
ground plane. This solution has been effective in a number of similar EM1 cases.
As an example of analog-circuit susceptibility to RF, a 741 op amp configured with a
gain of 20 and with RF injected directly into either the inverting or noninverting input first
exhibits a change in output level at an input power of -20 dBm (22.5 mV) and is saturated
(i.e., close to the rail voltage) at 0 dBm (225 mV).
A common practical example of demodulation EM1 is when a CB radio is operated i n
close proximity to a phonograph. Often the amplitude-modulated RF of the CB communication
is demodulated by the input stage of the phonograph preamplifier, and the communication may
be heard by the listener. The Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program (NCAP) has been used to
predict thedemodulation EM1 effects i n bipolar,JFET-bipolar, and MOSFET-bipolarICs
(Ref. 7).
The addition of capacitors on analog or video circuit pins has the effect of reducing the
impedance of the load at the problem frequencies. In conjunction with series resistance or induc-
tance, an L-type filter can be formed and the attenuation is higher, especially when the noise
source impedance is low. Very often the addition of a capacitor doesnot reduce the EM1 response
256 Chapter 5
Meon
Values of Meorured H 2 ( f , . - f 2 )
7 4 1 Operotionol
Amplifier
2 5 Devices
XX
m
> X
v
70 .
N
I
0
0'60
S
0
N
50
40
OO
R1=10 k R2=100 k
c1 P O c2-0
,l .2 .5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500

f,, RF Frequerlcy in MHz
Figure 5.65 Cotnparison of 20 log l l s for invertingandnoninvcrting inputs of the 741. .v is the op
atnp response and is dimensionless. (01991, IEEE.)
of the circuit. There are a number of possible reasons for this. The most common are: a different
component or part of the circuit is susceptible; the capacitor is not the right value or type for
the problem; the noise source impedance is too low; the capacitor is too far away from the
rectifying semiconductor junction (it must be connected directly to the pin/s of the device), or
the grounding around the device/s is not a sufficiently low impedance. The capacitor is most
effective when its resonance frequency is at, or close to, the problem frequency.
Different analog devices exhibit different levels of immunity, and a comparison can be
made based on measured data. The analog devices tested were the 741, OP27, LMIO, LF355,
and CA081 op amps. These devices were connected as an inverting amplifier with a gain of
10. The value of the input resistor used was 10 kR and that of the feedback resistor was 100
kQ. Above some frequency the input capacitance of the device will reduce the level of RF, due
to the low impedance of the capacitance, or when a series resistance is placed between the RF
source and the input pin of the device the resistance/input capacitance will act as a filter.
Figure 5.65 (from Ref.1 1) compares the response of the inverting input to the noninverting
input of a 741 device.Figure 5.65 plots l/x, where .K is the circuit response. Therefore the higher
the value in decibels, the lower the circuit response. Figures 5.65, 5.68, and 5.69 are provided
for comparison purposes. Adding additional capacitors around the op amp, as shown in Figure
5.66, will decrease the response of the circuit to RF. An alternative filter for both C/M and D/
M noise is shown in Figure 5.67.
Figure 5.68 comparesthe demodulated output of the device with different values of capaci-
tor at locations C, and C?.
The lower the value of the response shown i n the figures, the more effective the filtering.
Figure 5.69 compares theinput RF voltage for a fixed-amplitudedemodulatedresponse for
Figure 5.66 Additional capacitors around an op amp circuit.
different devices, and here the higher the level of RF voltage for a standard response, the more
immune is the op amp type.
Most wireless designs have a performance specification that includes phase noise, FM,
and spurious response. For example, a comnlercial aeronautical system requirement specifies
that all fixed spurs (those that do not change with the carrier frequency) and all spurs remaining
within 42 kHz of the carrier frequency must be at least 70 dB below the carrier (-70 dBc).
Any spurs outside of the 42-kHz band that move with the carrier frequency are limited to -55
dBc. Other communication requirements (such as those for EW simulators) place the spurious
limit at approximately -60 dBc. The EIA/TIA-250C specification on the ratio of video signal
to periodic noise from 300 Hz to 4.2 MHz is 67 dB for short-haul links, 63 dB for satellite
links, and 58 dB for long-haul links.
The use of digital receivers and digital signal processing (DSP) and switching-power sup-
plies for the RF circuits makes the requirements increasingly difficult to meet. Generally speak-
ing, if spurs close to the carrier must be 30-40 dB below the carrier (-30 to -40 dBc) and
the RF circuit is in close proximity to sources of emission such as switching-power supplies and
PCBs containing logic, then care must be taken in the design of the wireless for compatibility. In
the case where the specification requires spurs to be at -50 to -70 dBc, extreme care must
Figure 5.67 A C/M and D/M filter at the inverting input of an op amp.
258 Chapter 5
= 10.0 k R q = 100 k 74 1 Inverting Amplifier

t4rRI
30 Devices
m + c , = o c,-0
* C,=250 pF C , - 0
X
x xx x
0 C,=O C 2 = 2 7 pF X X
X C , = 2 5 0 pF C = 2 7 pF
2
xx * *
* * @
X
X ** OQ
-3[
- 3a
1
;
t +++t
.2 .5 1 2
++ ++
I
5
+~ +
(
10 20
,
50 IO0 200
I
500
,
(4 f,. RF Frequency in MHz
R = 10.0 k R 2 = 100 k OP27 lnve I
30 Oevoces
+ C l =o c 2 =o
Sf
t++
+t
t t +
I I I I I I l
1 2 .5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
(b) f t . R F F r e q u e n c y in M H z
Figure 5.68 (;I) Comparison of the demodulated output of a 741 with and without additional capacitors.
(b) Den1odulated response at the output of an op 27 with and without additional capacitors. (01991,
IEEEL
I I I l 1 I 1 I l l I I I l l l
1
IO
01 IO IO IO0 400
RF F r o q u o n c y In MHI
Figure 5.69 Input voltage required for a standard output response for different devices. (01991, IEEE)
be taken, especially if signal levels are low. The following guidelines are based on achieving
compatibility for RF circuits that can be located as close as 2 cm to sources of high-level etnis-
sions and where spurs must be at levels between -30 and -40 dBc.
High level in band spurs, typically generated by clock and data frequencies, will often
make communications onthe chosen channel unreliable to the point of being unusable (a denied
channel). If other channels are available, then they can be selected. The alternative is to move
the clock frequency out of band or to wiggle, sweep, or hop the frequency, as described later.
Another problem caused by broadband noise sourced by switching-power supplies or data with
a high-frequency component at a low repetition rate is the desensitization of the receiver. In
one example, fire trucks and ambulances fitted with a new data terminal foundthat voice commu-
nication by radio to the base station was impossible when the vehicle was in the mountains.
However, with the data terminal switched off,normal voice communication resumed. The prob-
lem is that in the mountains the radio's received level was low and the broadband emissions
from the data terminal, picked up by the vehicle-mounted antenna, caused the radio to desense,
resulting in loss of communication.
With PCMCIA wireless cards, the inclusion of the card in a PC can result in receiver
desensitization due to broadband noise generated by the PC. Motorola has developeda tool that,
unlike spectrum analysis measurements, provides an accurate measurement for wireless devices
that accounts for the effects of the air protocol, the PC card antenna, and the interaction between
the card and the host, typically a laptop computer. The system measures how much RF level
is required to produce successful massaging. It emulates wireless wide-area network operation
using packet data to determine the receiver sensitivity of the wireless card while inserted into
the host PC card slot. As with system coverage, if the host computer is noisy, more RF signal
is required to receive a message. This would translate to reduced network coverage. Thus PC
manufacturers would have a competitive advantage if the PC emissionswere significantly lower
than the Class B requirements over the wireless frequency bands in use. A manufacturer of a
dedicated data terminal with an imbedded wireless has designed the computer, imbedded wire-
260 Chapter 5
less, and external antenna with extremely low coupling between these components, and this
terminal has an even higher advantage in terms of increased network coverage and fewer denied
channels.
There are a numberof coupling mechanisms between noise sources and the RF circuit,and
these include: conducted, radiated coupling, crosstalk, andcommon ground impedance coupling.
These potential sources andtechniques required to reduce the coupling are described throughout
this book.
5.3.3.3 Noise Sources and Levels

In an idealworld,theactualnoise sources that will be surroundingthe RF PCB would be
measured for emissions before the circuit was designed. In reality this can seldom be accom-
plished; instead, the design should be based on typical average levels of magnetic and electric
field and typical conducted noise levels measured on equipment that contains digital circuits
and switching-power supplies. Of particular interest are those levels that have resulted in EM1
on similar equipment containing an imbedded wireless.
The magnetic and electric fields measured 3 cm distance from a reasonably well-laid-out
digital PCB containing short (2.54 cm) microstrip used for a 40-MHz clock is shown in Table
5.14.
Chapter 1 l discusses PCBlayout in detail, but generally speaking longer traces will radiate
more effectively than short traces and higher frequencies more effectively than lower frequency
(see Chapter 11 for the limits of frequency and trace length). For example, a 5-cm-long micro-
strip with a 10-MHz clock radiated at a lower level than the 2.54-cm track with the 40-MHz
clock. Compared to the microstrip, use of a stripline will reduce the level of the emissions by
from 15 to 25 dB over the 20-600-MHz frequency range. In practice, where a stripline PCB
layout is used with the upper and lower ground plane stitched together around the board with
vias 3 mm apart, the radiation from the PCB is typically dominated by emissions from the ICs.
If the PCB located close to the wireless PCB has yet to be designed and is under the control
of thewirelessmanufacturer, the “good”PCB layoutdescribed in Chapter 11 shouldbe
followed. One additional tip is to add a low-value decoupling capacitor in parallel with all of
the existing 0.01-l-yF capacitors in the digital section of a PCB or adjacent digital PCB. The
additional decoupling capacitors should be chosen to resonate at the center frequency of the
wireless. Digital sections onthe wireless PCB, suchas DSP, should be laid out using the follow-
ing considerations.
1. Keep oscillators, clock and data bus traces, and high-speed LSI chips as far away
from the RF section as possible. Locate ICs so that the interconnects are as short
as possible. Locate oscillators close to ICs that use the clock. Keep LSI devices,
Table 5.14 Levels of E and H Fields Close to a “Typical” Digital PCB
f (MHz) EH(mV/m) H , (mA/m)

Emissions 3 cm from a PCB microstrip layout, 40-MHz clock, 2.54-cm
length
100 25 0.23
360 83 1.o
950 8.5 -
5 cm of ribbon cable with IO-MHz clock
360 30 1 3.6
which have fast data buses and clocks, and switching-power supplies as far away
as possible from signal and power connectors and ribbon cable.
2. Use stripline over the digital section. If that is not possible; use localized stripline
to imbed any digital and power interface traces routed to the wireless section.
3. Followthe grounding rules in Section 11.6, andavoid slots inthegroundplane
located directly under signal and clock traces, as shown in Figure 5.70.
4. Keep traces between ICs in the DSP section as short as possible. Minimize path
lengths between sources and loads and between loads sharing a common clock or
bus.
5. Keep “hot”signalsasclose to thesignalreturnplaneasfeasible,and do not
“weave” these traces through the ground plane from layer to layer except for short
and necessary sections at ICs.
6. Reduce the drive current on tracks by minimizing loading, typically by the use of
buffers at the load end or series resistance at the source end.
7. Reduce the number of signal tracks that change state simultaneously.
8. Design logic and software such that data is flowing on data buses intermittently,
with as low a duty cycle as possible, and not continuously. If data is transmitted and
received in packets with considerable gaps, then, if possible, cease all unnecessary
computer operations during transmissions.
9. If digital clocks are designed to wiggle in frequency, sweep or hop then the occur-
rence of in-band spurs can be reduced. Alternatively if a clock is derived from a
DCO, VCO, or phase-locked loop and the tuned frequency of the wireless is known,
choose theclockfrequency to generate spurs out of thewirelessband or tuned
channel.
10. Use an overall shield over the RF section, with a separate “enclosure” ground plane
as described in Section 5.3.3.5 and Chapter 11.
5.3.3.4 Radio Frequency and Wireless
The levels described in Table 5.14 can create a problem with an RF circuit, this was illustrated
by a receiver that exhibited spurs at 70 kHz and at 28 MHz (with a repetition rate of 70 kHz).
The sourceof these spurs was a switching-power supply that generated a magnetic field incident
on the RF section of the board of 13 mA/m at 70 kHz and 0.2 mA/m at 28 MHz. The problem
Figure 5.70 Ground plane with slot, formed by a row of vias. directly under data bus or clock.
262 Chapter 5
was a 2-c111by2-c111 loop of PCB trace on the RF PCB that connected the oscillator signal to
a mixer. The current flow in this 2-cm loop was calculated at approximately 30 pA at 70 kHz
and 17 pA at 28 MHz. Shielding of the mixer and oscillator signal traces was only partially
successful, and not at all at 70 kHz. Thepotential solution to this and other susceptibility prob-
lems is to keep PCB signal traces close together, to minimize loop area, or better still, to imbed
the oscillator traces in stripline. The direct coupling into the loop at 70 kHz can be reduced by
capacitively coupling the oscillator so that the capacitor presents a low impedance to RF and
a high impedance to audio frequencies and to the switching-power supply fundamental frequen-
cies and low harmonic frequencies. Although the susceptibility of specific RF circuits toincident
fields is hard to predict, using all the “good” PCB layout techniques and localized shielding
that RF engineers commonly employ to avoid self-compatibility problems, e.g., coupling from
a high-level RF signal into a low-level signal, will also increase the immunity to externally
sourced fields.
One technique that is effective at reducing conducted noise on digital data and clock lines
that interface to an RF circuit is the inclusion of a bifilar wound balun on the digital lines and
return/s. The balun will reduce C/M currents but will not degrade the operating speed of the
digital lines. Nor is the balun affected by the DC supply current, for, as both lines are threaded
through the balun, the DC magnetic field induced in the ferrite core is close to zero. To reduce
low-frequency currents, the ferrite should be wound with as many turns of the signal/power
and their returns as possible. For low-frequency NRZ data noise and switching-power supply
noise, a high-permeability ferrite of typically 10,000 p(,(where p,)is the permeability of free
space) is recommended. For high-frequency applications (>5 MHz), a lower-permeability mate-
rial will typically achieve a greater attenuation.
When the parasitic capacitance between the turns of the balun results in a resonance at
the problem frequency, the highest attenuation is achieved, although most ferrites are very low
Q (lossy) and this is not a very significant effect.
If digital control and data lines are connected via a D subconnector to RF components or
subassemblies contained in a conductive enclosure,the use of a filtered connector or filter adapter
can reduce both C/M and D/M noise.
AC power at 50-400 Hz and their harmonics can also result in spurs. typically diagnosed
as FM in a carrier. No effective shielding exists at these frequencies, short of high-permeability
steel or mu-metal, and the best approach is to move the RF circuit as faraway from transformers,
AC fans, and AC power wiring as possible. All power wiring should be twisted to cancel the
magnetic fields generated. As an extreme measure, the AC field may be canceled or bucked by
the use of a coil through which the AC power currentflows. The coil is then orientated to cancel
the AC field incident on a susceptible component or circuit. Use of coupling capacitors that
have a low impedance at RF and a high impedance at the power-line frequency should also be
used. In one case the AC power current picked up on a loop formed by a semirigid cable, and
an RF circuit mounted in a metal enclosure was shunted to chassis by a clamp placed over the
semirigidcable.This measurereducedtheACpowercurrent flow into the m a connector
mounted on the enclosure.
5.3.3.5 Shielding
Past experience has shown that when RF circuits are in very close proxilnity to the fields gener-
ated by logic and switching-power supplies,EM1 can and often does exist. Shielding can,when
implemented in conjunction with signal and power frequency filtering, be very effective. How-
ever, when signal and power connections are routed from the “noisy” external ambient into
the shielded RF section ofthe circuit without filtering,the results may be no increase in inlmunity
at all! Thus it is not enough simply to shield a circuit, it invariably requires additional filtering
at the shield interface, as described in the filtering section.
All digital logic that switches nonreturn to zero data will radiate fields with a low-audio-
frequency component and thin, small, shielded enclosures will provide 0 dB attenuation at these
frequencies. The only effective technique is “good” RF PCB layout and the use of low-value
capacitive coupling between stages of the RF. Chapter 1 1 describes shielding a PCB in detail;
however, in general the shielding effectiveness of small, thin enclosures may not be adequate
at switching-power supply frequencies of around 100 kHz. The weak link in any shield is at
the seam between the separate components of the shield. In the PCB-mounted shield, this is
the electrical connection between the shielded enclosure and the ground plane on the opposite
side of the board. When the enclosure is constructed using a shield fence into which lids are
clippedandtheconnection to the groundplanerelies on thetabs in the fence material, the
shielding effectiveness is compromised. The best solution to this problem is to include an upper
“enclosure” ground plane, in the form of a loop approximately 3-5 mm wide on the fence
material side of the board. This upper loop is not connected to any other (digital/RF/analog)
ground plane, but is connected around the circumference of the loop to the lower PCB ground
plane, which completes the enclosure. Vias are used to tack the upper loop down to the lower
ground plane, and these should be located at intervals of approximately 3 mm. Then if the tabs
on the shield fence do not provide a low-enough “contact impedance” with the lower ground
plane, which forms the full enclosure, then the fence can be soldered to the upper loop. This
configuration is shown in Figure 5.71.
Some of the types of material commonly used for the shield are0.1-0.25-mm-thick beryl-
lium copper or0.2-0.5-mm-thick tin-plated steel. The magnetic-field shielding effectiveness of
these types of shield with a low contact impedance seam (described earlier) is shown in Table
5.15. However, Table 5.15 applies only to an enclosure that is constructed completely of the
materials shown. In the case of many PCB-mount enclosures, the loop that forms the enclosure
is completed by an enclosure PCB ground plane. It is not, however, generally necessary to go
to the expense of “buried vias” for this lower “enclosure” ground plane, for up to 1 GHz
the ground plane can contain many small ( 2 mm) apertures without unduly reducing shielding
effectiveness. At all costs, avoid long slots ( 2 cm) in this enclosure ground plane, for this will
begin to further reduce the shielding effectiveness of the enclosure. However, in one instance
semi rigid
1
Shield tab Shield tabs
(upper ground trace connected

to lower gIound trace with
was at 1 to 3mtn intervals.

D o not relv on tabs in shield
to make the connection!)
Figure 5.71 Location o f tilter capacitor tothe enclosure,andconnection of RF signals throughthe

shield into the RF section.
264 Chapter 5
Table 5.15 Magnetic-FieldShieldingEffectiveness of 0.127-m X

0.101-m X 0.01-m Enclosure
0.5-mrn-thick 0.2-mm-thick 0.2-mm-thick 1 oz copper

tin-plated beryllium
tin-plated PCB
f steel
copper steel material
4 kHz 6 4 0 0
14 10 kHz 14 1 0
33 100 kHz 33 25 10
47 1 MHz 47 46 34
10 MHz 54 54 54 52
100 MHz 56 56 56 56
small apertures, added for thermal equalization, around the solder tabs of a coaxial connector
attached to the printed circuit resulted in out-of-band spurs. In this case, a -50-dBm RF signal
at 1.9 GHz was brought into the RF section via an external coaxial connector. When the small
apertures around the connector tabs were filled with copper shim soldered in place, the spurs
reduced to within specification. Some of the manufacturers of this type of shield are: Boldt
Metal Industries A.K. Stamping with laminates made by Flexlan, Orion and Insul-Fab.
When RFcurrent flows at gigahertz frequencies on, typically, semirigid cable, data cables,
or well-shielded enclosures, where the current flow is a problem and additional shielding is not
possible the use of absorber material over the enclosures or cables can be very effective. Giga-
hertz frequency absorber is available in rubber sheets that can be wrapped or glued or held in
place by Velcro tape. As an alternative, potable epoxies may be used to coat assemblies.
5.3.3.6 RadioFrequencyGrounding
Chapter 1 1 discusses PCB grounding in detail. But in general, the main goal in grounding an
RF circuit is to avoid power and signal RF currents generated in the digital section or C/M
currents on signal interfaces from flowing on the RF section power/signal ground plane. Two
options exist: One is to ensure that no currents can flow through the RF ground plane, either
by choosing the locations of the different grounding points or by covering the RF circuit and
ground on both sides with a shield that is terminated either around the periphery to the RF
ground or at one or two points only. A second grounding scheme is to isolate the digital and
RF grounds.Eithersolution will workwhenimplementedwith care, althoughisolating the
grounds is typically more difficult.
The goal in the isolated grounding schemeis to isolate all of the signal and power connec-
tions referenced to the digital ground from the RF ground. Radio frequency signals carried on
coaxial cables must remain isolated from digital return as they exit the board or the equipment.
This grounding scheme will provide DC isolation between the digital ground and the RF ground
and allow the RF ground to be connected to chassis. That RF ground is connected to chassis
somewhere is usually unavoidable. This is often due to the connection of shields of coaxial
cables to chassis orbuilding ground when they interface to the outside world. For example, the
shield of an antenna cable located outside of a building and brought into an equipment rack
should be grounded to the rack at the entry point. This provides a connection for secondary
lightning currents and ensures that RF currents picked up on the antenna cable shield do not
enter the equipment enclosure.
The isolated grounding scheme used in atypicalwirelessPCB is illustrated in Figure
5.72. The power supply must be of the isolating type. If it is a switching-power supply, the
ripple and spikes at the output that will be attenuated by the filters shown in Figure 5.72. RF
Shielded enclosure
Figure 5.72 Grounding scheme with isolation between digital and RF ground.
C/M currents will also flow in the interwinding capacitance of the TX I and Q transformers.
The solution is to add capacitors, as illustrated in Figure 5.72.
If these capacitors cannot be added, onetechnique to reduce coupling is to add a capacitor
between the digital ground at the location of the entry of the I and Q signals into the enclosure,
between the digital ground and the enclosure, which is in turn connected to chassis. This capaci-
tor may be a ceramic having a 3-6-kV voltage rating if a hi-pot test is required. If a hi-pot test
is applicable, then the isolating switching-power supply must also have an adequate voltage
rating between primary to secondary, and this includes primary power returnto secondary power
return, and so must the I and Q transformers. Ensure that opto isolators are located at the shield
and not inside the shielded enclosure as the traces to the LEDs can radiate.
The second grounding scheme must be used if one of the signal or control interfaces that
reference digital ground or a power-supply ground cannot be isolated from the RF ground. In
this case the RF ground is connected to the digital ground, and both will be connected to the
chassis of the equipment and thereby to safety ground.
In this scheme the physical location of this common ground connection is important. In
the equipment under consideration, the digital ground is connected to the equipment chassis
ground and to RF ground at the location where the digital and I and Q signals interface to the
RF section. The result is that RF currents setup by C/M noise voltages andby radiated emissions
tend to flow back to the source via the chassis and not through the RF ground plane. In the
instances where a signal return cannot be connected directly to chassis, isolation or filtering is
required. If a DC connection cannot be made to the equipment chassis ground, then one or more
high-quality capacitors can be used to provide an RF ground.
In the fully isolated grounding scheme, the PCB plane, which is used as part of the enclo-
sure, and the RF ground plane should if possible be separate and should be isolated as far as
possible from each other. In practice, a connection must be made from the enclosure to the
shield of shielded cables that enter the RFsection-in the example, the TX IFO/P and the RX
266 Chapter 5
IF. It would be counterproductive to bring shields into the RF section without a connection to
the enclosure, because any RF currents flowing on the shield, due to electromagnetic coupling
froin the digital section and the switching-power supply, in the equipment and from external
sources such as AM and FM transmitters will reradiate inside the "quiet" shielded RF section.
The reason to isolate the RF ground plane froin the enclosure is that RF currents are set up in
the enclosure by the electromagnetic ambient. 111 a perfect enclosure, these currents would be
confined to the outside surface. However, in a practical enclosure a voltage is set up over the
contact impedance of the seams, and this results in an internal current across the ground plane.
Even in the scheme shown in Figure 5.73, in which the digital and RF grounds are connected
through a balun, the RF ground should be connected to the enclosure at one point only.
In the grounding scheme where RF and digital ground are tied together at one point only,
it is important that the RF ground plane section not be in the path of power return currents from
the digital section back to the power supply via a connector. If the RF ground plane is in the
path between the digital section and a connector used for the power and return, the RF ground
plane should be isolated from this path. An alternative is to ground the RF ground around the
periphery to the all-encompassing shield enclosure, in which case the R F noise currents flow
through the shield back to the source. As mentioned i n the PCB layout section in Chapter 11,
the locations of the various sections of the board and the power and signal connectors play a
vital role in achieving EMC.
Some of the latest RF circuits are differential. One of these devices is the HELA-I0 manu-
factured by Mini-Circuits@ This device has a 50-1000-MHz bandwidth, a gain of 10-13 dB,
an NF of 3.5-4.7 dB and a 26-30 dBm output. To use this device with an unbalanced input
and to provide an unbalanced output, balun transformers with either 50- or 75-R impedances
are used at the device input and output. These baluns are also available from Mini-Circuits and
can be used to provide C/M noise rejection and RF isolation, at least at certain frequencies.
Eq"lpI~r~l1 Shi e 1ded enclosure

CI,ltSSIS
pnlulcl
Figure 5.73 Grounding scheme with RF and digital ground tied together through a balun.
If there is a golden rule to grounding it is to build some flexibility into the grounding
scheme. especially in the breadboard, prototype, or first production models. For example, if a
chassis plane is included in a motherboard or back plane. The PCB should be laid out to allow
a direct connection or disconnection of the chassis plane from any analog/RF/digital ground
and permit connectionof the chassis plane through a low-impedance direct connectionor capaci-
tors to any or all of the remaining grounds at several locations around the board.
5.3.3.7 Filtering
Using either the isolated grounding scheme or the common grounding scheme, every connection
between RF circuits inside the shielded enclosure and external circuits must have some level
of filtering or C/M isolation. In the case where high-frequency signals enter the RF section, a
number of options exist. For balanced transformer-coupled signals, in our example the TX, I,
and Q, the parasitic coupling is almost certainly C/M via the intenvinding capacitance of the
transformer. If a transformer with an internal electrostatic shield is available, this should be
used. Failing that, provision should be made for a low-value capacitor to be placed between
the upper winding of the secondary and the enclosure, and a second capacitor between the lower
winding and the enclosure. These can be removed if found unnecessary or if they interfere with
the transformer coupling or balance.
Digital signals should preferably be connected via optoisolators when the digital and RF
grounds are isolated, and these should be located outside of, but tight up against, the shield.
For return to zero data, a transformer or a differential-input or quasi-differential-input amplifier
may be used.
If digital signals cannot be connected through optoisolators, transfonners, or differential
amplifiers. then they can, in common with other single-ended signals, be routed through a ferrite
balun. The signal return must always be routed through the balun along with the signal/s, and
this almost certainly requires that the digital and RF ground plane be split as shown in Figure
5.74. One technique is to have slots in the PCB either side of the traces. A split balun can then
be placed on either side of the board if this is found to be a requirement. The balun is shown
in Figure 5.75.
In addition to presenting an impedance to C/M RF currents,the balun acts as a receiving
and a transmitting antenna. and the best location is outside the shield, unless some source of
high-level emission exists i n close proximity to the balun, i n which case it should be located
just inside the shield, but still maintaining the split between digital and RF ground, as shown
in Figure 5.74.
Although a signal is designated as an output, C/Mcurrents can flow on the output connec-
tion and reradiate inside the shield or result in RF currents on the ground plane. Therefore,
filtering, isolation, or a balun should also be placed on outputs. I n our example, when digital
Power
- -
Digital Ground Plane RF Ground Plane
Figure 5.74 Connection of groundthrough the balun.

268 Chapter 5
signal and
return
traces
split ferrite balun
Figure 5.75 Split ferrite balun PCB mounting technique.
ground and RF ground are tied together, the RXI and RX2 connections to the primary of the
transformers should be routed through baluns, with the ground planes connected through the
balun as shown in Figure 5.74. A better solution is to connect the shield of the R X I and RX2
to theenclosure, in which case thebalun is not required. If the RX1 and RX2 grounds are
isolated from RF ground, then the transformer will reduce the flow of C/M RF current, with
the addition of an RF (capacitive) chassis ground connection to digital ground, if required.
As described in Section 5.1.10.6, PCB-mounted switching-power supply regulators and
filters can, when properly designed, reduce switching-power supplynoise, which typically exhib-
its 400-mV short-duration spikes and 100-mV ripple, down to approximately 5-mV ripple with
negligible HF component. Where extremelylowripple is required,typicallysatellitecom-
munication, radar simulators, and laser power supplies, small shielded PCB-mount filters have
been designed, built, and tested that reduced ripple down to between 30 and 300 pV. Large-
value D/M SM inductors should be located just outside of the shielded enclosure, followed by
capacitors connected directly to the shielded enclosure, as shown in Figure 5.7 1. A C/M ferrite
should also be located outside of the shielded enclosure over all of the power and return lines.
However, if the C/M ferrite is located close to a high-level noise source, then RF currents will
be induced into the ferrite. In this case, shield the ferrite or move it just inside the shield. The
components inside the enclosure should be the smallerD/M capacitors and the linear regulators.
Withthisconfiguration,theshield is used to minimizeradiatedcouplingbetweentheinput
components of the filter and the output components.
The RX IF input coax should have the coaxial shield tied to chassis as it enters the equip-
ment and then tied to the shielded enclosure, as shown in Figure 5.7 1. A connection must also
be made to the RF ground plane at that location. The RX IF input filter should attenuate a broad
range of noise, including 60 Hz and its harmonics. This is typically achieved at power-line and
switching-power supply frequencies by simply by using a coupling capacitor with a low series
impedance from 400-900 MHz and a high impedance at low frequency. For this to work, the
input filter and amplifier after the coupling capacitor must also maintain a IOW-, ~ 5 0 - Qinput
impedance at low frequency. The TX IF O/P connection must also contain a similar filter.
If the preceding guidelines are followed, then equipment has a very high probability of
achieving the goal of EMC. Some of the additional components may be unnecessary, such as
the baluns; however, if provision is made for them, they can easily be removed. Alternative
techniques for grounding, shielding, isolation, and several combinations of power filtering can
be designed to achieve the same goal, and these can be discussed. The most common problems
usually occur in the practical realization of the design, for this reason the schematic and PCB
should be reviewed prior to commitment to a PCB layout.
5.3.5 Radiated Emission Reduction

Printed circuit board emission is very dependent on the layout and use of ground planes or
transmission line principles. The reduction techniques using PCB layout and circuit design are
discussed in Chapter 1 1. The reduction in radiated emissions from wire and cables is discussed
in Chapter 7 .
5.4 TRANSIENTPROTECTION
Protection circuits and techniques exist for protection against high-level transients caused by a
direct electrostatic discharge (ESD), the electrical fast transient (EFT), lightning strike, or the
electromagnetic pulse (EMP) ambient. Protection may also be required against the lower-level
secondary effects of lightning, EMP, and power-line-conducted transients. AC power may be
protectedas it enters the building or at outlets. Power stripsandpower-line filters may be
purchased with built-in transient protection. A power-line filter with active tracking, designed
for spike andtransientsuppression,withthetrademarkIslatrol is manufacturedbyControl
Concepts. Protection against transients with voltages less than 1 kV, a rise time of 10 ps or
longer, and pulse duration of 1000 pS may be provided on data lines by devices manufactured
by MCG electronics. The data lines that may be protected include modems, RS232, RS422,
RS423, 20-mA loop, telephone, video, and high-speed lines.
Unipolar and bipolar silicon transient voltage suppressors (TVSs) are available in DIP,
surface-mount, radial- or axial-lead, and modular forms. Surface-mount devices are available
rated at 1500 W of peak power and clamping voltages from 9.2 Vto 189 V from Protek devices.
Leaded devices, from General Instrument, can take 5000 W of peak power at 1 ms, can switch
as fast as 1 .O PS, with clamping voltages of from 6.4 V to 122 V. Modular TVSs from Protek
can take up to 15,000 W of peak pulse power dissipation at the l-ms pulsewidth and clamp in
subnanosecond times. California Micro Devices manufactures 17 and18 channel ESD protection
arrays which divert the ESD current pulse to either the positive or negative supply via diodes.
The Sidactor is a transient surge suppressor in a modified TO-220, TO-92, and surface-
mount DO-214AA package, which, according to the manufacturer, has the following features:
bidirectional protection, breakdown voltages from 27 to 720 V, clamping speed of nanoseconds,
and surge current capability up to 500 A. The AVX Transguard@ TVS isavailable in surface-
mount (0603-1210) or pill configurations, with a peak current of 150 A for the 1206 chip. The
metal oxide varistor (MOV) is capable of high peak currents (up to 70,000 A in a disc type,
formerly from Siemens, for a very short duration) but it is slower than a TVS, at less than 15
ns. The lowest clamping voltage is higher than that of the TVS and for the Siemens disk type
covers a range of 36 V to 1815 V, and so it hasthepossible advantage of a much higher
maximum clamping voltage than the TVS. The peak clamping current for a 8/20-ps pulse is
2500 A for the 1100-V MOV, but the continuous current must be limited to achieve the 0.4-
W average power dissipation. The average power must be limited to between 0.01 W and 0.6
W, dependent on the size of the varistor. The Sidactor and TVS and many diodes and zeners
are fast enough to protect against the ESD and EFT test levels; however, the varistor will not
be fast enough unless a filter is used between the source of the fast pulse and the circuit to be
protected by the varistor. Thyristors and triacs have also been used in circuits designed to clamp
transients to a very low level; however, when compared to the TVS, these devices are typically
relatively slow. ABB HAFO manufactures a solid-state transient surge suppressor based on the
thyristor diode structure. It is designed for lightning protection on telephone transmission lines.
The smallestdevices are available in a DIP or SOIC-16 package and are capable of 150-A pulse,
a breakdown voltage of 60-80 V, and a nanosecond response time. ABB also manufactures a
silicon unidirectional transient suppressor consisting of a PNPN thyristor diode integrated with
270 Chapter 5
a fast zener that has a short-circuit failure mode when overloaded. The peak current for a 8/
20-pS pulse is 500 A, the static breakover voltage is 75 V, and the dynamic is 95 V at dV/dr
= 1.5 kV/ps. The on-state voltage is 3 V at 2 A, and the turn-on time is 20 ns, which is ok
for lightning protection but too slow for EFT and ESD protection. A higher-current device from
ABB can take 1000 A for the 8/20-ps pulse, has an on-state voltage of 6 V at 20 A, and has
a breakover voltage of 280 V and a dynamic breakover voltage of 375 V with d V / d t = 1.5
kV/ps.
5.4.1 Lightning
Protection
A direct lightning strike can be modeled as a constant-current source with typical peak current
of 20,000 A. However,approximately 10% of strikes have peak currents of 60,000 A or greater.
If a 200,000-Alightningstrike occurs to a metalaircraft frame, any electronic components
mounted external to the frame can be exposed to magnetic fields as high as 3 18,000 A/m close
to the surface and E fields as high as 250,000 V/m, assuming the strike does not occur directly
to the externally mounted component. The preferred approach in protection is to avert a direct
strike to cables, antennas, equipment, or equipmenthuts. Lightning rods or wires strung between
poles create a so-called Zone of protectiotz beneath the rod or wire that extends in an arc from
the top of the conductor to the ground. This fom1 of protection is described in Section 8.6.1.
When antenna, control, AC or DC power, telephone wires, and other cables cannot be
protected by lightning rods, then primary lightning strike arrestor devices are available, which
are designed to protect the input of equipment. Varistors and gas dischargearrestors are capable
of handling currents up to 60,000 A. At these high currents, the protection is usually one shot,
and the arrestor fails safe (i.e., with a permanent short). This means the arrestor device must
then be replaced. However, the cost of lightning arrestors is relatively low when compared to
the cost of repairing receiving/transmitting equipment. The surge current handling capability
of common protection devices versus the voltage developed across the device during a strike
are shown in Figure 5.76. The striking voltage of a gas discharge arrestor is dependent on the
risetime of the transient.Figure 5.77 illustratesthebreakdownvoltageversusthetransient
gradient for very fast gas gaps with DC breakdown voltages from 75 V to 7500 V. These fast
arrestors are used by Fischer Custom Communications in a number of different products, both
with leads and mounted with coaxial connectors, as described later.
A very low level of current flows in the gas discharge arrestor until the striking voltage
is reached, after which the current increases to the milliamp region and the voltage drops to the
glow voltage. As the current continues to increase, an arc occurs and the voltage drops to the
arc voltage (approximately 20 V). On cessation of the strike, the current through the arrestor
decreases until the arrestor extinguishes, assuming the supply current is less than the arc current
andthesupplyvoltage is less than the glowvoltage. When used on an AC supply, the gas
discharge device may not extinguish until the AC voltage waveform changes phase. On a DC
supply, the arrestor may not extinguish until the supply is disconnected or the short causes a
contactor, cutout, or fuse to open. One solution to the problem of not extinguishing on a 20-
40-V supply is to place two arrestors in series across the supply. The disadvantage hereis that
the voltage spike generated across the arrestors, until the striking voltage is reached, and the
arc voltage will be twice as high as for a single arrestor.
A new range of gas discharge arrestors designed for the much faster rise time of an EMF'
pulse may be used for lightningprotection, with a resultantshorterstrikingtimeandstrike
voltage. Many lightning protection devices are manufactured specifically for use with coaxial
or twisted-pair cables and in a bulkhead panel for mounting at entry points into buildings. The
coaxial type will typically have a specified characteristic impedance, such as 50 Q or 75 Q
Immunity
Components,
Noise
Emission
Reduction,
and 271
I
e
Figure 5.76 Surge current handling capabilities versus the voltage protection levels available. (Repro-
duced courtesy of Siemens Ltd.)
over the frequency range of interest. Two basic types exist. Fischer Custom Communication
manufactures a range of “Spikeguard” nanosecond transient protection designedfor lightning
and EMP. They exhibit fast response through the UHF region andare constructed from transmis-
sion-line, gaseous discharge components and silicon components.
The Spikeguard Lightning arrestors are available in metalenclosures designed for insertion
in antenna, control, or telephone cables. The enclosures have attached grounding lugs and are
designed for mounting on an antenna mast or ground rod. Typical VSWR characteristics for
the Spikeguard and type N, UHF, and C coaxialconnectors are: 100 MHz 1.2:1,200 MHz 1.4:
1, 300 MHz, 1.6:1, and 400 MHz 1.8:l.
272 Chapter 5
TRANSIENT VOLTAGE BREAKDOWN

CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS GAPS
7500
10,ooo
1,000
.001 KVlNS .01 KVlNS .1 KVINS 1 KVINS
TRANSIENT GRADIENT
Figure 5.77 Striking voltage versus risetime for gas discharge arrestors with DC breakdowns of from
75V to 7500V. Reproduced by kind permission of Fisher Custom Communications Inc.
The FCC-350 series is rated at 20 kA peak for a 10-pS duration and with breakdown
voltages from 90 V to 20 kV. For DC breakdown voltage of 1 kV or higher, the overshoot
voltages of transients having a risetime of 1 kV/ns is minimal, since the breakdown voltage is
achieved in approximately 2 ns. The insertion loss to RF is approximately 0.2 dB. The FCC
450 series Spikeguards have been designed to provide transient protection for receivers and
transmitters up to 100 W of output power and are capable of clamping in a few nanoseconds
and dissipating 15 kW of power for transients having a pulse width of 10 ps and 1.5 kW for
I-ms transients. Other versions of the Spikeguard are available to protect HF transmitters to 1
kW and 2 kW. The FCC-550-10-BNC hybrid suppressors are designed for transient protection
of signal and control circuits that are digital or analog with operating voltages of 6 V or less.
Transients will be clamped to between 10 V and 20 V for the duration of transients with rise
times of the order of 100 k V / p and 1 MV/ps. Series impedance is 18 Q, with a shunt impedance
equal to or greater than 5 MQ in parallel with no more than 10 pF of capacitance. These units
come with BNC connectors.
Other versions of the FCC-550 suppressor wire connections are designed for I -V control,
analog, and digital signals and will limit the transient to 8.5 V for the duration of transients
that are several thousand volts. On these suppressors, the series impedance is 80 Q. The shunt
impedance is several kilo-ohms in parallel with no more than 500 pF, except during transient
suppression, when the impedance approaches zero ohms. The 550 series may be specified with
clamping voltages between 8.5 V and 200 V.
Fischer also has Spikeguards designed for 60-400-Hz AC power-line protection.
Arrestors and transient filters made by the Polyphaser Corporation, and referred to as
“protectors,” are available for use in receiving or transmitting antenna cables and antenna con-
trol cables as well as in protection of twisted-pair, combiner, and AC power. The protectors are
selected for use over a specific frequency range, e.g., for baseband (DC: 50 MHz), HF/VHF/
UHF 50-550-MHz, 450-900-MHz and other much narrower frequency band protectors, such
as 800 MHz to 980 MHz for cellular/paging combiner protection. The 800-MHz and up, DC-
blocked, non-gas-tube type are referred to as rnicr.owav~j1ter.s. Polyphaser also manufactures:
telephone semiconductor protectors, motor control, GPS, and PCS tower-top preamp protectors
for 1.2-2-GHz, DC injection/DC path protectors, IBM twinax series protectors, and a range of
GPS/PCS/cellular/pager/microwave protectors. The protectors either block DC or allow DC
through,and come i n weather-resistant, for outdoor mounting,andnonweather-resistant, for
indoormounting,versionsandare for eithertransmit and/or receive-onlyapplications. One
Polyphaser high-power coaxial protector has a DC to 220-MHz frequency range and a 25-kW
transmit power rating.
A Polyphaser protector designedfor wireless local loop protection is the LSX series shown
in Figure 5.78. The LSX series provides surge protection for a 20-kA waveform with a 8-ps
rise time and a 20-pS pulsewidth (W20 p ) at the 50% amplitude level. The throughput energy
with a 3-kA @ 8/20 ps waveform is less than or equal to 0.5 pJ and the let-through voltage is
?3 V for a 3-kA @ 8/20 ps waveform. The frequency range is 4.2-6 GHz with an insertion
loss of 0.1 dB typical, and the transmit power rating is 10 W continuous. The protector includes
DC blocking and has a temperature range of -40°C to +85"C.
Another one of the many available Polyphaser protectors of this type is the PSX-D series,
which provides surge protection against a 30-kA waveform with an 8-ps rise time and a 20-ps
pulsewidth (W20 ps) at the 50% amplitude level. The throughput energy with a 3-kA @ 8/20
ps waveform is less than or equal to 0.5 pJ, and the let-through voltage is 2 3 V for a 3-kA @
8/20 ps waveform. The frequency range is 1.7-2.3 GHz, with an insertion loss of 0.1 dB typical,
and the transmit power rating is 500 W continuous. The protector includes DC blocking and
has a temperature range of -40°C to +85"C. Polyphaser also manufactures a range of grounding
and cablegrounding systems and cable entrance panels, as well as providing courses and publica-
tions covering lighting protection and grounding solutions for communications sites.
Epcos (Siemens) also makes a range of gas dischargetubes in addition to MOVs for
lighting protection. C. P. Clare manufactures mini- to small gas discharge surge arrestors, and
data and application notes can be found at ,v,ow.c~~clar.e.cotn.
The advantage of gas discharge arrestors is the low self-capacitance, which allows their
use at such high frequencies. Due to the shunting effect of lightning arrestors, it is imperative
that a low-impedance ground connection be made to the case of the arrestor. For example, a
16-mm-diameter rod will develop, due to its self-inductance of 1.22 pH/m, 12 kV/m length
during an average strike with a 2-ps rising edge and a peak current of 20,000 A. Despite a low-
impedance ground, it is inevitable that some current will flow on the shields of cables connected
to a lightning arrestor or on cables connected to an antenna protected by a lightning rod, due
to potential gradients along the ground.
Case Study 8.3 describes a grounding scheme that reduces cable-induced currents during
a lightning strike. A large ferrite core through which one to four turns of the interconnection
cable/s arewrapped will increase the impedance of the cables and thereby reduce the magnitude
of the cable current flow. Where possible, the core should be located close to the equipment to
be protected, but certainly after the lightning arrestor, where used.
The voltage spike generated before the arrestor breaks down and clamps the voltage may
damage transmitters, receivers, and telephone equipment. Semiconductor devices or varistors
may be used to clamp the spike from the gas discharge arrestor or the voltage induced as a
secondary effect of a strike to safe levels.
Some combinations of primary arrestor and secondary transient protection devices are
shown in Figure 5.79. When secondary protection devices, such as zener diodes, diodes, and
transient absorber zener diodes, are mounted on PCB, the ground path on the PCB back to the
enclosure should be a low impedance and must be capableof carrying the high transient current.
274 Chapter 5
Figure 5.78 Arrestor manufactured by the Polyphaser Corporation.
The location of the protection device in the circuit is very important. When thedevice is placed
after capacitors and inductors, the voltage developed across the device may be higher than the
impressed transient and in formthe of a damped sinusoid. The voltage developedacross transient
protection zeners, when tested using a generator capable of producingthe MIL-STD-461 CS06-
specified spike, can exhibit forward voltage drops two or three times higher than specified for
the device, even when the current through the device is below the maximum rated.
The disadvantage in the use of both semiconductors and varistors at the input of high-
frequency receivers or interface circuits is their high intrinsic capacitance. This capacitance is
in parallel withthe input and maydegrade the signal. When the use of these devices is precluded,
IN
8 8 OUT
IN
Q rf) OUT
IN
DC Power
28-4ov
Signal
IN OUT
Return
Ground
IN
Figure 5.79 Combination of primary and secondary protection devices.

276 Chapter 5
due to the high capacitance, the alternative is the use of a low-value blocking capacitor. Gener-
ally the receiver input impedance is 50-75 Q, to which the antenna is connected via a shielded
cable with a characteristic impedance of SO-75 Q. With a capacitor rated at 1000 V or greater
in series with the input to the receiver,the RF signal is virtuallyunattenuated,whereasthe
transient is considerably reduced in amplitude. As an example, consider a receiver operating at
40 MHz or greater with a 5 0 4 input impedance. With a 1000-pF series capacitor, the voltage
developed across the receiver input during the typical 2-ps rise time of the strike, and assuming
a 1000-V spike, is reduced to 25 V. For additional protection, two low-capacitance diodes may
be placed after the capacitor, with one diode connectedbetween input and return and the second
between input and supply. The advantage of the capacitor solution compared to a parallel protec-
tion device is that no high currents are shunted to ground. However, cables and PCB tracks
must be capable of sustaining voltages of 1000 V or greater. With the diodes incorporated,
higher currents flow, but the magnitude is limited by the time constant of the capacitor-and-
diode combination.
The RTCA/DO-I60D requirements for airborne equipment contains, in section 23, tests
for direct lightning effects and in section 22 lightning-induced transient susceptibility. The tests
in section 22 are designed to simulatethecurrentandvoltagesinduced in cables contained
within aircraft or helicopters. Different test levels apply to cables that are protected by airframes
composed of metal and composite skin panels and equipment in carbon fibercomposite airframes
whosemajor surface areas have beenprotectedwith metal meshes or foil. For thistype of
aircraft, the apertures are the main source of induced transients. In other aircraft (i.e., carbon
fiber composite), the structural resistance of the airframe is also a significant source of induced
transients. DO-160D describes both direct pin injection tests and induced cable bundle tests.
Five different test levels are applicable to the pin injection tests and five different levels for the
cable bundletests. Both pulseand damped sinusoid test waveforms are specified. All pulse
waveforms have a double exponential shape. Current waveform 1 is a waveform with a rise
time to peak current of 6.4 ps and a fall time, to SO% amplitude, in 69 ps. Voltage waveform
2 has a rise time of maximum 100 ns and a fall time, to 50% amplitude, of 6.4 ps. Voltage/
current waveform 3 is a damped sinusoid. Voltage waveform 4 has a rise time of 6.4 ps and a
fall time, to 50% amplitude, in 69 ps. Current/voltage waveform Sa has a risetime of 40 ps
and Sb SO PS, and waveform 5a has a fall time, to 50% amplitude, of 120 ps and 5b SO0 ps.
The voltage waveforms are specified as open circuit and the current into a short circuit. The
voltage and current at other loads can be calculated.
Table 5.16 shows the level 1 and level 5 voltage/current test levels for pin injection and
Table 5.17 for the cable bundle injection.
In numerous measurements and analysis, the currents and voltages induced in shielded
cables based on thecable-induced test levels can berelatively high. For example, with waveform
1 (6.4 pd7O-p~pulse) at test level 4, the test level is 750 V open circuit and 1500 A short
circuit. In tests on a 9-m-long RG108A/U,twisted-shielded-pair cable, the internal (center con-
ductor) open-circuit voltage at the load end of the cable was 264 V and the short-circuit current
Table 5.16 Lowest and Highest Pin Injection TestLevels

Waveforms
Waveform 3: Waveform 4: Waveform 5A:

dampcd sinusoid 6.4 p 1 6 9 v s 40 psI120 ps
Level v,,,
l[>, v,,,
/l,< v,,,
/I>,
1 10014 501 I O 50150
5 3200/ 128 16001320 160011600
Table 5.17 Lowest and Highest Cable Bundlc Injection Test Levels
Waveform
Waveform 1 : Waveform 2: Waveform 3: Waveform 4: Waveform 5A:

6.4 p i 6 9 FS 100 ns16.4 damped 6.4 ps169 p 40 p1120 ps
Level VI111 ps V,/II sinusoid Vl111 ViJlr
1 501100 501 100 100120 501 100 501150
5 160013200 1600/3200 32001640 160013200 1600/5000
825 A. The current is CIM, and if a number of circuits are connected to the conductors in the
cable bundle, the current will divide between the circuits, with a magnitude dependent on the
impedance of each circuit to chassis or safety ground. Traditional miniature secondary transient
suppressors will either not carry the test current, or the voltage will rise across them to levels
approaching the 264-V level. Some series impedance is necessary on each line before the tran-
sient suppressor. The minimum value for this series impedance depends on the test level, how
the current is shared between the circuits, and the peak current-handling capabilities of the
suppressor. The most common series impedance would be the resistor, although high-value C/
M inductors are also useful, and for pulse and audio circuits, an isolating transformer will present
a high C/M impedance. If a transformer is used, standard silicon or Schottky diodes may provide
sufficient protection due to the low transient current coupled, primarily through the interwinding
capacitance, of the transformer.
The level of voltage protection required depends on the maximum rating of the circuit to
be protected. In some instances, Schottky diodes are used to limit the voltage to safe levels.
The protection shown in Figures 5.80, 5.81, and 5.82 is primarily designed to protect the circuit,
and some disruption of data is to be expected during application of the lighting test level. Trans-
former coupling is the best technique if data integrity is important; however, this can only be
used on “return to zero” type of data communications.
5.4.2 Electrostatic Protection

It is a myth to assume that once an integrated circuit is mounted on a PCB, it is immune to an
electrostatic discharge even when the IC input connections are not brought out to a connector.
There is no better approach to protection than to avoid an ESD event by correct procedures,
such as the use of a ground strap, antistatic bags, grounded mats, and deionizers. Integrated
circuits mounted on PCBs where the input pins are brought out to an edge connector are just
as sensitive to ESD as non-board-mounted ICs. Additional protection for CMOS logic and FET
input op amps is relatively easy to achieve by inclusion of series resistance between the input
and the device and either resistance or diodeslzener diodes between the input and ground.
Some of the devices that have been designed to protect against the fast rise time and high
energy of EMP will ensure that effective protection against the lower-energy ESD event is
achieved. The ESD pulse rise time is typically 15 ns, although the IEC 1000-4-2-specified ESD
generator must provide a current spike into a low impedance with a risetime of 0.7-1 nS and
a pulsewidth of 30-60 nS, and the turn-on time of the majority of EMP devices is 1-2.5 ns. Zener
diodes, multilayer varistors, and diode surge arrestors are available with breakdown voltages as
low as 6 V and as high as 440 V, with response times from picoseconds to nanoseconds. Connec-
tors are also available with built-in ESD transient suppressors. A new suppressor array manufac-
tured by Pulse-Guard@ is designed to provide protection from direct pin injection ESD threats.
The Pulse-Guard is a substrate that pushes on the front or rear of standard D-Sub and MIL-C-
24308 I/O connectors.
278 Chapter 5
Supply
1 .=
DL58 17
4 Te IOuF I
Schottky
-
560 011111
I
I
0
I RS232
-
m232 1
Input
Receiver
c shielded
-
10 Ohn1
r
RS232 1 .SKE12C'A RS232
Thmnitter Zl Bi Output
Transorb shielded
0 cable
Figure 5.80 Secondary lightning protcction of a single-ended (RS232 typc) signal interface.
The European EMC requirements contained in EN50082- 1 includes an 8-kV air discharge,
and i n EN50082-2 a 4-kV contact and an 8-kV air discharge, ESDtest. IEC 1000-4-2 describes
the ESD generator, which has a 150 pF charged up to the test voltage and which is discharged,
as a single event, through a 3 3 0 4 resistor. In an air discharge, the probe tip is brought close
to the EUT as quickly as possible without causing physical damage, and the resistance of the
discharge path is the 3 3 0 4 resistor plus the resistance of the resultant plasma. The IEC 1000-
4-2 test procedure has the EUT mounted on a conductive tabletop, described as a horizontal
coupling plane (HCP) underthe EUT. The nonconductive table is located above a ground plane
(reference plane). The EUT is insulated from the HCP by a 0.5-mm-thick insulator. The EUT
is located 0.1 m from a vertical coupling plane (VCP), which is also insulted from the HCP.
The HCP is connected to the reference plane by a cable, with a 470-kQ resistor located at each
end, to prevent a buildup of charge. The VCP is also connected separately with an identical
-L >= 10uF
Schottky
zx zx 5
-
MBR120P
or DL58 17
560 Ohm
Differential
Differential 560 Ohm Shielded

Receiver
zz zz Schottky Cable
MBR I20P
or DL5817
Figure 5.81 Secondary lightning protection of differential input data circuit where the C/M input voltage
must be limited to close to the supply voltage and to ground.
cable. The discharge return cable of the ESD generator shall be connected to the reference plane
(ground plane under the table) at a point close to the EUT. Figure 9.31 shows this test set-up.
During an air or direct-contact-ESD discharge to the HCP or VCP, the resultant current generates
an E field that couples to the EUT. If the EUT enclosure is completely insulating with no exposed
metal, e.g., fasteners, in either a direct or air discharge to the EUT, the charge is equalized around
the nonconductive enclosure, but no noticeable discharge current is detected. In discharges to
a metal enclosure, a rapid charging current flow, and in the air discharge a plasma, is seen at
the probe tip. The most common problem occurs with discharges close to apertures in a metal
1SKE36A L:r5
-
-
To " secondary
Load Supply
r Shielded
-$i
1.5KE36A
1.5KE36A
Transorb
Transorb
Chassis m
Figure 5.82 Protection of secondary power (power provided by one equipment to another equipment).
280 Chapter 5
enclosure filled with nonconductive material/components, for example, LCD displays, LEDs,
touch buttons, keyboards. The field generated by the discharge can couple insideto PCB compo-
nents through the aperture. Discharges to metal fasteners used to mount nonconductive compo-
nents may also result in a susceptibility problem. Likewise, discharges to the pins of a connector
or eventhe case of the connector, when it is isolated from the enclosure, are alsoproblem areas.
The current flow is predominantly C/M, causedeither by the discharge orby the E field resulting
from the discharge. Capacitors across the input pins of digital or analog devices can be very
effective at increasing immunity, even when a relatively low level. If the capacitor is located
between the PCB and chassis, then it needs to bearelativelyhighvalue to be effective at
reducing the induced voltage. For although the 3 3 0 4 resistor in the generator slows down the
charging time for the capacitor, the peak instantaneous charging current is very high and the
voltage may be high. For example, in a 4-kV direct discharge, a 10 pF will charge to 3750 V,
a 100 pF to 2400 V, a 1000 pF to 520 V, an 0.01 pF to 59 V, and a 0.1 pF to 5.9 V.
If the capacitor is not connected between the PCB ground and chassis but is used between
the input/output pins of a device, the D/M voltage developed due to C/M current flow or the
incident E field can be drastically reduced. As with increasing immunity to RF, the capacitor/s
should be located asclose as possible to the junction/s to be protected. Another use for a capaci-
tor is to slow down the voltage appearing across a slow-acting transient protection device and
to give it a chance to clamp the voltage.
One devicedesigned to protect in input circuits of receivers or the output circuits of
transmitters from antenna-coupled ESD events is the AntennaGuardTM manufacturedby AVX.
These antenna protector chips have capacitance values less than or equal to 12 pF in the 0603
chip size and less than or equal to 3 pF in the 0402 chip size. Antenna protector chips are
especially useful in the ESD protection and EM1 filtering for high-gain FETs typically used in
wireless products. The AntennaGuard may also be used with an inductor to make a low-pass
filter. The varistor in the AntennaGuard can turn on in 300 PS to 700 PS and provide typical
transient suppression of 15-kV air discharge ESD events, reducing the level to survival levels
for most FET input preamplifiers.
5.4.3 Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Protection
The primary effect of EMP in shielded cables located outside of buildings, ships, and vehicles
is a high current flow in the shields of cables and a high voltage developed across the inputs
of devices connected to these cables. One form of protection is the use of cable shield ground
adapters that shunt the high current to ground, for example, as the cable enters the metal wall
of the building. The signal or power carried by the shielded cables may then be protected by
gas discharge arrestors with fast response times of approximately 1 ns. Secondary protection
on low-frequency signal lines and power may be achieved by fast-response semiconductor de-
vices similar to those used for lightning protection. The Polyphaser Corporation provides an
EMP or lightning protection device for DC remote/telephone line and Tone remote/dedicated
line protection. RelianceComm/Tec manufactures a buildingentrance terminal that incorporates
EMPAightning protection for 6, 12, or 25 pair tip and ring circuits.
The protection of high-frequencyreceivers,transmitters, and preamps against EMP is
more difficult than for lightning protection, due to the fast rise time of the EMP event. One
method is the use of protection tees made up of a shorted quarter-wave section in parallel with
the input. The shorted quarter-wave section provides a low impedance to ground at frequencies
other than the signal for which the tee is designed. Figure 5.83 shows the schematic of the tee,
combined with a decoupling line, and the construction of a 900-MHz tee. The decoupling line
is a concentric coaxial line in series with the signal of length equal to a quarter-wave at the
signal frequency and may be used without the shorted quarter-wave section for protection. The
frequency limits of the tee and decoupling line are 25 MHz to 18 GHz.
Grounding tee
Equipment side Antenna stde
Shielded area Disturbed area
,
Figure 5.83 Tee and decoupling line schematic and construction. (Reproduced with kind permission
from Lcs Cables de Lyon Alcatel.)
The current induced by an EMP event on internal cables, which are shielded by the skin
of a vehicle, ship, aircraft, or building, has been characterized in MIL-STD-461C as a damped
sinusoidwith a frequency component extendingfrom10 kHzto 100 MHz.The maximum
common-mode current flow is 10 A, which is injecteddirectly into pinsandterminals(test
CSl0) orinto cables (test CS 1 1). Protection against CS10 and CS1 1 test levels may be achieved
by filters and/or the semiconductor transient suppressors described for secondary lightning pro-
tection.
ADDRESSES OF MANUFACTURERS MENTIONED IN THIS CHAPTER

ABB HAFO (thyristoddiode) CORCOM
P.O. Box 520 844 E Rockland Rd.
S-l75 26 Jarfalla Libertyville, IL 60048
Sweden (847) 680-7400
AVX Erie Technological Products Inc.
P.O. Box 867 2200 Lake Park Avenue
Myrtle Beach, SC 29578 Smyrna, GA 30080
(843) 448-941 l
Fair-Ritc Products Corp.
CAL Corporation (now EMS) P.O. Box J
1725 Woodward Drive One Commercial Row
Ottawa K2C 0P9 Wallkill, NY 12589-0288
Canada 888 FAIR-RITE/(914) 895-2055
California Micro Devices Fischer Custom Communications
2 15 Topaz Street 2917 W. Lomita Boulevard
Milpitas, California 95035 Torrance, CA 90505
(408) 263-3214 (310) 891-0635
282 Chapter 5
Les Cables de Lyon (now Alcatel) Pulse-Guard

Department Haute Frequence et Electronique G&H Technology Inc.
35 Rue Jean Jaures 750 W. Ventura Blvd.
B.P. 20-95871 Camarillo, CA 93010
Bezons Cedex (805) 389-5760
France
Reliance CommlTec (USA)
MCG Electronics Inc. (USA) 11333 Addison Street
12 Burt Drive Franklin Park, IL 6013 1
Deer Park, NY 1 1792 (312) 455-8010
(516) 586-5125
Siemens (Epcos)
Micrometals 186 Wood Avenue So.
5615 E. La Palma Avenue Isclin, NJ 08830
Anaheim, CA 92807-2109 (732) 906-4300
(714) 970-9400
Steward Manufacturing Co.
Polyphaser Corporation (USA) P.O. Box 510
2225 Park Place Chattanooga, TN 37401 -05 I O
P.O. Box 9000 (423) 867-4100
Minden, NV 89423
(775) 782-25 11 Tecor Electronics Inc. (Sidactor)
1801 Hurd Drive
Protek Ewing, TX 75038-4385
P.O. Box 3 129 (214) 580-1515
Tempe, AZ 85282-3 129
(602) 431-8101
REFERENCES
I. R. K. Keenan. Digital Design for Interference Specifications. The Keenan Corporation, Vienna, VA,
1983.
2. E. Kann. Design Guide for Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Reduction in Power Supplies, MIL-
HDBK-241B. Power Electronics Branch, Naval Electronic Systems Command, Department of De-
fense, Washington, DC, 1983.
3. H. M. Schlicke. Electromagnetic Compossibility. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1982.
4. R. B. Cowdell. Don’t experiment with ferrite beads. Electronic Design, Issue 12. June 7, 1969.
5. Schematics of high immunity interface circuits, PLR2, PLD2, HD-I, HR-l, HAD-l, and HAR-l.
Reproduced by kind permission of CAL Corporation.
6. D. J. Kennedy RF upset susceptibilities of CMOS and low power Schottky D-type, flip flops. IEEE
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility. May 23-25, 1989, Denver, CO.
l. T. F. Fang and J. J. Whalen. Application of the Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program (NCAP) to
predict RFI effects in linear bipolar integrated circuits. Proc. 3rd Symp. Tech. Exhibition on Electro-
mag. Compat. Rotterdam, May 1-3, 1979.
8. D. S. Britt, D. M.Hockanson, Fei Sha, J. L. Drewniak, T. H. Hubing and T. P. Van Doren. Effects
of gapped groundplanes and guard traces on radiated EMI. IEEE International Symposium on Elec-
tromagnetic Compatibility. August 18-22, 1997, Austin, Texas.
9. F. B. J. Lcferink, M. J. C. M. van Doorn. Inductance of printed circuit board ground plates. IEEE
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility. August 9-13, 1993, Dallas, Texas.
IO. L. 0. Johansson. EMC Fundamentals PASSIVE and their EMC Characteristics. Compliance Engi-
neering, July/August 1998.
11. H. G. Ghadarnabadi, J. J. Whalen. Parasitic capacitance can cause demodulation RFI to differ for
inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier circuits.
EIect romagnet ic Shielding
6.1 REFLECTION, ABSORPTION, AND SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS

6.1.1 Reflection in a Perfect Conductor
When an electroinagnetic wave impinges on a sheet of mctal, the electric field component in-
duces a current flow in the sheet. Sonic electromagnetic theory of shielding states that the current
flow has a current density of 2H,, or 2E,,/Z,,.whereas other electromagnetic theories state that
the current is equal to H,,. Figure 6.1 shows the incident electromagnetic wave and the induced
current, from which it can be seen that the magnetic intensity produced by the induced current
is such as to annihilate the magnetic intensity behind the sheet and to double the intensity in
front of the sheet, assuming a perfectly conducting sheet. A standing wave is generated in front
of the sheet, and this can be seen in Figure 6. I.
No metal is a perfect conductor (i.e.. exhibits zero impedance) and thus complete reflection
of an electromagnetic wave is not possiblc.
6.1.2 Transmission-Line Theory Applied to Shielding

Although wave theory may be used to predict the levcl of shielding obtained by a conductive
sheet ( I ) , the concept of wave impedance introduced by Schelkunoff in 1938, and the application
of transmission-line theory to shielding, results in a considerably simpler solution. Using trans-
mission-line theory, the reflection is explained by the impedance difference between the incident
wave and the metal impedance.
Figure 6.2 illustrates the incident field with impedance Z,, impinging on the near side of
the metal shield, which exhibits a metal impedance Z,,, or a barrier inipedance Z,,, as described
in following sections. When the wave impedance is higher than the metal impedance, some of
the incident field is reflected from the near side of the shield, due to the impedance mismatch.
As the remaining wave propagates through the shield, it is attenuated. A fraction of the field
incident on the far side of the interior of the shield is rereflected, due to the metal- to air-
impedance mismatch. The remaining field propagates from the far side of the shield into space.
A second rereflection of the internal field occurs at the near-side metal-to-air interface, and soine
small fraction of the return trip field leaves the far side of the shield. This small fraction is
insignificant when the absorption through the shield is greater than numeric 5 . The re-rereflected
field as it leaves the metal is considered to be i n phase with, and therefore adds to, the tield
that has propagated through the metal.
As discussed in Ref. 2, some authors state that the wave from the shield on the far side
of the incident wave is either 377 R or the same impedance as the incident field. Other authors
state that there is no reflection coefficient at the far side of the shield: the impedance of the
wave is the same as the impedance of the barrier, and the wave inipedance approaches 377 R
only at a distance of h/27t in meters from the shield. I n the measurements on aluininized mylar,
283
284 Chapter 6
H E
H
E
PLANE WAVE
RESULTANT WAVE
\\ Hr=Ho
Figure 6.1 Plane wave incidenton a perfect conductor.
barrier
"
---A
l'
l'
-"_
Figure 6.2 Transmission losses at R conductive sheet.

Electromagnetic Shielding 285
discussed later, the results indicated that the current in the barrier material was consistent with
the value of the H field and that the impedance of the wave emanating from the barrier was
the same as the impedance of the barrier, or, in the case of the aluminized mylar, 2 R.
6.1.3 Metal Impedance, Skin Depth, Barrier Impedance

The impedance of a metal is made up of resistance and inductance and is a function of its
conductivity, permeability, thickness, and the frequency of the current flow in it. The impedance
of a metal when its thickness is much greater than the skin depth is given by
Z,,, = 369
where
p, = permeability relative to copper
G, = conductivity relative to copper
,f = frequency in megahertz
We use the term Wsq to describe surface impedance or resistance. The question is often
asked, per square what? Is it inches, centimeters, meters? The equation for the resistance of a
conductor is
where
l = length of the conductor
p = resistivity
1.1' = width of thc conductor
t = thickness of the conductor
From Eq. (6.2) we see that, for a constant thickness and assuming l = W , the resistance
is constant, regardless of the magnitude of I and of W . Thus \v and l may be 1 nun or 1 m and
the resistance is the same. When the R/sq term is used to describe surface resistance, the thick-
ness should be specified. When used to describe surface impedance and when the thickness is
much greater than the skin depth at all frequencies of interest, the thickness of the conductor
may be omitted, for as the frequency of current in a conductor increases, the current density
does not remain constant throughout the depth of the metal but is greater at the surface. The
skin depth of a metal is defined as the surfacedepth at a specific frequency at which 63.2% of the
current flows. Equation (6.3) shows that the skin depth for any metal decreases with increasing
frequency, and is lower for metals with high conductivity and permeability:
(6.3)
where
p = permeability of the metal = p,,p,
G = conductivity in mhodmeter
.f = frequency in hertz
286 Chapter 6
For copper, where p r = G, = 1,
wheref = frequency in megahertz. For any metal,
where f = frequency in megahertz. Table 6.1 shows the skin depth of some of the common
metals at several frequencies.
Due to the skin depth effect, the barrier impedance of the metal instead of the metal
impedance may be required in the evaluation of shielding effectiveness. The barrier impedance
of a metal is a function of the ratio of metal thickness to skin depth, in addition to the frequency
dependency of the impedance. The barrier impedance of any metal is given by
wheref = frequency in megahertz and t and 6 are in the same units.

When t/6 << l ,
1.414
z/,
= ___ [I.IQ/sqI
0.058G,t
where
t = thickness [mm]
G, = relative conductivity [mhos/m]
Because no metal is a perfect conductor, the current flow in the metal sheet shown in
Figure 6.1 is not confined to its surface but extends into the thickness of the metal. The imped-
ance of a pure conductor is generally lower than that of the incident wave, with the possible
exception of a current loop in very close proximity to a shield.
6.1.4 Reflection in Practical Conductors

From the explanation of reflection in Section 6.1.1 it may appear that for magnetic fields, where
the electric field component is less than that of the magnetic, the reflection will be less complete
than for an electric field, and this is supported by transmission-line theory. The impedance of
a field changes with distance and frequency, and the metal impedance of the reflecting sheet is
a function of frequency, permeability, and conductivity, as shown in Eq. (6.1). The equation
for the reflection loss in decibels in an electric field when the metal thickness t >> 6 is given
by
where
f = frequency [Hz]
rl = distance from an electric field source [cm]
!
(D
2
a
2
(P
3
0
z
$! !
E
2
Table 6.1 Skin Depth for Some Common Conductors 3
(P
Skin depth with frequency (mm)

Relative Relative
Conductivity conductivity permeability 100 MHz 1 GHz
Conductor [X 10- mhos/m] (G,) (I.&*) 1 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz [ X 10 7 [X 10 '1
A I u m in u m 3.54 0.6 1 2.7 0.085 0.027 8.5 2.7
Copper 5.8 1 1 2.0 0.066 0.02 6.6 2.0
Gold 4.5 0.7 1 2.5 0.079 0.025 7.9 2.5
Tin 0.87 0.15 1 5.4 0.170 0.054 17 5.4
Nickel 1.3 0.23 100 0.43 0.014 0.0045 1.4 0.44
4% silicon iron 0.16 0.029 500 0.55 0.017 0.0055 1.7 0.55
Hot rolled silicon steel 0.22 0.038 1500 0.27 0.0087 0.0027 0.87 0.27
Mumetal 0.16 0.029 20.000 0.087 0.0027 0.00087 0.27 0.087
~~
* At10 kHz and B = 0.002 wcber/m'.

Expressions in square brackets represent the exponent portion of the number c.g 3.54 X 10- mhos/m o r 3.54 X I 0 ' mhodcm.
288 Chapter 6
The equation for the reflection loss in a magnetic field is given by
where
R,,, = 20 log __
[O? G+ - 0.053rl
c 1
G,J' + 0.354 [dB] (6.7)
.f = frequency [Hz]
r, = distance from source [cm]
The equation for the reflection of a plane wave is given by
R,, = 168.2 + 10 log

L4
L [dB]
When the source of emission is neither a low-impedance current loop nor a high-imped-
ance voltage source but a source that exhibits a characteristic impedance, Z, (e.g., a transmission
line), we can use the circuit impedance to calculate the reflection in the near field. The equation
for reflection loss using circuit impedance is given by
where ,f = frequency, in hertz.
6.1.5 Absorption
The variation i n current density through a thick metal sheet is shown in Figure 6.3. The radiation
from the far surface into space is proportional to the current flow on that surface. Therefore,
due to the reduction in current flow, an absorption of the incident wave effectively occurs in
Figure 6.3 Variallon in current dcnsity through a thick metal sheet. (From Ref. 2.)
the metal. The equation for absorption is independent of wave impedance, proportional to thick-
ness, and inversely proportional to skin depth and is given by
A = (3.338 X 1 0 - 3 ) t d x (6.10)
where
A = absorption loss [dB]
t = thickness of shield [mils] (1 mil = 1/1000" = 0.0254 mm)
.f' = frequency [Hz]
6.1.6 Rereflection Correction

When the absorption loss in the thickness of the metal is not much greater than 5, the rereflection
within the metal is appreciable and the rereflection gain should be included in the total shielding
effectiveness equation. Often the term rerejlection loss or correctiorl,fnctoI'* is used to describe
the effect of rereflections, but, since this is always a negative number, it subtracts from the total
shielding effectiveness and is effectively a gain.
Re-reflection loss, which is always negative, is given as a magnitude in decibels:
(6.1 1 )
where
Z,,, = metal impedance
A = absorption loss [dB]
2nr h
Z,, = 377 - when I' < - for a magnetic field
h 27c
h h
Z,, = 377 - when I' < .~ for an electric field
27cI' 27c
Z,, = 377 Q for a plane wave
I' = distance from source [m]
The rereflection loss is a function of the ratio between the wave impedance Z,, and the
metal impedance Z,,, and of the absorption loss. For thin metals, where the thickness is less than
the skin depth, Z,, should be used instead of Z,,,. When Z,, is much greater than Z,,, or Z,,, the
rereflection loss becomes an inverse function of the absorption loss only.
6.2 SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS

Shielding effectiveness (SE) is defined as the ratio between the field strength at a given distance
from the source without the shield interposed and the field strength with the shield interposed.
The total shielding effectiveness of a conductive barrier in decibels is the sum of the reflective
losses expressed in decibels, the absorption in decibels, and the rereflection loss in decibels;
thus SE is given by
SE = R + A + R, [dB] (6.12)
where R, A , and R,. are in decibels.
* As discussed in Section 6.1.2 in measurements on alurninizcd mylar, 2 R, no reflection coefficient was
secn.
290 Chapter 6
The iiiagnetic field reflection loss versus frequency, distance, and ratios of relative conduc-
tivity to relative permeability (G,/p,) is shown in the nomogram of Figure 6.4.
The electric field reflection loss versus frequency, distance, and ratios of (GAP,)is shown
in the noinograni of Figure 6.5. The plane-wave reflection loss versus frequency, distance, and
ratios of G,/p, is shown in the nomogram of Figure 6.6. The absorption loss versus frequency,
thickness, and product G,*p, is shown in the nomogram of Figure 6.7. All of these nomograms
MAGNETIC FIELD REFLECTION LOSSES

R,, SCALE 4/'r SCALE
Aluminum
-1
1.4
1
4% Si Iron
Purified Iron
4% Si Iron
[grain ormntedl
46 Permalloy
78 Permallov
'
40i t
lo Hypernick
Figure 6.4 Magnetic field reflection loss. (From Ref. 2. Reprinted from EDN, September 1972.
0 Cahners Publishing Company, Division of Reed Publishers, USA.)
291
Electromagnetic Shielding
- Tin
10-1:
- Monel
210-
-
220-
10':
iw-
-
110-
- G,
160 -- /P r -
Iro: Ira:- Cold Rolled Steel

- R,(db) :-Commercial Iron
120-
rao -
-
(0-
60
- Purilied Iron
- 4% Silicon (grain
orienlf
10'-
0- :- Hypernick
-20-
-
-
-40-
-60-
- - - MuMetal
104-
1
Figure 6.5 Electric field reflection loss. (From Ref. 2. Reprinted from EDN. September 1972. 0Cahners
Publishing Company, Division of Reed Publishers, USA.)
are reproduced from Ref. 3. The nomograms in Figures 6.4-6.6 provide for a miniinurn ratio
of G,/p, of 1 X loh, so the shielding effectiveness of very-low-conductivity materials with a
low permeability, such as graphite, may be found.
In choosing the location and type of shield, the following rules are useful, though not
infallible:
Absorption losses increase with increase in frequency, barrier thickness, barrier permeabil-
ity, and conductivity, all of which increase the ratio of barrier thickness to skin
depth.
Assuming that the shield thickness is greater than thc skin depth, the following are valid:
Reflection losses, above 10 kHz, generally increase with an increase in conductivity and
a decrease in permeability (i.e., with a decrease in metal impedance).
292 Chapter 6
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium
Zinc
Brass
Cmmium
Tin
Cold Rolled Steel

Commercial Iron
J
- 4% Silicon (grain
Oriented)
-:*ol Hypernick
-
'- MuMetal
Figure 6.6 Plane-wave reflection loss. (From Ref. 2. Reprinted from EDN, September 1972. 0Cahners
Publishing Company, Division of Reed Publishers, USA.)
Reflection, E field, increases with a decrease in frequency and a decrease in distance from
the source, both of which increase the ratio of wave impedance to metal impedance.
Reflection, H field, increases with an increase in frequency and an increase in distance
from the source, due to a corresponding increase i n wave impedance.
Reflection, plane wave, increases with a decrease in frequency as the metal impedance
decreases.
One of the weaknesses of the transmission-line theory when applied to shielding is that
the shielding effectiveness is dependent, in the near field, on the distance between the source
of the field and the shield, due to the variation in wave impedance with distance. As discussed
in Ref. 4, this leads to a contradiction with the basic law of reciprocity. Consider a transmitting
loop antenna located at a fixed distance from a second receiving loop antenna. A shield is placed
Supermolloy
Purified Iron
MuMetal
50 Ni Iron
i Hypernick
4% SIIron (gram)
oriented)
Hot Rolled Fe Si
4 X Si Iron
Stamless Steel
Commerclal Iron
Silver
Copper
Gold
Cromium
Aluminum
Magnesium
Zinc
Brass
Cadmlum
Platmum
Tin
to"
Figure 6.7 Absorption loss. (From Ref. 2. Reprinted from EDN, September 1972. 0Cahners Publishing
Company, Division of Reed Publishers, USA.)
at some distance, but not halfway, between the two antennas. The law of reciprocity states that
the transmission must be equal either way when the transmitting and receiving source and load
impedances are equal. Therefore the transmitting antenna may be used as the receiving antenna,
and vice versa, with no change in the received signal. In contrast, the transmission-line theory
of shielding makes the shielding effectiveness dependent on the location of the shield between
the two loops. Lyle E. McBride of California State University, in a private communication,
observed that in experiments the Schelkunoff assumptions are correct when the receiving loop
in a shielding effectiveness measurement is open circuit but that the shielding effectiveness is
independent of shieldlocation when both transmitting and receiving loop impedances are
294 Chapter 6
matched. It therefore appears that the measurement of shielding effectiveness is not an intrinsic
electromagnetic parameter but is dependent on the test setup, as discussed further in Section
6.5.2. Reference 1 compares the prediction of magnetic field shielding for copper, aluminum,
and steel shields placed between circular loop antennas, and notes in the measurements a small
but persistent dependence of the shielding effectiveness on the spacing between the two loops.
In common with the author of Ref. 5, the predictions of shielding effectiveness in Ref. 1, using
transmission-linetheory,weremade with the shieldvirtuallydisplaced to coincide with the
location of the receiving loop.
The author of Ref. 5 computes the wave impedance of a magnetic field generated by a
magnetic dipole, which is approximately equal to that of a current loop if the radius is small,
at one-third the wave impedance used i n Eq. (6.7) for H field refection and obtained from Eq.
(2.29).
From Ref. 5, the wave impedance for an electric dipole is three times the wave impedance
used in Eq. (6.6) for E field reflection and obtained from Eq. (2.30). Therefore we may expect
the loss for the E field computed from Eq. (6.6)to be low and the loss for the H field computed
from Eq. (6.7) to be high.
I n practice, the H field is the most difficult to shield against, even here, thin alunlinuln
foil, such as cooking foil, invariably provides sufficient shielding unless the source is a low-
frequency high-magnitude H field. The greatest contributor to shielding degradation is typically
the presence of joints and apertures and not the enclosure, unless the material has low conduc-
tivity.
Perhaps the question of greatest interest to the practicing engineer is how accurate the
predicted shielding effectiveness is using the equations and nomographs presented here, espe-
cially for the shielding of H fields. The preceding SE equations were based on a shield of infinite
size, whereas practical enclosures are limited in size.
Table 6.2 illustrates that the predicted shielding effectiveness of copper, aluminum, and
steel shields of inch and '/x-inch thickness, as obtained from Eqs. (6.7) and (6.9) through
(6.12), when compared to the measured H field attenuation given in Ref. I , results in a reasonable
correlation. Note that i n the prediction, the distance between the transmitting loop and the shield
was the same distance as used between the transmitting and receiving loops in obtaining the
lneasured data.
The accuracy of the prediction is adequate for all but the most exact analysis. A more
rigorous approach. but one mathematically more complex and requiring a computer, is to use
the exact solution of the vector wave equation described in Ref. 1.
Shielding against a low-frequency (i.e., less than 1 kHz) magnetic field is often quoted
a s possible only by the use o f a material exhibiting high permeability.It is true that the absorption
achieved in material located close to the source is the primary loss mechanism and that appre-
ciable attenuation is possible only by the use of high-permeability material. However, the to-
tal shielding effectiveness (absorption and reflection) of a 30-mil-thick copper sheet (p, = I ,
G,. = 1 ) is higher at frequenciesbelow3kHz than a30-milsilicon steel sheet [p, = 1500,
G, = 0.038 (p, X G, = 57)] at a distance of 38 cm from a magnetic field source.
The reason is that the reflection from the copper sheet, at %-cm distance, is higher than
that frotn the steel sheet. A thin, 20-50-micron (20 microns = 0.0008 inches = 0.02 m m , 50
microns = 0.002 inches = 0.05 n m ) sheet with a relative permeability of 200 and a plating
of either copper, zinc, nickel, tin, or chrome is available from the Iron-Shield Company, Bar-
rington, IL 600 10-075 1 . This material combines the advantages of high surface conductivity and
moderate permeability and Inay be laminated to various nonconductive materials. The shielding
effectiveness is shown in Figure 6.8a.
Table 6.2 Predicted and Measured Shielding Effectiveness

Shielding effectiveness [dB]
f d[cin] Predicted Measured
~~
Aluminum '/I(,-inchthick G, = 0.35, p, = 1

100 Hz 10 7.5 5
20 kHz 10 50 42
2 kHz 20 34 25
200 Hz 35 21 12
Aluminum '%-inchthick, G, = 0.35, p, = 1
1 kHz 3 18 15
30 kHz 3 66.0 65
100 Hz 30 19 10
1 kHz 30 36.6 2x
Copper %-inch thick. G, = I , p, = 1
100 Hz 3 9.1 X
30 kHz 3 101 98
100 Hz 20 22 17
1 kHz 20 43 38
Steel '/iAnch thick. G, = 0.17, p, = 1 12
100 Hz 3 12 16
10 kHz 3 91 102
1 kHz 20 33 32
The reflection loss to a magnetic, electric, field or plane wave is dependent on the surface
conductivity. When aluminum is left untreated, aluminum oxide builds up on the surface and the
conductivity and reflection loss are reduced. Alodine, Iridite, and Oakite are high-conductivity
passivation finishes and do not appreciably reduce the reflection loss, whereas anodizing results
in a finish with very low conductivity. Figure 6.8b illustrates the degradation in reflection loss due
to these types of finish. The reference 0-dB line represents clean, unpassivated aluminum, the
reflection loss of which varies with frequency but is approximately 80-dB. The reflection loss
degradation is specified for an E field source at low frequency and a plane wave at high frequency.
Coating a metal surface with an insulating finish such as the majority of lacquers and
varnishes does not have an adverse effect, whereas certain types of paint containing carbon,
graphite or conductive particles will reduce the reflection loss.
High-permeability sheet and stock designed to shield against DC to 60 Hz magnetic fields,
typically for use around transformers and CRT tubes, is available from Eagle Magnetics Co.
Ltd., P.O. Box 24283, Indianapolis, IN 46224, Magnetic Shield Corporation, 740 North Thomas
Drive, Berrenville, Illinois 60106-1643 and M p Shield, P.O. Box 439, Goffstown, New Hainp-
shire 03045. Such inaterials exhibit relative permeabilities from 20,000 to 300,000 and resistivi-
ties of 12-60 pC,I/ciii cube.
Table 6.3 shows the shielding effectiveness and permeability versus incident magnetic
field at DC and 60 Hz of high-permeability material. The equations are useful in calculating
the shielding effectiveness, and an example is shown for a 3" X 3" X 3" five-sided box around
a source of magnetic field. Table 6.3 and the equations are reproduced by courtesy of Eagle
Magnetic Company. Material with a permeability higher than 1000 tends to be sensitive to
frequency and magnetic flux density within the material. Saturation of the material occurs at
high flux densities, and the permeability decreases with increasing frequency. When shielding
296 Chapter 6
ATTENUATION OF AC MAGNETIC FIELD
Frequency (MHz)
--------
0 o o o o o Iron-Shieldllead Laminate ................... Stainless Steel (50 Microns)
(25 Microns Iron Shield/GO Microns Lead) Conductive Plastic (300 Microns)
ococoo Iron-Shield (50 Microns) ---- Aluminum (20 Microns)
Iron-Shield (25 Microns) Conductive Paint (50-100 Microns)
............
OOOOQOQ
Copper Foil (35 Microns) Graphs merge and follow this curve
(maximum te$t instrument sensitivity)
Figure 6.8a Examples of electric and magnetic field attenuation for various types of shielding. (Repro-
duced courtesy of Iron-Shield Company.)
IREEUENCV (MHz)
Figure 6.8b Reflection loss degradation due to surface finishes on aluminum.

DC 60 Hertz
HI B
(Oerstead) (Gauss) p(EFF) G(AttRat) SE(D,,) H,, p(EFF) G(AttRat) SE(Dh) H,,
1 150 90,000 375 52 ,0028 30,000 125 41 .008

5 750 140,000 565 55 ,008 40,000 167 44 ,030
10 1500 200,000 835 58 ,012 45,000 188 46 ,053
25 3750 300,000 1250 63 ,020 30,000 125 41 ,200
50 7500 TOO CLOSE TO SATURATION TOO CLOSE TO SATURATION
DC 60 Hertz
1 121 90,000 465 53 .0021 25,000 127 42 ,0079
5 605 140,000 710 57 ,0071 34,000 173 45 ,028
10 1210 200,000 1020 60 ,0099 36,000 183 46 ,055
25 3025 300,000 1520 62 ,0165 26,000 132 43 ,190
50 7500 TOO CLOSE TO SATURATION TOO CLOSE TO SATURATION
H, = Internal Field (Oerstead)

B = Flux That Shield Sees
p = Effective Permeability
C = Attcntuation Ratio
Equation #3 SE = 20 Log G = 20 Log (375) = 52 dB,, SE = Shielding Effectiveness (Dh)
H,, = External Field (Oerstead)
1
Equation #4 H,, = ! = - = ,0028 Oerstead T = Thickness (Inches)
G 375
against low-frequency high magnetic fields, the use of a material such as steel followed by a
high-permeability material is recommended. The first barrier of steel is designed to absorb the
magnetic field, without saturation, to a level at which the second high-permeability barrier does
not saturate. To illustrate the importance of choosing the correct shielding material for the job,
we offer the following example: A shielded room was constructed, at great expense, of mumetal,
with the aim of achieving a high level of shielding. Unfortunately, because the permeability of
mumetal decreases rapidly with increasing frequency and the material exhibits a low conductiv-
ity, the shielding effectiveness of the room at frequencies in the megahertz region was less than
that achieved with a much cheaper room constructed of cold-rolled steel.
6.3 NEW SHIELDING MATERIALS: CONDUCTIVE PAINTS AND

THERMOPLASTICS, PLASTIC COATINGS, AND GLUE
With an increase in the use of nonconductive materials such as plastics and resins for the enclo-
sures of computers, peripheral equipment, and the like, increased use is also made of conductive
coatings and conductive moldable materials for the purpose of shielding. Conductive thermo-
plastics are available with a base material of nylon, polypropylene, polyethylene, thermoplastic
rubber, SMA, ABS, polycarbonate, PES, polystyrene, acetal, etc. The filler may be carbon fibers,
298 Chapter
carbon black, metallized glass, nickel-coated carbon fibers, or stainless steel fibers. The higher
the ratio of filler to base material, the higher the conductivity, up to a limit, but the greater the
change in the physical properties of the base material. The most common change is that the
material becomes brittle and will break more readily when dropped. The conductivity of conduc-
tive thermoplastics is typically lower than that of conductive coatings, with the use of carbon-
filled plastic confined to electrostatic protection. The surface resistivity of conductive thermo-
plastics ranges from 10 Wsq to 1 MWsq, and the volume resistivity from 1 Q/cm cube to 1
MWcm cube. One manufacturer of conductive plastics is Electrafil, Stoney Creek, Ontario L8E
2L9, Canada. Conductive coatings may be painted on or applied by flame spray, thermospray,
or plasma flame spray.The surface resistance of a nickel-based paintversus thickness is shown
in Figure 6.9, from which we see that the conductivity increases with increasing thickness in
the thickness range of 1.5-3 mm. The manufacturer of the paint, along with other conductive
coatings, is Achesons Colloids Company, Post Huron, MI 48060.
The shielding effectiveness of a material is often measured using the MIL-STD-285 test
method, in which a transmitting antenna is located within a small, shielded enclosure that is in
turn placed inside a shielded room. One face of the small, shielded enclosure is removed and
covered by a panel of the material under test. Areceiving antenna is placed inside the shielded
room at a distance of 1 m from the panel under test. The shielding efecfiveness is defined as
the ratio of the measured field without the panel to the measured field with the panel closing
the aperture. When aloop antenna is used as the transmitting and receiving antennas, the mag-
netic field shielding effectiveness is measured, whereas when monopole, dipole, or broadband
antennas are used the measurement is of the E fieldor plane-wave shielding effectiveness,depen-
dent on the frequency.
A shielding material thatexhibits a high surface resistance (low conductivity) has a poor
shielding effectiveness, often 0 dB, against a low-impedance H field and a very much higher
shielding effectiveness against high-impedanceE fields. In Ref.2, tests are described on alumi-
I
1.4
1.2
I
85 1.0
'g 0.8
U)
U
0.6
0.4
0.2
t
1 1 k
0.0
1 2
il
3 4 5
nized Mylar with a I.4-R/sq surface resistance and a thickness of approximately 2 X 10 ' m
( 5 microns), which is 0.008 skin depths at 10 MHz. The size of the sample was 59 cm X 59
cm in a 2.44-111 X 3-m X 2.44-in-high enclosure. Both E and H field shielding effectiveness
was tested. The H field shielding effectiveness was measured with both an E field source (mono-
pole antenna) and an H field source (loop antenna). With either source, the H field shielding
effectiveness was 0 dB from 50 kHz to 10 MHz. The E field shielding effectiveness using the
dipole as the source was 90 dB at 100 kHz, 72 dB at 500 kHz, 65 dB at 1 MHz, 51 dB at 5
MHz, and 43 dB at 10 MHz, as shown in upcoming Figure 6.1 la. The E field shielding effective-
ness using the loop antenna as the source was 0 dB from 100 kHz to 400 kHz, 9 dB at 1 MHz,
and 28 dB at 10 MHz, as shown in upcoming Figure 6.1lb.
Manufacturers of conductive coatings, paint, and conductively loaded (composite) materi-
als often publish a predicted or measured shielding effectiveness without mentioning that the
data is valid only for an E field. Figure 6.10 shows the predicted shielding effectiveness of a
thin transparent conductive coating with a surface resistance of 5 and 20 R/sq, which is typically
used as an EM1 window in front of a display or CRT. The theoretical values of shielding effec-
tiveness shown in Figure 6.10 for the lower-resistance 5-Wsq coating is much higher than seen
in the measured E field shielding data for the 1.4-R/sq aluminized Mylar material shown in
Figures 6.1 1a and 6.1 1b. The theoretical values in Figure 6.10 ignore the effect of the termination
of the material at the surrounding metal, which is included in the measured values, and assumes
a high-impedance E field.
Reference 6 describes a test on a small enclosure that contained a battery-powered 10-
MHz oscillator driving two TTL gates. This oscillator noise source produced harmonics up to
200 MHz and beyond. Twelve different composite and plated plastic enclosures were manufac-
tured and then tested with the noise source inside the enclosure and the E field receiving antenna
FREQUENCY
Shielding Etlectiveness, Thin Coatings

(t < < 2.5 MICRONS)
Figure 6.10 Theoretical shielding effectiveness of a thin (<< 2.5 microns) coating.
300 Chapter 6
I
1O O k
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 6.11a E field shieldingeffectiveness of 1.4-ohm aluminized Mylar usingan electricdipole

source. (0IEEE, 1992.)
1O O k 1M 10151
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 6.1 1b E field shielding effectiveness of 1.4-ohm aluminized Mylar using a loop antenna source.
(0IEEE 1992.)
located 3 m from the enclosure. The measurements were comparative with the original polycar-
bonate nonconductive enclosure used as the control. Table 6.4, from Ref. 6, may be used to
compare the different materials and coatings.
As so often happens in the application of an EMC improvement or an EM1 fix, implement-
ing an apparent improvement sometimes results in a worsening of the situation. Thus, applying
a conductive coating to an enclosure may increase the level of radiated emissions. Because the
field is to some extent contained by the enclosure, the common-mode current across the PCB
increases. The common mode current on any unshielded cable connected to the PCB will also
increase, resulting in increased radiation, especially when the cable length is resonant. Apart
from the probability that emissions from unshielded cables connected to the enclosure will in-
crease when the equipment is placed in a conductive enclosure, the radiation from the enclosure
Table 6.4 Material Evaluation

Shielding
effectiveness Relative
Sample Material (70-300 MHz) (dB] cost
I Polycarhonate glass filled 0 I .o
(control)
Polycarbonate with copper paint 25-30 2.25
Polycarhonate with 10% SS/lO% glass 20-30 5.0
Polycarbonate with 10% NiGraphite 20-30 4.1
Polyvinylchloride with 30% NiC fibers 10-20 3.9
Polycarhonate with 7% SS fibers 25-35 4.3
Polycarhonate with vacuum-deposited 25-35 2.5
aluminum
8 Mica 19-25 4.6
9 Polycarbonate with 7% SS fibers 21-31 3.1
10 Polycarbonate with Ni paint 19-27 2.25
11 Polycarbonate with 10% S S fibers 20-32 5 .O
12 Polycarbonate with special carbon 12-21 2.9
SS = stainless stecl.
Source: Ref. 6.
itself may increase at certain frequencies. As an example, consider a PCB and switching-power
supply mounted on a metal base to which more than one power and signal ground connection
is made. The base is surrounded by a plastic enclosure that is coated on the inside with graphite.
The graphite is electrically connected to the metal base and, with the doors of the enclosure
closed, an electrical connection exists between the graphite on the two halves of the doors. The
equipment must meet FCC part 15 requirements placed on type A (commercial) equipment.
Measurements were made of the radiated E field emissions from the enclosure with the
doors open and closed. The graphite acts as an absorber of radiation from sources located on
the PCB; thus, some small level of attenuation may be expected with the doors of the enclosure
closed. However, the absorption is offset at certain frequencies by radiation from the enclosure
as a result of current flow in the graphite coating. The current flow in the graphite is a result
of noise current flow in the metal base of the enclosure, due to multiple ground connections,
some of which takes the alternative path through the graphite coating. The measured effect of
opening or closing the doors was an increase in radiated emissions of 4.5 dB at 48 MHz and
4.7 dB at 107 MHz with the door open and an increase of 6 dB at 88 MHz with the door
closed. The level of radiated emissions in this example were brought below the FCC limit by
a combination of modifications. The radiation from unshielded cables connected to the equip-
ment were reduced by the addition of ferrite baluns (beads) as the cables entered the enclosure,
The radiation from both the enclosure and the cables was reduced by a modification in the
grounding scheme on the PCB, including a reduction in the number of PCB power ground to
metal base connections, and the inclusion of an additional decoupling capacitor. The graphite
coating was retained as much for ESD protection as for its shielding effectiveness.
Emerson and Cuming manufacture a range of conductive surface coating materials. Some
examples follow.
Eccocoat CC 2 is a silver lacquer with a surface resistivity of 0.1 Q/sq maximum (0.025-
mm coating thickness).
302 Chapter 6
Eccocoat CC 40A is an elastomeric silver-filled conductive coating with 0.001 R/sq to

0.05 R/sq for an 0.02s-mm ( 1 mil) thickness.
Eccocoat CC 3SU is an air-dry waterborne, nickel-filled acrylic coating with a surface
resistivity of 1 R/sq for a 2-mil (O.OS-mm)-thick coat.
Evershield of West Lafayette, IN, also manufactures coatings. These include:
A nickel-filled two-part urethane-based coating at 1 .S Q/sq (2-mil thickness)
Copper acrylic, 0.3 R/sq (l-mil thickness)
Graphite acrylic, 7.5 R/sq
Silver PVC, 0.01 Q / s q (I-mil thickness)
Silver acrylic, 0.04 R/sq (1 -mil thickness)
The conductivity may be found from surface resistance as follows:
(6.13)
where t = the thickness of the shield [mils].

Manufacturers' shielding effectiveness curves forthese materials are invariably for electric
field attenuation, which is the easiest typeof field to shield against. MIL-STD-28s type measure-
ments on silver-andnickel-loadedpaints have shown thattheshieldingeffectiveness is an
inverse function of surface resistivity. Because the silver paint tested had a surface resistivity
one-tenth that of the nickel, the measured shielding effectiveness was 20 dB greater. Increasing
the thickness of the paint from 2 to 4 mils provided an additional 6 dB of shielding, but 6 mils
of nickel produced 1-2 dB less shielding. More information on the test results may be obtained
from Chomerics, Woburn, MA.
The shielding effectiveness of a flame-sprayed 22-gauge copper mesh panel compared to
solid brass and against a magnetic field, measured in a TEM cell, is shown in Figure 6.12 (from
Ref. 7). The surface resistance of flame-sprayed copper is 0.0006-0.001 R/sq foran unspecified
thickness. The panel under test was mounted on an 0.6-m X 0.6-m X 0.2-m-deep enclosure
' mounted on the floor of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) cell. The cell when driven by a
signal source causes a current flow on the outside of the test enclosure and panel. A magnetic-
field sensor was located on the outside of the enclosure under test and a second cell inside the
enclosure. The magnetic-field attenuation of the panel was defined as the ratio of external field
to internal field.
Due to the relatively high surface resistance and thinness of most conductive coatings,
neither their shielding effectiveness nor their current-carrying capability is as high as that of
pure metal. Thus, although useful in meeting FCC, ENSS022/ 1 1 , CS 108, or similar commercial
radiated emission requirements, they may not be suitable for the more stringent militarystandard
requirements and certainly not for use where EMP orindirect lightning strikes mustbe protected
against. Conductive polyester cloth and paper is available. Figure 6.13 (shielding effectiveness
for a number of fabrics) is shown by courtesy of TW Trading International. The up to 26 dB
of variation in shielding effectiveness seen in the graph is less a measure of the material charac-
teristics and more a function of the MIL-STD-28s test method. In the test method, the test
chamber and shielded room exhibits room resonances, and the reflections i n the room cause
large variations in the field incident on the test antenna. The material with the lowest shielding
effectiveness (T 1500 NS) is a black sheer material with a polyester substrate plated with nickel
(14.8% by weight). The material with the highest shielding effectiveness (T 2200 C)is a glossy
BRASS TOP
f MESH ...'
,..'
...."
/ k- /&A-
' I
."" PANEL 8
-
BOX
OPEN
I 1 10 100
MHz
FREQUENCY (HERTZ)
Figure 6.12 Magnctic field attenuation of a good flame-sprayed panel. 22-gauge copper mcsh and a
solid brass cover. (From Ref. 7. 0 1985. IEEE).
Figure 6.13 Shielding effectiveness of conductive fabrics.

304 Chapter 6
material with a polyester substrate plated with copper (30% by weight). EMC wallpaper, louvre
blind, carpet, andvinyl material are all available, so the construction of a well-furnished shielded
room should be feasible!
Conductive adhesives with silicone or epoxy bases filled with silver, silver-plated copper,
or copper particles are manufactured by Emerson and Cumings, Tecknit, Chornerics, etc.
The adhesives require that pressure be applied after both surfaces have been mated. One
use for adhesives is therefore between the panels of an enclosure that are bolted together. When
a sealant must be applied after a joint is made, a conductive caulking is available that may be
applied to seal gaps around an enclosure or applied to the outside of a joint. Conductively loaded
lubricants are available that may be used between moving surfaces, such as contacts, a rotating
shaft, or on a piano hinge, to ensure a low-resistance connection.
In some EM1 cases, especially at very high frequencies, shielding by reflection from a
very conductive surface is not the best solution, because the incident field is simply reflected
somewhere else. The alternative is the use of an absorbing material that converts the incident
electromagnetic field into thermal energy inside the material. Microwave-absorber material is
available in flexible foam, rigid sheet and stock, castable resin, cloth, plastic sheet, and ferrite
tiles.
The only material with appreciable attenuation in the frequency range of 50 MHz to 50
GHz is the ferrite tile. The attenuation achieved by other materials is predominantly in the 3-
20-GHz frequency range. In one instance of radiation from slotsin a shield on a PCB, the source
of emissions was a 2.4-GHz high-current driver. High-level emissions were seen at 2.4 GHz,
4.8 GHz, 7.2 GHz, and 9.6 GHz. Adding a number of magnetic and dielectric lossy material
at the apertures or across the PCB did not measurably reduce emissions. However, adding low-
frequency ferrite slabs at the apertures reduced emissions at all frequencies by typically 20 dB.
In another instance, where surface currents at 10 GHz flowing on the control cable to a digital
attenuator resulted in EMI, theplacing of rubber-loaded microwave absorber over the cable and
attenuator housing resulted in a significant reduction in the induced EM1 level. From measure-
ments it has been seen that at gigahertz frequencies, waves are launched both vertically and
horizontally from a source, which may be one reason that laying absorber on the surface of a
PCB may not be effective.
One application of a ferrite tile is to place it behind a wire mesh or honeycomb EM1 air
vent filter, with a sufficient gap to allow free air flow. At frequencies above that at which the
air vent filter becomes an ineffective shield, typically 1 GHz, the ferrite tile with effectively
absorb any radiation through the filter. Microwave absorbers are available from:
Advanced Absorber Products (Keene) Amesbury, MA 01913
Electronautics, Littleton, MA 01460
Plessey, San Diego, CA 921 23-9214
Emerson and Cuming, Canton, MA 02021
6.4 SEAMS, JOINTS, VENTILATION, ANDOTHER APERTURES

Inadequate shielding is due rarely to the properties of a conductive material but typically to the
presence of seams and apertures. Thus when measuring radiation from a “quick fix” shield
constructed of aluminum foiljoined by conductive adhesive copper tape, the predominantSource
of any radiation is not from the foil but at the copper tape seam. Where an aperture exists in
an enclosure manufactured from a conductive material, the shielding effectiveness of the enclo-
sure is adversely affected.
Apertures are either deliberately included in an enclosure for the sake of ventilation, for
the ingress of cables or forviewing displays or are unintentional, such as gaps i n S e a m Or Joints
Figure 6.14 E fieldcoupling through an aperture.
around enclosure panels, doors, and connectors. The proximity of the source of radiation to the
aperture and whether the source is an E field or H field determine the prediction technique used
in assessing the attenuation of the enclosure with apertures and the steps required to improve
the shielding effectiveness. When the source is physically small inside a large enclosure, such
as a cabinet, the coupling through the aperture may be computed from the E field component
of the wave generated by the source. The couplingof an E field through an aperture is illustrated
in Figure 6.14. When the enclosure is small, the impedance of the inside of the enclosure is
relatively low, and current flow on the inside of the enclosure may result in H field coupling
through the aperture, as illustrated in Figure 6.15. The current flow on theinside of the enclosure
may result from multiple connections of power or signal ground to the enclosure into which
noise currents are directly injected, or via magnetic field induction via PCB tracks or unshielded
cables in close proximity to the enclosure. When apertures exist, the level of current flow on
the enclosure interior surface should be minimized by use of a single-point enclosure ground,
the use of ground planes on PCBs (which are connected to signal or power ground and thus
reduce coupling to the enclosure), and the use of shielded cables within the enclosure.
6.4.1 E Field Coupling Through a Thin Material

When the area of the aperture is much less than ?Jn,the diameter of the aperture is much greater
than the thickness of the material, and the enclosure, if it exists, is very large, the shielding
effectiveness of the aperture may be found from the following equations. The dimensions and
H ii
Figure 6.15 H field coupling through an aperture.
306 Chapter 6
distance from the source to the shield, D , , and from the shield to the measuring point d are
shown in Figure 6.16. The source of radiation is considered to be a small loop, the E field from
which reduces as a function of Ilr’ until a distance of h/27~,after which the reduction is llr
(where r is the distance from the loop to the measuring point).
The total shielding effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the E field without shield and
aperture to the E field with shield and aperture. When the source-to-aperture distance D , is
much less than the aperture-to-measuring-point distance, D, point d is in the far field, and if
the aperture area is much less than hlx, then the shielding effectiveness is given, from Ref. 8,
by
E at d without shield and aperture -
-~AD,
SE = (6.14)
E at d withshieldandaperture A
where
A = aperture area [m’]
d = measuring point
Assuming location d is in the far field, the electric field is given by
A
E = E(,- (6.15)
Dh
where E,, is the field incident on the aperture.
When E,, is not known, the E field at location d may be computed as the electric field
from a loop using Eq. (2.26). The distance from the source is given by r = D , + D. Equation
(2.26) is valid when “r” is in the near or far field. The field “E” at location “d,” with shield
and aperture, is computed from the field without shield and aperture reduced by the SE given
by Eq. (6.14).
Equation (6.14) is valid for an electric field source contained within a small enclosure
that contains an aperture, when measuring point d is in the far field. E-field-radiated measure-
ments were made in a shielded room from an E field source with and without a shield that
contained an aperture. A solid-wall copper conduit located inside the shielded room was con-
a r - D - j ” o d
Measuring
point
Figure 6.16 Source-to-apertureand aperture-to-measuring-pointdimensions.

nected to an adapter mounted on the shielded-room wall. The conduit was used to shield a
coaxial cable connectedoutside of theshieldedroom to asignalgenerator. The end of the
conduit inside the shielded room was soldered to an 8-cm-diameter ground plane, to which the
shield of the coaxial cable was also terminated. The center conductor of the coaxial cable was
connected to a 5-cm-long rod which, with the circular ground plane, formed a monopole antenna.
Measurements were made of the far field, inside the shielded room, radiated by the monopole
antenna from 100 MHz to 4 GHz. A copper tube 7.5 cm long with a 7.5-cm-diameter and a
2.54-cm-diameter aperture was constructed. The tube had a lid soldered on at the one end and
open, with beryllium copper finger stock soldered around the periphery, at the other end. The
finger stock was connected under pressure to the monopole ground plane, so the monopole rod
was effectively shielded by the can, except for the 2.54-cm aperture. The far-field measurements
were repeated with the tube in place, from 100 MHz to4 GHz. Themeasured shielding effective-
ness showed the variation expected from measurements made in an undamped room; however,
the average measured shielding effectiveness was within 5 dB of the predicted at 100 MHz,
using Eq. (6.14), 15dBat 400 MHz, and 5 dB at 2 GHz. At 3 GHz and 3.6 GHz, negative
shielding effectiveness was seen as a result of enclosure resonance.
When “8’is in the near field, i.e.,
h
d<- (6.16)
2n:
(6.17)
The foregoing equationsapply to rectangular apertures but are applicable to circular apertures,
with an accuracy of 1 dB, when the apertures are small relative to a wavelength.
The effect of multiple apertures is dependent on the distance between the apertures and
the measuring distance. When the distance D to the measuring point d from the apertures is
larger than the area of the apertures and the source-to-aperture distance D , is much less than
D, the radiation is considered to add coherently and the shielding effectiveness is
(6.18)
where N is the number of apertures.

In close proximity, in contrast, the radiation from the apertures may be considered to add
noncoherently and the shielding effectiveness is approximately
AD I
SE = ___ (6.19)
0.3 16NA
Shielding effectivenessmeasurementswere made with an E field sourcecontainedin

a 0.39-m X 0.3 l-m enclosure with a depth of 0.185 m. The face of the enclosure contained
225 X 4-mm-dialneter apertures. The measured shielding effectiveness was 9 dB higher than
predicted, by Eq. (6.19), at 100 MHz, 10 dB higher at 300 MHz, and 0 dB at 400 MHz. The
shielding effectiveness is inversely proportional to the product of the number of apertures and
the aperture area. Thus separating the aperture with a very fine conductor is not very effective
in increasing E field shielding. For example, the 4-mm-dialneter apertures were covered in fine
wire mesh with 0.7-mm apertures. The measured increase in shielding effectiveness was from
2 to 7 dB, which is close to that predicted using Eq. (6.19).
308 Chapter 6
Due to reciprocity, Eq. (6.14) is also applicable to the case where a plane wave is incident
on a small enclosure with an aperture, in this case the levels of the plane-wave H field component
shielding and E-field component shielding effectiveness are generally different. One approach,
which is described in Ref. 9, is to consider the enclosure as a waveguide and to assume a single
TE,,,mode of propagation. Analysis both above and below the cutoff frequency for this mode
and both E field and H field shielding are calculated as functions of frequency, aperture dimen-
sion, multiple apertures, enclosure dimension, wall thickness, and position within the enclosure.
In addition, the damping effect and change in resonant frequency as a result of adding electronic
assemblies and PCBs inside the enclosure are examined.
A rectangular aperture i n an empty rectangular enclosure is represented by an impedance.
The radiating source is represented by a voltage V,, with an impedance Z,, = 377 R. The enclosure
is represented by a shorted waveguide whose characteristic impedance and propagation constant
are Z, and K,, respectively. Figure 6.17 showsthe dimensions of the enclosure and the equivalent
circuit.
To validate the approach, sensorswere placed within a range of enclosures, with apertures
cut into one wall of the enclosure. A shielded loop antenna was used to measure the H field
and a monopole antenna to measure the E field.
The enclosure was located inside a shielded room, and a stripline antenna, which radiates
a field with an impedance of ~ 3 7 R7 over the complete operating frequency range,a log periodic
c plane wave
L d
Figure 6.17 Rcctangularenclosure with aperture and its equivalent circuit.

80
s60
8
*i
C
40
?i
Ln
;
E
20
5
.e
-3al 0
-20
0 200 400 600 800 lo00
frequency (MHz)
Figure 6.18 Calculated and measured Sr at the center of a 300 X 120 X 300-mm enclosure with
100 X 5-mrn aperture. (0IEEE, 1998.)
antenna, or Bilog antenna, was used to generate the incident field. Figure 6.18 shows the calcu-
lated and measured electric field shielding effectiveness, S,, at the center of a 300 X 120 X
300-mm enclosure with a 100-mm X 5-mm aperture. The correlation between theory and mea-
surement is very good, with variation in the measured S,- with the use of different source antennas
and almost certainly because the source is located inside a poorly damped shielded room. Using
Eq. (6.14) over the 50-500-MHz frequency range, the predicted shielding effectiveness is com-
pared to the data, contained in Figures 6.18 and 6.19; this is shown in Table 6.5. Above 400
MHz, the shielding effectiveness, using Eq. (6.14), is higher than shown in the figures. This is
because the enclosure is approaching resonance above 400 MHz.
The shielding effectiveness reduces with increasing frequency and, since the E field level
is higher closer to the aperture, the shielding effectiveness increases with distance from the
aperture. Therefore, locate susceptible circuits on PCBs as far away from the aperture as possi-
ble. The 300-mni X 120-mm X 300-mm enclosure resonates at approximately 700 MHz, and
the shielding effectiveness is negative, i.e., field enhancement occurs. Figure 6.19 shows the
same enclosure but with the aperture increased in size to 200 mm X 30 mm. The resonance
and negative shielding can clearly be seen in the measured results. Figure 6.20 shows the S,,
for a 222-mm X 55-mm X146-mm enclosure with 100 X 5-mm aperture. Adding PCBs to an
enclosure both changes the resonant frequency and damps the enclosure, as shown in Figure
6.21. However, the PCBs must be mounted close to the inside walls of the enclosure to be
effective. If the PCBs are attached to alternative walls of an enclosure, the effective path length
increases and the resonant frequency decreases! Try to use the PCBs to divide the enclosure
into a number of smaller compartments. The 300-mm X 300-mm X 120-mm enclosure was
measured with one, two, and three 160 X 4-mm apertures. For these measurements, the box
with a single aperture was used as the calibration standard, which helped iron out the shielded-
room resonances in the shielding effectiveness curve. Increasing the number of apertures was
found to reduce the shielding effectiveness. Table 6.6 shows the calculated reduction in S, at
400 MHz compared to measurements over the 200-600-MHz frequency range.
310 Chapter 6
Table 6.5 ComparisonBetweentheSimple Eq. (6.14) andthe

Relatively Simple Approach Used in Ref. 9
Shielding Shielding
effectiveness effectiveness
.f (MHz) (dB) Ref. 9 (dB) Eq. (6.14) NdB)
Figure 7, 300 X 120 X 300-mmenclosure with 100-mm X 5-mmap-
erture
50 60 65 5
100 55 59 4
200 53 4
400 9
500 32 45 13
Figure 8, 300-mm X 120-mm X 300-mmenclosure with 200-mm X
30-mm aperture
43.5 50 47
100 2.5 40 37.5
200
400 20 25.5 5.5
500 11
Figure10,483-mm X 120-mm X 483-mm enclosure with 100-mm X
5-mm aperture
50 60 47.6 12
100 7.2 56 63.1
200 50 57 7
300 42 53.6 11.6
Figure 6.19 Calculatcd andmeasured SI- atthe center of a 300 X 120 X 300-mm enclosure with
200 X 30-mm aperture. (0IEEE, 1998.)
Electromagnetic Shielding 31 1
Figure 6.20 Calculated and measured St at the center of a 222 X 55 X 146-mm enclosure with
100 X 5-mm aperture. (0IEEE, 1998.)
The analytical solution predicts that both S Eand the magnetic field shielding effectiveness
S,, are increased by dividing an aperture up into smaller apertures; thus the total area is kept
the same and the number of apertures increases. Figure 6.22 shows the measured SE at the center
of the 300 X 300 X 120-mm enclosure, with the area divided up into one, two, four, and nine
apertures. In each case the total area was 6000 mm'. As predicted, having more, but smaller,
apertures improves the shielding. The practical application of the analysis and measurements
are discussed in Ref. 9 and are, for the E field component:
-20
"
400
> 500 600 700 800 900 lo00
frequency (MHz)
Figure 6.21 Effect of adding PCBs to an enclosure. (C2 IEEE, 1998.)

312 Chapter 6
Table 6.6 Reduction in Stl Due to Number

of Apertures, Compared to one, with Each
Aperture Size Kept Constant
Number of Theory Measured

apertures (400MHz) (200-600 MHz)
~~
1 0 0
2 5.6 3.7-4.4
3 8.8 6.6-1.7
Long, thin apertures are worse than round or square apertures, because, for a typical-size
enclosure, the theory predicts that doubling the length of the slot reduces S,<by 12
dB while doubling the width reduces SE by only about 2 dB.
Doubling the number of apertures reduces S L by about 6 dB.
Dividing a slot into two shorter slots increases S E by about 6 dB.
At subresonant frequencies, doubling the enclosure dimensions while keeping the aperture
size and number constant is predicted to increase S , by about 6 dB, and larger-size
enclosures are recommended.
Doubling both the enclosure size and aperture is predicted to reduce S , by about 6 dB.
Doubling the enclosure size halves the resonant frequency, and, to avoid negative shielding
effectiveness, a smaller enclosure, or one that is full of electronic components, is
preferable.
Reference 9 uses a relatively simple approach to the problem of the shielding effectiveness
of rectangular enclosures with rectangular apertures. Reference 23 describes a rigorous full-
wave combined electric and magnetic field boundary simulator using a method of moment elec-
trical field integral equation (MOM EFIE). This technique also shows a very good correlation
with measurements made in both a full anechoic room with ferrite tiles and a semianechoic
chamber in which absorbing cones are used everywhere except for the conducting floor. Despite
the good correlation between predicted and measured results, the shielding effectivenesses de-
Figure 6.22 Measured SE at the center of a 300-mm X 300-mm X 120-mm enclosure with one, two,
four, and nine apertures, with the total area held constant, i.e., smaller apertures.
Table 6.7 Comparison of Shielding Effectiveness of

a 500-mm X 500-mm X 500-mm Enclosure with a
50-mm X 200-mm Aperture
~~
MOM EFIE Waveguide

(Ref. 23) (Ref. 9) Eq. (6.14)
f (MHz) (dB) (dB) (dB)
50 24 17 43
100 24 17 37.5
200 26 18 31.5
300 28 23 28
scribed in Ref. 23 are approximately 5-8 dB higher than obtained by the simple technique
described in Ref. 9. The enclosure used for the comparison had the dimensions 50-mm X 500-
mm X 500-mm with a 50-mm X 200-mm aperture. Table 6.7 compares the two techniques and
Eq. (6.14) for this relatively large enclosure.
For E field shielding, the thickness of the material into which the aperture is placed does
affect shielding effectiveness, unlike H field shielding. In practice it is not typically convenient
to use thick material, and so the same effect can be achieved by bending a thin material over
to form a flange at apertures or at seams.
In Ref. 24, a finite difference time domain (FDTD) analysis of shielding effectiveness is
presented using a wire current source placed close to apertures. With a single 25-mm circular
aperture and by increasing the thickness of the material from 1 mm to 12 mm, the analysis
predicted an increase of 24 dB in shielding effectiveness. This is approximately 12 dB higher
than predicted using the waveguide below cutoff effect shown in Eq. (6.21).
When the largest aperture dimension is greater than '/J wavelength, the aperture may func-
tion as a horn or slot antenna and radiate efficiently. For example, a large 6-foot by 6-foot
enclosure contained back panels connected to the frame of the enclosure by screws at 6-inch
intervals. Both the frame and the panel were painted, and the electrical connection was tenuous,
made by some of the screw heads that bit through the paint. The E field measured at 1-m
distance, with the antenna pointing at the slot between the screws, was higher than when the
panels on all four sides of the enclosure were removed. Thus the enclosure and slots functioned
as an antenna with gain.
The shielding effectiveness of an aperture is a function not so much of the width of the
gap at high frequencies but of the length of the gap and its depth, depending on the polarization
of the wave or the direction of current flow across the gap. Because we are seldom able to
determine either the wave polarization or the direction of current flow, we use the largest trans-
verse dimension when estimating worst-case aperture attenuation. A metal enclosure with a
removable lid is not an EMI-tight box unless the surfaces are optically flat and no distortion
occurs between the lid and the side flanges. In practice, gaps occur between the lid and the side
flanges that often are as much as one-half the distance between the fasteners when they are as
close as 2 cm apart, and more than half the distance between fasteners when they are much
more than 2 cm apart.
6.4.2 Waveguide Below Cutoff

The preceding section examined the shielding effectiveness of an aperture in which the diameter
was much greater than the thickness of the material. This section examines the case in which
the thickness of the material approaches or is greater than the gap dimensions.
314 Chapter 6
In a waveguide, the dimensions are chosen such that the signal frequency is above the
cutoff frequency and the attenuation in the waveguide is negligible. When the frequency of a
plane wave incident on a waveguide is below the cutoff frequency of the waveguide, the plane
wave is attenuated as it passes down the waveguide. It is just this effect that is used to describe
the additional attenuation achieved in an aperture in a thick material.
The additional attenuation of a gap for a plane wave and an E field is given approximately
by
A = 0.0018fl dt) - 1 [dB] (6.20)
or
when f-l > 1

f
where
.f = operating frequency [MHz]

h. = cutoff frequency [MHZ]
/ = gap depth for overlapping members of the thickness of the material for
butting members (cm)
For a rectangular gap,
14980
h="-
K
where R is the largest gap's transverse dimensions, in centimeters. For a round hole,
17526
h=- (6.21)
R
When f c >> ,f,
27! [dB] for

rectangular
a gap
A;( R
I
32- [dB] for a circular
gap
R
When I << K, the attenuation tends to zero using the waveguide equation, and the attenua-
tion will be that due to an aperturein a thin material, as described in Eq. (6.14). Equation
(6.20) therefore does not provide the total shielding effectiveness of the metal but the increased
attenuation due to the waveguide below the cutoff effect.
For a square array of holes, such as used for ventilation of a panel, the equation, when
f l >>J is
(6.22)
For a rectangular array I , by l:, use
l = d l , x I:
Figure 6.23 shows the dimensions c , d, and 1. The attenuation A in this instance is defined
as the increased attenuation of the hole pattern compared to the attenuation achieved if the total
area I X I had beenremoved. The attenuationformultipleholesexhibits,according to Eq.
(6.22), a higher value than the attenuation of a single aperture to the incident field. This apparent
anomaly is explained as follows: The field strength developed across the larger area covered
by the multiple holes, expressed in V/m, is higher than the field strength across the smaller area
of a single hole, assuming a constant hole diameter, as shown in Eq. (6.15).
Equation (6.22), in this or similar form, is commonly found in the EMC literature and
indicates that a constant attenuation with frequency exists as long asf; >> f. However. measure-
ments of the attenuation of multiple holes in a solid 2-cm-thick sheet of metal, described in
Ref. 10, show a measured attenuation that varies as much as 30 dB with frequency and may
be 15 dB below that predicted for E fields and plane waves. Equations (6.20) and (6.22) are
not valid for the attenuation of H fields.
In addition, the theoretical compensation for multiple apertures contained in Eq. (6.22)
is not substantiated by test results,which show that theattenuation of multipleapertures is
approximated by the 32rld term (i.e., is equal to the attenuation of a single aperture).
Again the area of field incident on a number of apertures is greater than for a single
aperture, and thus the field strength appearing on the far side of the apertures will be greater
than that of a single aperture.
The waveguidebelowcutoffeffect is used to advantage in thedesign of honeycomb
shielded air vent panels and in the connection of a fiber-optic communication cable through a
tubeinto a shielded enclosure. Figure 6.24 plotsthetheoreticalattenuation of a'/J-in.-wide
rectangular honeycomb for several ratios of thickness to width, W .
i
lrd
0 0 0 0 0 0
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0
7
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
L
fl lJt
Figure 6.23 Dimcnsions of army of holes in a pnncl.
316 Chapter 6
2 4 6 8
140 I I I Illll' I I I I I Ill' I I I I l Ill' I I 1 I IIll
I I I
120 I- - - - - - - -
I
- - - r - - - - - - - - -- II-- I- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - - I
10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz 10 GHz 100 GHz

Frequency
Figure 6.24 Theorctical attenuation of a waveguide below cutoff for a number of ratios of rlw.
6.4.3 Attenuation of a Thin Material with Joints and Apertures

to an H Field
When the incident field is magnetic, a different mechanism predominates, especially when the
thickness of the material is less than the width of the aperture.
MIL-STD-285 describesa technique for measuring the magnetic field shielding effective-
ness of an enclosure, in which small transmitting and receiving loops are oriented such that the
magnetic field is tangential to the surface of the enclosure. Consider the case where an aperture
exists in a large enclosure and the frequency is high enough that diffusion through the enclosure
material is insignificant. The distances between the transmitting loop and the aperture, D , , and
between the aperture and the receiving loop, D, and the orientation of the loops are shown in
Figure 6.16.
The magnetic field at the measuring point d, distance D from the shield with aperture, is
given, from Ref. 20, by
where
a,,,= magnetic polarizability of an aperture, which equals 4(u7/3)for a
circular aperture
(1 = radius of the aperture [m]
8 = angle between the measured magnetic field and the axis of the
measurement current loop
$ = angle from the centerline of the aperture (90” from the surface of the
enclosure) and the measuring location
Thus, the H,, measured field is at a maximum when the field cuts the measuring loop at an angle
of90” and the loop is located on the centerline of the aperture (i.e.,$ = 0”).Assuming maximum
field coupling to the receiving loop, the shielding effectiveness of the shield with aperture is
given by
SE = 0.295 (:)l
Equation (6.18) for the shielding effectiveness of a shield with aperture to the E field
generated by a small loop and the equation for the magnetic field attenuation of a shield with
aperture are both functions of distance. This would appear to contradict the law of reciprocity,
in which under certain conditions the transmitting and receiving loops may be interchanged and
the received power will remain constant. Hoeft et al. remark, in Ref. 20, that “the shielding
effectiveness is a strong function (cubed dependence) of the distance between the shield and
measuring location. Thus the shielding effectiveness is not an intrinsic electromagnetic parame-
ter.” This means the shielding effectiveness is dependent on the test setup, which includes the
distances between the transmitting loop and the shield and the receiving loop and the shield.
In contrast, the measurementof the transfer impedanceof a shielded cable is an intrinsic function
of the cable. For as long as the shield current is measured or known and the transferred voltage
is measured, the transfer impedance of the cable may be computed and should be independent
of the test method, unlike measurement of the transfer admittance of a cable, which is dependent
on the source of electric field and the geometry of the test fixture and is not an intrinsic electro-
magnetic parameter.
The predicted shielding effectiveness using the equation has been compared, in Ref. 20,
to measured values. In the measurement, the distance D was fixed at 0.406 m (16”), with the
aperture radius varied from 0.0076 m (0.3”) to 0.05 m (2”). The correlation between predicted
and measured SE is remarkably good.
The attenuation of enclosures, joints, and apertures to H fields, based on Ref. 1 I , is consid-
ered as follows: We assume that the magnetic field (H out) impinging on the outside of an
enclosure results in an H field (H in) inside the enclosure:
The attenuation of theenclosure is given by H,,,,,

-~ (6.23)
H,,,
The resistance of the enclosure wall or the impedance of the defect (e.g., a joint, aperture,
or gasket) is represented by 2,in Figure 6.25. The inside of the enclosure can be modeled as
the inductance of a wide single-turn inductor, given by
318 Chapter 6
(6.24)
where
A = area of the inside of the box = height X depth
=I,Xd
l , = width of the box
The inductive reactance of the inside of the box (27cfL) is represented in Figure 6.25 as
Z,,,.The H field incident on the box causes a current to flow on the outside of the box. At low
frequency where the thickness of the enclosure is less than a skin depth, the principal coupling
mode is due to the current diffusion through the enclosure wall. Z, at low frequency is thus
predominantly the AC resistance of the enclosure wall ( R \ ) , given by
(6.25)
where
t = thickness of the enclosure [m]
G = conductivity [mhos/m]
6 = skin depth [m]
Apertures
Seams
Figure 6.25 Enclosurewithdefects,andequivalentcircuit.

The conductivity is given by

G = G,,G,.
where G,, = 5.8 X lo7 mhos/m. The skin depth is computed from
where p = permeability [Hlm] and is given by

p = I L p r
where p,,= 4n X 10" [H/m].

When the metal contains a number of apertures, the conductivity of the metal is reduced
by the apertures. The conductivity is then
Area of panel ( I , X I-,) - Total area of apertures
GX (6.26)
Area of panel
The additional components of Z , when seams and joints are present are the following:
1. The DC resistance of the joint R, which is typically 15-30 pR for a riveted joint but
may be as high as 1.5 mQ for unplated metal.
2. The contactimpedance R,., which has thecharacteristics of an AC resistanceand
contains the term d j The contact impedance is dependent on surface smoothnessand
finish. A typical value of R , for a riveted joint is 0.06dj pR and may be as high as
0.25djpR for unplated metal.
3. Another component of a joint that contains a gap is the inductance of the gap L, which
may have a typical value of 0.5 X 10"' H.
In addition, screws used to fasten the walls of an enclosure exhibit inductance. Although
a complex impedance,the total impedance of a joint may be modeled by a simple series equiva-
lent circuit and is given approximately by
R, R,df + 2njL)
+ IN(R +(6.27)
where
l = length of the joint
N = number of joints in the current path
When the joint is gasketed, the expression after R , is replaced by the transfer impedance of the
gasket at the frequency of interest.
The attenuation of the enclosure has been expressed as H J H , " . This is equivalent to the
ratio I,,,,,lI,,,which is given by
l,
(6.28)
R, + IN(R + R , d T + 2njZ)
where
A = area of enclosure = I-, X d
I = length of joint (joint or slot in the current path)
R = DC resistance of joint
320 Chapter 6
R, = resistance of an enclosure wall as a function of skin depth

R, = contact resistance
L = equivalent series inductance of slot
N = number of joints in the current path
The magnitude of the internal H field can be computed from Eq. (6.28) when H,,,,,is known.
The limit in attenuation of an enclosure, with apertures, to an H field is given by
(6.29)
where
N = number of apertures
CI = magnetic polarizability of the aperture
The worst-case magnetic polarizability of different shapes of aperture is provided in Table 6.8,
from Ref. 25. These values assume that the current flows over the longest dimension, that the
apertures are less than '/,A,and that the material is infinitely thin.
An approximate thickness correction, in decibels, for round apertures and magnetic fields
is 32tlcl and for square apertures 27.311, where t is the thickness, d is the diameter, and I is the
longest dimension.
As frequency increases, the attenuation of the enclosure, computed from Eq. (6.28), in-
creases until the attenuation is limited by the apertures, Eq. (6.29), and is then constant with
frequency.
Equation (6.29) is applicable to the attenuation of a single-layer wire mesh by assuming
that the wire screen behaves like a sheet with square perforations. Measurements of wire have
shown that the calculated values are all from 4 to 6 dB lower than measured values.
One type of shield that can be used effectively to shield H field emissions from a video
display is very fine blackened wire. This type of wire mesh has typically 100 openings per inch
(OPI) and, although the display is visible, will reduce the brightness of the display and may
result in moiri patterns.
Table 6.8 Worst-case Values of Magnetic Polarizahility for

Different-Shape Apertures in an Infinitely Thin Wall
Shape of aperture Magnetic polarizability CI
Circle of diameter tl or radius I'

(I'
6 or 4( g)
Long, narrow ellipse of major axis t i and K- (1,
minor axis 17 3 1,,(4db- I
Square of side I 0.2591'
Rectangles of length I and width H'
4 0.20961'
I = - M'
3
I == 2M3 0.15751'
I = 5n* 0.09061 '
I = low 0.06451 '
The main weak link is at the contact between the enclosure and the wire mesh, due to
the contact impedance. The measured surface resistivity of a copper-plated stainless steel mesh
with 100 OPI was 1.5 mQ/sq and that for copper mesh with 100 OPI was 3.3 mQ/sq.
6.4.3.1 Examples of H Field Attenuation of Enclosures
The application of an insulating compound to a joint may be a requirement for sealing against
moisture or to increase the thermal conductivity of the joint. Figure 6.26 illustrates the joint
impedance of a test sample made from two pieces of 12 X 24-inch aluminum joined by a 2-
inch-wide backing strip riveted on 3-inch centers. A sealant was applied to the bond before the
strip was riveted, and the configuration is referred to as the “full-bond” sample. The joint
resistance of the “joints-only’’ sample, in which the sealant was applied to the exposed joints
after the joint was riveted, is shown in Figure 6.27. Figures 6.27 and 6.28 are reproduced from
Ref. 22, which describes experimental and theoretical analysis of the magnetic field attenuation
of enclosures. The DC resistance of the full-bond sample was a measured 35 pR and of the
joints-only sample it was 15 pQ.
The magnetic field attenuation of the two samples when mounted in a 0.6-m X 0.6-m X
0.2-m brass box with a thickness of 1.58 mm and a relative conductivity of 0.6 is shown in
Figure 6.28.
The equivalent impedances of the two samples that fit the curves when used in Eq. (6.28)
are as follows:
R R, L
[PQl LPQI [ l o - ” HI
Joints only 40 0.03df 0.1
Full bond 50 0.1O j f 0.5
Figure 6.26 Measured joint impedance of the “full bond” joint sample. (From Ref. 22. 0 1986, IEEE.)
322 Chapter 6
100
10
.l
.O1
FHEQUENCY (HERTZ 1
Figure 6.27 Measuredjointimpedance ofthe “seams-only”jointsample.(FromRef. 22. @ 1986,

IEEE.)
I40
130
n 120
m
u 110
v
Z 100
0
n 90
t-
a 80
3
Z
W 70
t-
t-
U 60
Q 50
_I
W
H 40
LL
V
30
n
l- 20
W
Z 10
U
a
x 0
I0 100 100 I 10
kHz MHz MHz
FREQUENCY ( H E R T Z )
Figure 6.28 Measuredsurfacemagnetic field reduction of the “full-bond”and“seams-only”joint.

(From Ref. 12. 0 1986, IEEE.)
The effect of the spacing of the fastener on transfer impedance is illustrated in Figure
6.29. In this example, the number of transverse screws in a large cableway were varied from
no screws to one screw per 2-inch spacing. The transfer impedance is measured in a TEM cell
in a test configuration similar to that used for magnetic field attenuation measurements. The
transfer impedance is a measure of the voltage developed across the seam inside the test enclo-
sure mounted on the floor of the TEM cell, divided by the current flow on the outside of the
enclosure and across the joint under test.
The contact impedance and DC resistance of a joint is dependent on the surface finish, as
illustrated in Figure 6.30. The unplated aluminum exhibitsthe lowest levelof H field attenuation,
whereas tin plating is almost as effective as a conductive gasket. Tin plating is an excellent
choice because tin is malleable and tends to flow, filling up the small gaps in the joint.
The components of the equivalent impedance of the seams with different finishes are
R K, L
[PQI [PQI [IO ''H]
Tin plated 30 0.015jf 0.5
Unplated 1500 0.250df 0.5
Gasketted and tin plated 30 0.00ldj Negligible
The effect of apertures on magnetic field attenuation is illustrated in Figure 6.3 I . We see
that a hole as large as 4 inches in a 24" X 24" X 8" enclosure still results in a magnetic field
attenuation of 50 dB. This explains why, as often seen in practice, a thin metal enclosure with
large ventilation apertures, typically 1 inch, in close proximity to an H field source, such as a
FREQUENCY (HERTZ)
Figure 6.29 Effect of transverse screw spacing on measured transfer ilnpedance of a large cableway.
(From Ref. 20. 0 1986, IEEE.)
324 Chapter 6
l50
l40
130
l20
110
100
90
80
70
60
Io
40
U)
20
l0
0
101 105 l* 107 10'
FREQUENCV (Hz)
Figure 6.30 Magnetic field reduction of a deep drawn aluminum equipment case showing effects of
tin plating and a gasket. (01986, IEEE.)
switching power supply/converter, will provide significant shielding. The level of shielding has
been determined in practice by field measurements with the enclosure in place and removed.
A large number of small apertures will provide higher attenuation at high frequency com-
pared to a single aperture of the same area. This is illustrated in Figure 6.32. The conductivity
of the 0.6-m X 0.6-m X 0.2-m aluminum sheet containing 36,100 'h' apertures is lower than
the sheet with a single 4" aperture; therefore, at frequencies below 30 kHz the multiple-aperture
sample shows a lower attenuation.
Methods for reducing the coupling through ventilation apertures include wire mesh and
honeycomb air vent filters. The published attenuation curves forthese filters are often theoretical,
and the attainable attenuation may be lower. The best type of honeycomb air vent filter is con-
structed with the metal segments, which make up the honeycomb, welded or soldered together.
A more common method has the segments electrically connected via a bead or single spot of
conductive adhesive. In addition, the edges of the metal segments are often connected to the
frame in which thehoneycomb is contained by spring pressure only.In these samples the contact
impedance may be initially high and increases furtherwith time, due to corrosion. The magnetic
field attenuation performance of many commercially available honeycomb filters is very poor
due to the low conductivity and, therefore, the appreciable skin depth of the honeycomb. It is
not uncommon for equipment to fail MIL-STD-461 RE02 or similarradiated emission tests due
to magnetic field coupling through poor honeycomb air vent panels, especially when the H field
source is in close proximity to the panel.
In one sample of a honeycomb, filter cells were made from aluminumthat had been chro-
mated and were bonded by nonconductive adhesive. The electrical contact was made via the
relatively high resistance of the chromate finish. The measured shielding effectiveness (SE) of
the honeycomb was 15 dB at 100 kHz and3 dB at 14 MHz. With a cadmium plating, the
honeycomb achieved an SE of 20 dB at 100 kHz and 55 dB at 14 MHz. A much higher magnetic
ElectromagneticShielding 325
140
130
120
110
lo0
90
m
m
60
50
40
30
20
10 100 1 10 100
KHz MHz MHz
FREQUENCY
Figure 6.31 Magnetic field reduction with apertures (size of enclosure 24" X 24" X 8"). (01986,
IEEE.)
140
120
-m
100
9
K 80
.-0
a
3
:
6 60
2
1" x 4", Ap = 0.008 sq.rn.
0
10 Hz 10 kHz 1 MHz 100 MHz
Frequency
Figure 6.32 Comparison between a large number of small apertures and a single large aperture with
the same area.
326 Chapter 6
field shielding effectiveness can be achieved with a steel or brass honeycomb. For optimum
SE, steel cells are spot-welded together and then tin-plated or brass cells are soldered together.
An alternative to a honeycomb, when high attenuation of magnetic fields is required, is the wire
mesh screen air filter. The mesh must be passivated with a low-resistance finish in order to
reduce the skin depth and therefore optimize the SE of the screen.
The impedance of a joint is dependent on the fastening method. The lowest-impedance
seam is welded with an impedance close to the base metal when the welding is carefully con-
trolled. The next preferred method is soldering. Riveted seams provide a low-impedance path
at the rivet, for the head of the rivet flows into the surface of the metal. Screws exhibit an
inductance of 1-3 nH, depending on the length of the thread from the head to the tapped metal.
The impedance of pop rivets is no lower and in some samples higher than that of screws.
The H field shielding effectiveness of an enclosure with aperture changes dramatically at
the resonant frequency of the enclosure, even when the aperture is not a resonant length. The
analysis described for the E field shielding effectiveness of an enclosure when the source is an
external plane wave, described in Ref. 9, is also applicable to the H field component shielding.
As predicted in Eq. (6.29), the shielding effectiveness of an enclosure with aperture to an H
field source, above some low frequency, is almost constant with frequency. This is shown in
Figures 6.31 and 6.32 and in the theoretical curve in Figure 6.33, up to 400 MHz, and in the
theoretical and measured curves in Figure 6.34, up to 500 MHz. However, at the resonant and
antiresonant frequencies of the enclosure, the shielding either increases or becomes negative
(i.e., a field enhancement occurs). These effects are shown in Figures 6.33 and 6.34. Figure
6.34 shows that the magnetic field shielding effectiveness increases (i.e., the magnitude of the
H field decreases) the further away the measurement pointis fromthe aperture. Therefore, locate
susceptible circuits on a PCB as far away from the aperture as possible.
The practical application of the analysis and measurements are discussed in Ref. 9 and
are, for the H field:
Long, thin apertures are worse than round or square apertures, because, for a typical-size
enclosure, theory predicts that doubling the length of the slot reduces SI,by 12 dB,
0 400 600
fresuenw (MHz)
Figure 6.33 Calculated and nleasured S,, at center in a 300 X 120 X 300-mm enclosure with a 100 X
5-mmaperture.
Figure 6.34 Calculated S,, at three positionsin a 300 X 120 X 300-mmenclosure with a 100 X 5-
mm aperture, and measured S,, at the center of the enclosure.
whereas doubling the width reduces S,, by onlyabout 2 dB. Formagnetic field
sources, using the magnetic polarizability of rectangles in Table 6.8, doubling the
width reduces S,, by 3-4 dB.
Doubling the number of apertures reduces S , , by about 6 dB, and this is also seen at IOW
frequency for magnetic field sources, as shown in Eq. (6.29).
Dividing a slot into two shorter slots increases S,, by about 6 dB according to this predic-
tion; however, for magnetic field sources, Eq. (6.29) predicts that the increase is
closer to 12 dB.
At subresonant frequencies, doubling the enclosure dimensions while keeping the aperture
size and number constant is predicted to increase S,, by about 13 dB. For magnetic
field shielding, larger-size enclosures are highly recommended.
Doubling the enclosure size halves the resonant frequency. To avoid negative shielding
effectiveness, a smaller enclosure, or one that is full of electronic components, is
preferable.
6.4.3.2 Measured Attenuation of a Magnetic Field Source Within an Enclosure

To ensure the method of calculating magnetic field attenuation is accurate for the case when
the source is inside the enclosure, the following experiment was conducted.
A magnetic field was generated by a rectangular loop placed inside an enclosure with
apertures. The size of the enclosure was 36 cm X 25.4 cm X 5 cm deep and 21 apertures of
1.5 cm X 1.5 cm and one aperture of 8 cm X 2.7 cm were punched out of the enclosure.
In commercial and military EMC requirements, the maximum level of radiated E field is
often specified. As discussed in Chapter 2, a loop antenna generates both E and H field compo-
nents, and either may be predicted and measured. As a wave couples through the defects in an
enclosure, the magnetic and electric field components are not always attenuated to the same
extent, and a change in the wave impedance occurs. In this case study, the loop is only 5 mm
from the inside of the enclosure, and the wave impedance will be low both inside and outside
328 Chapter 6
of the enclosure. Thuswe assume that the wave impedance of the field radiated from the outside
of the enclosure is the same as the field from the loop when located outside of the enclosure.
A monopole antenna was located at a distance of 1 m from the loop antenna andmeasure-
ments were made of the E field with the loop both inside and outside of the enclosure. The
antenna factor of the monopole, which is calibrated assuming the far-field impedance of 377
Q, was corrected for the predicted wave impedance of the field 1 m from the loop antenna. The
measured E field from the loop located outside of the enclosure was within6 dB of that predicted,
using Eq. (2.9).
The current flow induced on the inside of the enclosure by the loop antenna, based on
the antenna location, was across the largest dimension, 8 cm, and it was therefore valid to use
this dimension in Eq. (6.29). The upper limit of the attenuation when computed from Eq. (6.29)
was dominated by the single 8-cm X 2.7-cm aperture. The 2 1 1S-cm apertures placed the upper
limit of attenuation at 65 dB, whereas the single large aperture placed it at 42 dB. Themeasured
attenuation was computed from the ratio of E field with the loop outside of the enclosure to
the measured E field with the loop inside the enclosure. A comparison of the predicted and
measured attenuations shows an uncharacteristically good correlation:
Attenuation [dB]
Frequency
[MHz] Predicted Measured
12.0 42 45
17.0 42 40
24.0 42 40
27.6 42 48
6.5 GASKETING THEORY, GASKET TRANSFER IMPEDANCE,

GASKET TYPE, AND SURFACE FINISH
6.5.1 GasketTheory
One method of closing seams is to use conductive gasket material. In instances where the seam
must be environmentally sealed, some form of gasket material is mandatory.
Figure 6.35 showsthe current density througha metal plate witha seam closed by a gasket
that has a lower conductivity or permeability than the metal plate. The voltage developed across
the gasket may result in a current flow and the generation of a predominantly H field in the
enclosure. Alternatively, when the impedance of the enclosure is high, which is more often true
of large enclosures at high frequency, a predominantly E field may be generated by the voltage
across the gasket.
The impedance of the gasket has components of resistance, contact impedance, and induc-
tance, as does the impedance of the ungasketed joints discussed in the preceding sections. An
additional component of gasket material that may become dominant is the capacitance between
conductive particles or mesh used in the majority of gaskets.
6.5.2 GasketTestMethods
To evaluate a gasket’s performance under the wide range of wave impedances found in practical
applications,radiatedtestingtechniquesusingE fields, H fields, andplanewaves are used.
/ l
Figure 6.35 Current density through an aperture closed by a gasket.
These techniques typically employ one or more metal cavities, with a source of field on one
side of the barrier and a measuring antenna/probe on the other side of the barrier. The energy
is coupled through the barrier via a seam that contains the gasket under test. The gasket is
usually placed under a cover plate that is placed over an aperture in the barrier. The fields
coupled through the aperture are measured with and without the cover plate, with and without
the gasket under the cover plate, or in some cases with the conductive gasket replaced by a
nonconductive gasket and nonconductive fasteners. The presence of conductive fasteners and
conductive compression stops can dramatically change the gasket measurement, as discussed
later. Also, the position of the antenna in these tests strongly influences the test signal coupled
through the antenna. It is highly recommended that the test antenna be moved relative to the
aperture and to the surrounding enclosure.
At least ten test methods exist for measuring the effectiveness of the addition of a gasket
to a joint in reducing or preventing electromagnetic leakage through the joint. Of these ten test
methods, only four are considered standardized, although considerable effort has been spent in
developing the at-present nonstandard reverberation chamber test methods. These arediscussed
as alternative techniques. The IEEE Std 1302- 1998“IEEE Guide forthe Electromagnetic Char-
acterization of Conductive Gaskets in the Frequency Range of DC to 18 GHz” describes in
detail the four standardized measurement techniques as well as five alternative techniques.
Table 6.9 compares the standardized gasket measurement techniques and also shows the
repeatability for each of the tests. The ARP 1173-1998, Def Stan 59-103, and MIL-G-83528B
show a typical repeatability of between 6 and 20 dB, which indicates that even comparative
tests on gasket material using these techniques should be made at the same location and using
the same relative antenna locations. The ARP1 173- 1998, DEF Stan 59- 103, andMIL-G-8352B
are measurements of the relative transmission through an aperture, and ARP 1705-1981 is a
transfer impedance test. ARP 1 173-1988 uses metal spacers between the cover plate and the
flange to set up an additional reference measurement. The difference between this reference
measurement and the measurement with the gasketed cover in place is referred to as shielding
irzcrease. Similar modifications to the MIL-G-83528B measurement procedure are in use. In
the IEEE Std 299-1997 measurement setup, the reference measurement is made in free space,
without the test enclosure, andthe comparison is made to the enclosure with the aperture covered
by the gasketed plate. This method results in a very high measured shielding effectiveness. In
Table 6.9 Comparison of Standardized Gasket Measurement Techniques
Measurement technique
Def Stan 59- 103
ARP 1705-1981 ARP 1173-1988 ( 1 7-Sep-93) MIL-G-83528B (1993)
-~ ~
Measurement principle Current injection Aperture attenuation Aperture attenuation Aperture attenuation
Parameter measured Transfer impedance EIHIPlane-wave attenuation E/H/Plane-wave attenuation E/H/Plane-wave attenuation
Unit of measure dB/Q-m dB dB dB
Test sample configuration Circular Rectangular Circular Rectangular
Sample size 150 mm diameter 300 X 300 mm 409 mm diameter 610 X 610 mm
Frequency range dc to 2 GHz 400 Hz to 10 GHz 10 kHz to I8 GHz 20 MHz to 10 GHz
Typical dynamic range 60-150 dB 60-1 00 dB 60- 120 dB 60- 120 dB
Typical repeatability -C 2 dB & (6-20) dB 2 (6-20) dB t (6-33) dB
Source: 0 lEEE 1998

MIL-G-835528B, the reference level is determined by placing the transmitting and receiving
antennas in line with the open aperture in the test chamber. This results i n a lower reference
level and lower shieldingeffectiveness compared to IEEE Std299-1997, but theshielding
effectiveness is higher than the ARP 1 173-1 998 “shielding increase.” The ARP I 173- 1988
test setup is illustrated in Figure 6.36.
One of the alternative test techniques is to use two reverberation chambers orInode-stirred
chambers (MSCs). One of the problems with chamber measurements. seen in all other tests of
the transmission through an aperture, are chamber resonances. These dramatically affect the
measured shielding effectiveness. In the MSC technique, a paddle wheel is used in each chamber
to randomize the field so that the gasket under test is exposed to fields of all angles and polariza-
tions. By selecting the rotation rate of one paddle wheel to be high compared to that of the
second, the measurement of maximum coupled fields inside one chamber is a function of the
other chamber’s tuner position. Shielding effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the power that
is transferred into the second chamber with only a cover plate over the aperture to the power
coupled through the aperture with the gasket under test inserted between the cover plate and
the chamber wall. By using two large chambers, testing down to 200 MHz ispossible, whereas
in the nested stirred mode method, shown in Figure 6.37, the lower frequency is restricted to
500 MHz because of the size of the smaller test chamber.
One of the major concerns in selection of gasket material is in the interpretation of the
manufacturers’ test data. Can the results obtained using the various test methods be compared?
Reference 26 describes tests made on four different gasket materials using the MIL-G-83528,
MSC, transfer impedance, and modified ASTM D 4935-89 test methods. Despite attempts to
standardize the tests and to linearize the test data, differences in the shielding performance of
the four different gasket materials were up to 50 dB using the different techniques! No two test
GASKET
UNDER TES
LOUTPUT, V.
Figure 6.36 ARP 1173-1998 testsetup. (0IEEE, 1998.)

332 Chapter 6
MOTOR
1 CONTROL
MOTOR
SYNCHRONIZATION
PADDLE-WHEEL TUNER
COVER PLATE --I TEST FIXTURE
I
GASKET-
UNDER-
INTERNAL
PADDLE-WHEEL
R,
k 4 RECEIVER I
Figure 6.37 Nested stirred-mode method for characterizing EM1 gaskets. (0 IEEE, 1998.)
techniquesshoweda good correlation, and the shielding perfonnances of the fourdifferent

gasket materials also were not consistently higher or lowerwhen measured using the four differ-
ent test techniques. It therefore seems impossible to evaluate the relative performance of gaskets
using different test methods. IEEE Std 1302-1998 also states: “Any technique is unlikely to
replicate the actual gasket application of interest. Therefore, each of the techniques should be
considered as a ‘platform’ from which minor modifications and adjustments can be made to
more closely approximate the application in question.”
Transfer impedance does provide an excellent and reproducible indication of the relative
quality of the gasket; however, unless the test fixture represents the materials and dimensions
of the equipment of concern, the test results can be misleading, as shown in the comparison of
test methods.
The test setup for transfer impedance in accordance with ARP 1705-1981, Figure 6.36,
shows a fixture with two cavities. The gap between the two cavities is closed by a metal plate
sealed by the gasket under test. A current is caused to flow through an impedance across one
face of the metal plate, through the gasketing material, returning on the walls of the driven
cavity. A voltage output is taken from the opposite surface of the metal plate, and the ratio of
measured voltage to drive current is described as the transfer impedance 2,. In the test setup
described here, the closing pressure was achieved by means of compressed air, so the effect of
the impedance of the fasteners was not measured. A number of factors determine the value of
Z,, including the composition of the gasket material, its thickness and width, the impedance of
the mating shield joint surface, and the pressure on the gasket.
6.5.3 Relative Performance of Gasket Materials

Figures 6.38a, b, c, and d show the transfer impedance for a number of commercially available
gasket materials at different closing pressures and frequencies, from Ref. 14. The purpose of
these graphs is to illustrate the importance of closing pressure on transfer impedance: the higher
the pressure, the lower the transfer impedance. Also, sample 2 shows an increase in transfer
impedance with increasing frequency, which is indicative of a predominantly inductive transfer
impedance. The “porcupine” type of wire mesh gasket, in which wires are imbedded vertically
in neoprene foam, exhibit inductance. The gasket in Figure 6.38 is a graphite-loaded gasket and
has a much higher DC resistance and at least 1000 times the transfer impedance of the other
gaskets from 0.; to 1 MHz. A graphite-loaded gasket seldom provides any additional level of
shielding, especially when conductive fasteners at distances of at least 5 cm are used. The de-
crease in transfer impedance shown in Figure 6.38d is characteristic of a gasket with a predomi-
nantly capacitive transfer impedance, which is common with conductive particles imbedded in
an elastomer. However, even above I O MHz, the graphite-loaded gaskethas a transferimpedance
15 times higher than the inductive monel wire mesh shown in Figure 6.38a.
The dimensions of the gasket material are important in determining the impedance pre-
sented to current flow; therefore the gasket transfer impedance is expressed in ohms per meter.
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Figure 6.38 Transfer impedance for a number of gasket materials. (From Ref. 14. 0 1982, IEEE.)
334 Chapter 6
jE
Figure 6.39 Current flow around an aperture and through a gasketed metal plate.
Figure 6.39b showsthe current flow around an aperture, Figure 6.39a shows the aperture closed
by a gasketed metal plate.
The current density through the plate is considered to be a uniform I A/m. The impedance
encountered by the current flow is dependent on the length of material presented to the current
flow multiplied by 2, because two lengths of gasketing are in the current path. For example,
for gasket material with a transfer impedance of 0.00018 Q/m, at 100 kHz and a length of 5
cm, the total impedance is
loo cm X 2 X 0.00018 Q/m = 0.0072 Q

5 cm
In practice, many of the manufacturers of gasket material use one of the relative aperture
test techniques, based on and including MIL-STD-285. As seen in the attenuation measurement
curves 011 conductive fabric in Figure 6.13, this type of measurement is subject to large variations
and, due to dependence on antenna type, location, and size of both the test enclosure and the
shieldedroom, to lack of reproducibility.Transfer impedance, in contrast, is amostuseful
parameter for evaluation of gasket shielding performance, due to the high level of repeatability
achievable in the measurement.
Experience with the use of gasket material soon teaches that the inclusion of a conductive
gasket may unexpectedly reduce the attenuation of an enclosure to external fields and increase
the level of radiated emissions from the enclosure. When enclosures are constructed from ma-
chined metal passivated or plated with a low-resistance finish at least %“ thick, with approxi-
mately I//’ overlap at the joint, and fasteners are approximately 1” apart, very few gasket materi-
als will improve the performance of the joint and many will degrade it. One gasket material
that may improve the performance of the machined enclosure, asmeasured by the DC resistance
of the joint, is thin silver-loaded elastomer when inserted into a groove in the material. The
resistance of the joint is at its lowest when the silver conductive gasket is in the form of an 0-
ring set into agroove in one of the mating surfaces. However, shelf-life measurements on silver-
filled silicon elastomer have reported increased resistance with time. In these measurements, in
which the material was stored for a year in uncontrolled humidity and temperature, a massive
increase of 5000 times the DC resistance and an increase in transfer impedance of 1200 are
recorded. Reference 14 presents the measured transfer impedance of a machined enclosure joint
at 80 pQ/m at 50 MHz for the metal-to-metal joint and 7 pQ/m at 50 MHz for the joint when
loaded with a ‘/a-inch-wide, I/winch-thick silver-loaded gasket. At 1 MHz, however, the silver-
loaded gasket transfer impedance is slightly higher than the metal-to-metal impedance. Refer-
ence 27 describes degradation in EM1 shielding and mating flange materials after environmental
exposure. The test method described in Ref. 27 is a relative aperture technique similar to MIL-
G-83528B. Two types of gasket material were tested: ( I ) a silver-loaded copper-filled silicone
gasket (Ag-Cu gasket) and a silver-plated aluminum-filled silicone gasket (Ag-A1 gasket). Stain-
less steel bolts and lock washers at a spacing of either 2.4" (0.98 cm) or 2.667" (1.05 cm) were
used to provide compression, with either conductive or nonconductive compression stops to limit
the compression on the gasket. One piece of interesting data obtained from the measurements is
that the level of shielding effectiveness with the Ag-Cu gasket in place, using conductive com-
pression stops, or with the gasket removed, leaving apertures between the fasteners, is the same
up to 10 GHz! This is another illustration that the addition of a gasket material may not be
beneficial and may be required only for environmental sealing and not for shielding. However,
if the conductive compression stops are replaced by nonconductive stops, the relative level of
shielding reduces by up to 60 dB.
Adding two narrow strips of silver-loaded elastomer to a joint i n a sheet metal enclosure
increased the transfer impedance at 50 MHz from 200 @ for the metal-to-metal joint to over
2 niR for the gasketed seam. The gasket in the thin sheet metal enclosure was not adequately
compressed and provided a small surface area in contact with the metal, which may account
for the higher impedance with the gasket than without. However, it is invariably a bad practice
to seal a seam between thin metal, especially when the fasteners are more than 1 inch apart,
with an incompressible material such as silicone elastomer, because the transfer impedance may
be no lower and in fact may be higher than that attained with no gasket.
Gaskets are available that have been shaped to fit between the flange of a bulkhead connec-
tor and the enclosure wall. One experience with a connector gasket is related as follows.
The gasket was made from a foam silicone material with vertical monel wires (porcupine
gasket material). The wires bite into the metal surface of the enclosure and the connector flange.
In the example, the connector was mounted in a large rack. The connector was a MIL-STD
type with a conductive cadmium-plated finish. When not in use, the connector was covered by
a screw on a cadmium-plated cap. With the cap in place, the radiation from the connector and
cap was measured, using a small magnetic field probe. Removing the gasket and relying on the
metal-to-metal contact between connector flange and enclosure reduced the level of radiation
by 7-13 dB. The most likely cause of the magnetic field was common-mode noise current
flowing through the capacitance of the connector pin to case capacitance and diffusing through
the impedance presented by the small number of vertical wires in the gasket material. Connecting
a cable to the connector and measuring the E field radiation from the cable over the 30-100-
MHz range showed an increase of between 6 and 10 dB with the gasket, compared to no gasket
material. In this case a marked reduction in radiation was achieved by adding a shield over the
wires inside the enclosure. The shield was connected to the inside of the enclosure and increased
the wire-to-enclosure capacitance, which effectively shunted the noise currents to the enclosure
and reduced current flow in the connector. In other experiments, the increase in radiation from
a cable with gasket material was attributed to the voltage drop across the gasket as a result of
current flow on the inside of the shield of the cable and the inside of the enclosure.
Further illustration of the importance of choosing the right gasket for the job, or avoiding
the use of a gasket, is shown from following curves of Figures 6.40a, b, c, d, e, alld f, fro111
Ref. 16. The test panel was 20 cm square covering a 10-cni-square aperture in the transfer
impedance test fixture. Eight # I 0132 screws were used to apply pressure to the gasket under
test. In addition to the gasket material, a nonconductive neoprene sheet, test numbers 101/201
and 1021202, was tested. In Figure 6.40b the effect of fastener spacing can be seen in tests with
the neoprene spacer. As expected, the higher the number of fasteners, the lower the transfer
impedance. With only two screws in the flange, a slot resonance was formed at approximately
380 MHz, and the measured transfer impedance increased to 1000 R/cm. The brass plate has
336 Chapter 6
Figure 6.40a Gasket test samples. (From Ref. 16. 0 1976, IEEE.)
1000
Sample 201
-
E
100
Aluminum panels with
neoprene spacer
Y
c 10
0)
2
1 ’ 8screwseach /
.-E
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency [MHzl
Figure 6.40b Ungasketed and neoprene spacer transfer impedances. (From Ref. 16. 0 1976, IEEE.)
a lower resistance than the aluminum, so the transfer impedance with the brass plate and no
gasket or spacer is lower than with the aluminum. In Figure 6 . 4 0 ~the monel 195, 203, and 204
gaskets are not much better than the neoprene spacer up to 1 MHz, and neither is as good as
the bare aluminum-to-aluminum joint up to 100 MHz. In figure 6.40d, the silver-filled rubber
Xecom and porcupine gaskets are worse than the bare aluminum-to-aluminum joint from 0.1
0.1
0.01
1 I I I I I I I I I I 1 Ill
0.1
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 6 . 4 0 ~ Transfer impedances with an aluminum panel. (From Ref. 16. Q 1976. IEEE.)
0.1
0.01
0.001 I I I I 1111 I I I I d
IIL
1000 0.1 100 1 10
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 6.40d Transferimpedances with an aluminum panel. (From Ref. 16. Q 1976, IEEE.)
MHz to 1 GHz. The transfer impedance of the stainless steel spira is almost the same as the
no-gasket transfer impedance, so none of these gasket materials can be recommended over a
bare metal-to-metal contact. From Fig. 6.40e the Xecom silver-filled rubber gasket used with
a brass plate is no better than no gasket until above 60 MHz, and at 650 MHz the transfer
impedance is 27% lower with than no gasket at all. The only gasket that shows a significant
reduction in transfer impedance compared to no gasket is the Sn/Be/Cu spira in either a single-
338 Chapter 6
A
10 0.1 1 100 1000
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 6.40e Transferimpedances with a brass panel. (From Ref. 16. 0 1976, IEEE.)
10 0.1 1 100 1000

Frequency [MHz]
Figure 6.40f Transferimpedanceswith a brass panel. (From Ref. 16. 0 1976, IEEE.)
or double-row configuration as shown in Figure 6.40f. With either an aluminum plate or a brass
plate, the Sn/Be/Cu spira gasket has a transfer impedance of 1.7% of the no-gasket brass plate
at 100 MHz and 0.3% of the aluminum no-gasket plate at 100 MHz. Both the spira and Be/
Cu finger stock material is the gasket of choice when a gap must be filled. Even where environ-
mental sealing is required, both types are available with a rubber or foam strip attached down
the length of the gasket.
In life measurements,theincrease in transferimpedance for stainless steel spira after

storage for one year was minimal, and although a tin-plated beryllium spira gasket increased
transfer impedance by up to a factor of 8, the transfer impedance after one year was still 1/100
of the transfer impedance of the stainless steel spira material. Figure 6.30 illustrates a very
strong relationship between thesurface resistance of the mating surfaces of an enclosure without
a gasket and the magneticfield attenuation. Whereas Ref. 28 found that using a shield andcover
plate with a surface preparation of either indite, tin plate, cadmium plate, or nickel plate and
aged for one year, a change in the contact resistance of the surface has very little impact on
the transfer impedance, and therefore on the attenuation, when gaskets are used. Also, the gasket
material is a very criticalconsideration in improvingshieldingeffectiveness with beryllium
copper, as seen in the other studies, significantly better than the other materials tested.
Reference 29 introduces the concept of the effective transmission width (ETW) of the
gasketed seam. The ETWcan be obtained from the transfer impedance of the gasketed aperture.
Thus the shielding effectiveness of a gasketed joint in an enclosure can be obtained assuming
the power loss through the gasket aperture is small relative to the wall losses of the enclosure.
Equation (6.30) provides the shielding effectiveness (SE) of an enclosure with a gasketed
seam. Theshielding effectiveness is directly proportional to the volume of the enclosure, which
is true for the magnetic field shielding effectiveness of the enclosure shown in Eq. (6.28). The
shielding effectiveness is inversely proportional to the Q of the enclosure, where the Q is the
ratio of the energy stored in all resonant modes in the enclosure to that which would be stored
with no losses. The Q of the enclosure is reduced when it is filled with electronics compared
to an empty (high-Q) enclosure. The shielding effectiveness is also inversely proportional to
the length of the gasket and the square of the magnitude of the transfer impedance of the gasket.
In addition, as we have seen, the shielding effectiveness is also dependent on the location
where the field is measured within the enclosure:
(6.30)
where
z\r= wave impedance (m)
V = volume of the enclosure (m)
l , = length of the gasket (m)
Q = ratio of energy stored in all resonant modes in the enclosure to what
would be stored with no losses
Some of the factors important in the choice of the correct gasket material follow.
Level of E, H, or plane-wave attenuution required.
Maximum current-carrying requirement, resistance qf material. In addition to shielding,
one use of gasket material is to provide a low-impedance path for noise current
flow. Only certain materials can carry the high currents encountered in a lightning
strike or EMP event (EMP typical current density is 3 A/mm).
Gap tolerances. When the gap to be filled does not exhibit a constant depth, a compress-
ible material, with a first choice of finger stock, followed by wire mesh and finally
conductive-cloth-over-foam type of gasket.
Frequency of opening the aperture. When a door orremovable plate is opened often, then
finger stock material, as used on shielded-room doors, is an obvious choice. A sili-
cone foam with wire mesh may also be used. The foam strip is glued to one of
340 Chapter 6
the mating surfaces. Obvious though this may appear, experience has shown the
importance of ensuring that the adhesive is not used between the wire mesh portion
of the gasket and the enclosure!
Flrstewer sizes and spaces. The distance between fasteners lnust be small enough to avoid
any buckling in sheet metal material, which will form gaps between the gasket and
the enclosure. Fasteners at close distances used with a highly conductive coating
on a thick material may eliminate the need for conductive gaskets!
M o ~ r r l t i qr~wthod.Finger stock gasket material may be soldered or held in place by a
metal strip fastened by screws or rivets or clipped over the edge of a frame or door
(often small indentations are included in the finger stock clip that mate with small
holes around the edge of the frame). When the spring finger of the finger stock
touches both of the mating surfaces, the base of the finger stock may be glued in
place. Conductive silicone materials may be glued, using conductive adhesive, or
held in place until the fastenersaretightened. Conductive siliconemay also be
formed in place to fill slots in an enclosure. Wire mesh gaskets are available with
attached neoprene foam that may be glued to the surface, with the foam acting as
an environmental seal.
Colnpression set.
Compression deflection. Nonfoam silicone material is incompressible but will deform un-
der pressure. Wire mesh gaskets are usually compressible, with the exception of
sintered metal fiber, mesh in silicone, and wire screen types.
Stress relaxution. Load silicone material to 125% of rated, after which the material will
relax to the rated load.
Tmyile strerlsth.
Elongcrtioil. This can increase the resistivity of silicone-loaded material and subsequent
reduction in compression. Therefore, limit it to IO%, by the use of compression
stops or containing the gasket material in grooves.
Tempercrture rcrnge. Most silicones are good from 55°C to 125°C.
Outgmsing. This is usually achieved during the outgassing test on the material. For sili-
cone conductivegaskets, some typicalvalues, when tested for 24 hours at lo-'
torr and a temperature of 125"C, are: total mass loss 1% or less, collected volatile
condensable 0.1%.
Cas perrnetrbili/y. For silicone-loaded material, this is usually less than for the base mate-
rial.
Flanrmrrbili/y. Most gasket material will support a flame but are self-extinguishing.
Flrngus resistmvx. Mostgasketmaterials will supportfungusgrowth, but no internal
change will occur.
Cost.
Corrosion, oxidi:ation, rrletal conpatibilih. Dissimilar metals in contact will result in
corrosion. The extent is dependent on the amount of moisture i n the atmosphere
and the incidence of condensation.
6.5.4 Waveguide Gaskets

A gasket material is often included in between the flanges of a waveguide. The reasons to use
a conductive elastomer type of gasket are:
1. To pressurize the waveguide to increase its peak power-handling capability

2. To exclude the external environment, dust, or moisture
3 . Usually incidentally, to seal the joint electromagnetically and reduce electromagnetic

radiation
Two basic types of conductive elastomer exist. One is a thin, flat gasket, which is placed
asashimbetween the waveguideflangesurfaces,thesecond is either an 0- or D-shaped
gasket, which is placed in a groove in one of the flange surfaces. With conductive elastomer
gaskets, both a conductive metal-to-metal connection between the flange surfaces and a connec-
tion between the gasket material and the flange are made. The 0- and D-shaped gaskets are
suitable for choke-flange and grooved-contact-flange applications. If a thin, flat elastomer type
of gasket is placed between the flange surfaces, which are then torqued up, the gasket material
will cold-flow out of the joint. This results in the material’s entering the waveguide opening
and eventually results in a loose joint that will neither pressure-seal nor electromagnetically
seal. Instead of using a solid elastomer, the cover-flange and flat contact-flange gaskets are die-
cut from sheet stock containing an expanded metal reinforcement to eliminate cold-flowing of
the elastomer material. This type of gasket can be supplied with a slightly raised lip around the
iris opening for high-pressure, high-power applications. Standard waveguide gaskets are avail-
able that fit the standard UG, CPR, and CMRflanges, and custom gaskets can be made to cover
the WRlO to WR23000 range of waveguides. The use of a silver-plated brass mesh gasket can
be added to the groove of a flange choke. One reported problem with the fine wire mesh gasket
is that the gasket can burn under heavy current, and the power-handling capability of this type
of gasket remains unproven. None of the conductive elastomer gasket materials exhibit gasket
contact impedances lower than predicted for a metal-to-metal flange impedance, in one case the
gasket contact impedance was 390 times higher. However, none of the available waveguide
gaskets use the elastomer material alone to seal the joint; an additional metal-to-metal contact
is made. Tech-etch manufactures neoprene or silicone with aluminum and silicone in monel
gaskets.
Parker seals manufactures a molded nonconductive gasket imbedded in a metal retainer.
The main purpose of these gaskets is to allow pressurization of the waveguide or to environmen-
tally sealthewaveguide.Based on theParkermeasurements,the RF flange resistance over
the 2.6-3.6G-Hz frequency range was highest for pure conductive plastics, just lower for an
impregnated wire mesh gasket, with the metal-to-metal flange gasket 1/9 of the impedance of
the conductive plastic. Adding a knitted wire mesh gasket to an O-ring groove resulted in a
very slightly lower impedance than with the metal-to-metal flange alone.The lowest impedance
was a Parker knurled-aluminum gasket with a chemical film CL.3. The RF impedance of this
gasket was 1 /4to 1 /7 of the value for a bare metal-to-metal flange, so this would result i n the
lowest level of leakage from the waveguide joint. The most likely reason the serrated type of
metal gasket is so successful at reducing theRF resistance is that the ridges are under tremendous
pressure, due to the low surface area of the serration, and possibly cold-flow or weld into the
adjacent flange material. The purpose of the nonconductive elastomer part of the Parker seal is
for environmental or pressure sealing; if these are not required, then the use of the flange seal
without elastomer is likely to be even better. The finish on the ridged gasket also affects the
contact resistivity and therefore the RF impedance. The highest contact resistivity is achieved
with a transverse ridged brass gasket with a Chem. Film CL3, the next lower resistivity is no
finish (bare brass), followed by cadmium plate, gold, and silver, in that order. If a waveguide
seam leaks around the edge of the flange, with or without a gasket, the gaps can be filled with
conductive caulking, conductive adhesive, or silver-loaded grease. The addition of silver-loaded
epoxy to the outside of the joint in a waveguide flange has been reported to reduce emissions
by up to 20 dB, despite the epoxy’s relatively high volume resistivity of approximately 2 m R /
cm. The most probable reason for the silver-loaded epoxy’s effectiveness is that the material
342 Chapter 6
enters the microscopic gaps in the two surfaces on the outside of the flange faces and, despite
the poor conductivity, the skin depth of the epoxy in the 2- 12-GHz range is small enough that
virtually all of the current flows on the inside surface of the epoxy. One additional technique,
applicable only to waveguide sections that contain standing waves, is to position waveguide
flanges or components at locations of minimum current flow down the length of the waveguide.
The voltage drop across the joint impedanceis thereby reduced, as is the emission. The presence
of transverse currents i n the wall of the waveguide does not result in a voltage across the joint.
6.5.3 Conductive Finishes, DC Resistance, and Corrosion Effects

on Gasket Materials
The DC resistance of materials and finishes is often increased by moisture, which increases
corrosion, or by oxidization. Table 6. 10, from Ref. 1.3, illustrates the initial DC resistance and
the effect of 400 hr and 1000 hr at 95% relative humidity.
The DC resistance of a joint without gaps is a good indicator of impedance, for the induc-
tance will be low and the contact impedance, from measurements, appears to track with resis-
tance. Low values of DC resistance cannot be measured with any repeatability by the two-wire
measuring technique, available with the majority of multimeters, due to the contact resistance
of the probes. Instead, the four-wire technique described i n Section 8.7.4 on bonding must be
used. Here, a current is caused to flow across the two metal plates, which are joined together.
The injection should be via two wide contacts; here, strips of conductive adhesive copper foil
may be used. The voltage measuring contacts are then placed across the joint or seam, and the
DC resistance is the ratio of measured voltage to injected current. Because the voltage-measuring
contacts do not supply the current, the effect of contact impedance is greatly reduced.
Table 6.10 Resistance Measurements on Materials

Resistance (milliohms)
At 400 hr At 1000 hr
Material Finish Initial 95% RH 95% RH
Alum
2024 clad/clad 1.3 1.1 2.0
2024 clean only/clean only 0.1 I 5.0 30.0
606 1 clean onlylclean only 0.02 7.0 13.0
2024 light chrotnate conversion/same 0.40 14.0 51.0
606 1 light chromate conversion/same 0.55 11.5 12.0
2024 heavy chromate conversion/same 1.9 82.0 100.0
606 1 heavy chromate conversionlsame 0.42 3.2 5.8
Steel
1010 cadtnium/cadmium 1 .x 2.8 3.0
1010 cadmium-chromate/satne 0.7 1.2 2.5
IO10 silverlsilver 0.05 1.2 1.2
IO10 tin/tin 0.0 1 0.01 0.0 1
Copper clean onlylclean only 0.05 1.9 8.1
Copper cadmiudcadtnium I .4 3. I 2.7
Copper cadmium-chromate/salne 0.02 0.4 2.0
Copper silvedsilver 0.01 0.8 1.3
Copper tinltin 0.01 0.01 0.0 I
Measurements of resistance across joints that are passivated by iridite are in the 10-100-
region, whereas the joint impedance of two zinc dichromate passivated panels held together
by pop rivets demonstrated a DC resistance of 1.5-2 mR. Anodizing, either hard black or clear,
must not be used over contact areas over joints, seams, connector housings, panels, etc., for
this finish is virtually an insulator. The surface resistivity of clear anodizing over a conductive
surface was measured at ameanvalue of 5 X 10" Wcm, which is not evenadequate for
electrostatic discharge. When an enclosure must be anodized, mask those areas where joints are
made, panels or doors are located, or connector housings mate. After anodizing, brush iridite
on these areas. The brush indite process is electroplating, with one electrode in the form of a
brush used to locally apply the iridite.
Figure 6.30 illustrates the importance of low joint-contact resistance, for we see that the
magnetic field attenuation of panels with 1.5 mR of DC seam resistance is up to 50 dB less
than a panel with a 30-pR DC resistance.
The area, surface resistivity, and pressure on a joint affect the contact resistance. Table
6.11 from Ref. 30, shows the contact resistance of either bare or coated aluminum alloys. Five
types of proprietary conversion coating with three types of plating and two joint compounds
were measured. A summary of the findings is: Platings reduce the contact resistance of the joint
when compared to bare aluminum, whereas chromate conversion coatings generally increase
the contact resistance. Chromate-coating contact resistance varied from test to test and sample
to sample over a wide range. Pressure cycling affects the contact resistance from cycle to cycle,
with platings remaining reasonably stable and coatings showing random results. Conversion
coating in contact with a plating shows a lower contact resistance than a joint with two conver-
sion coatings. The typical reduction with pressure for a nickel bath plating over 6061/6061 with
a surface roughness of 32 rms is shown in Figure 6.41.
A lower contact resistance than shown in Table 6.1 1 for iridite has been measured, of
60 pR for a 5.4-cm2 area. Different formulations are available, so always specify the lowest-
resistance version. Contact resistance of copper tape and epoxies are shown in Table 6.12.
Note: much of this data is presented with different joint areas, and the pressure is unknown.
However, those materials with a very high contact resistance can be identified.
Magnesium die castings have become popular for structural reasons, and the high-purity
magnesium casting alloys AZ91D and AZ91E have demonstrated superior resistance to salt
water corrosion, when compared to earlier commercial alloys. Data for different conductive
treatments on AZ9lD high-pressure die-cast magnesium in pR for l-square-inch surfaces after
exposure to humidity is shown in Table 6.13. # l , #20, and #21 are all acid chrome based.
Neutral chromates, such as dichromate and dilute chrome pickle, have resistivities in the tens
of thousands of micro-ohms and should be avoided. Zinc dichromate on aluminum also results
in a significantly higher resistivity than electroplated zinc.
The closerthe metal is in the galvanic series of metals, the lower the probability of corro-
sion. Figure 6.42 showsthe standard potential of common metals used for shielding. The corro-
sion potential between silver and aluminum is expected to be high due to the large distance
between the metals in the galvanic series. From measurements, the corrosion in a salt spray
atmosphere of a silver-loaded silicone elastomer between aluminum plates was not excessive,
possibly because the gasket material has a much higher resistancethan pure silver, also because
the gasket will seal the joint against the ingress of moisture. However, the measured transfer
impedance of the silver-loaded silicone material when in contact with iridited aluminum in-
creased from approximately 10 mR/m to 5 R / m after a periodof one year. In equipment designed
for space application, negligible change is expected, due to the lack of an atmosphere. However,
in ground-basedapplications,thepotentiallylargeincrease in transferimpedanceshould be
considered when making the choice of gasket material.
344 Chapter 6
Table 6.11 Contact Resistance of 6061-T6 and 7075-T6 at 300 PSI (Milliohms) (First Pressure
Cycle)
606 1-T6/6061-T6 samples, 6061-T6/7075-T6 sample,
joint area in in.’ joint area in in.’
Coating and surface roughness 10 5 2.5 10 5 2.5

Bare aluminum-mill 0.443 0.531 0.305 0.264 1.122
Bare aluminum-32 RMS - 0.078 - 0.072 -
Bare Aluminum-18 RMS - 0. I26 - 0.072 -
Alodine 1200-mill 4.55 37. I 17.9 24.7 63.8
Alodine 1200-32 RMS - 24.3 - 34.7 -
Alodine 1200-64 RMS - 36.8 - 8.9 -
Alodine 1500-mill 0.639 5.80 23.4 5.06 4.82
Alodine 1500-32 RMS - 2.14 - 14.7 -
Alodine 1500-64 RMS - 13.1 - 7.97 -
Alodine 600-mill 5.87 21.6 12.4 14.9 24.6
Alodine 600-32 RMS - 10.4 - 13.9 -
Alodine 600-64 RMS - 10.8 - 7.9 -
Tin-mill 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.003 0.001
Tin-32 RMS - 0.009 - 0.00 1 -
Tin-64 RMS - 0.0 12 - 0.00 1 -
Oakite-mill 20.0 14.5 14.8 32.1 44.8
Iridite-mill 1.12 25.6 74.8 13.8 35.2
Chromium-mill 0.019 0.016 0.050 - -
Chromium-32 RMS - 0.0 17 - - -
Alodine 1200/tin--mill 0.332 0.249 0.539 I .01 0.715
Alodine 1200/tin-32 RMS - 0.336 - - -
Alodine 1200/tin-64 RMS - 0.090 - - -
Nickel bath-mill 0.009 0.023 0.035 0.006 0.0I6
Nickel bath-32 RMS - 0.027 - 0.006 -
Nickel bath-64 RMS - 0.029 - 0.008 -
Nickel brush-mill 0.010 0.01 1 0.008 - -

Nickel brush-32 RMS - 0.013 - - -
Nickel brush-64 RMS - 0.009 - - -
EJC - 0.193 - - -
ALNOX - 0.018 - - -
Suitrce: Ref. 30.
Tin-plated, stainless steel spiral, and monel mesh gaskets in contact with iridited,
cadmium-plated, and nickel-plated panels exhibit a much lower increase in transfer impedance
over a period of one year.
In Ref. 27, the shielding effectiveness of the Ag-Cu gasket when placed in contact with
a stabilized copper-coated aluminum flange did not significantly change when exposed to a
sulfur dioxide salt fog for 192 hours. Similarly, the shielding effectiveness of the silver-plated
aluminum-filled fluorosilicone (Ag-Al) gasket, mated with the stabilized copper-coated alumi-
num flange, did not degrade by more than 14 dB when exposed. The volume resistivity of the
gasket increased from 0.008 ohm-cm before exposure to 0.014 ohm-cm after. However, the
shielding effectiveness of the nickel-coated graphite-filled fluorosilicone (NiGr) gasket material
did degrade by up to 36 dB after exposure to SO? for 192 hours, so at some frequencies the
shielding effectiveness of the NiGr gasket was only 24 dB higher than that of the flange without
Figure 6.41 Decrease in contact resistance with pressure for nickel bath plating.
Table 6.12 Typical Contact Resistance of Coatings, Gaskets, Tapes, and Adhesives
Contact
Material
~
Eccobond solder 57C Cured at room temperature 201-218 mR

Chomerics 584-29 silver-loaded Cured at room temperature 106-268 mR
epoxy
Copper tape ribbed, nonconductive Moderate finger pressure 13 m R 19 cm'
adhesive After 24 hr 9.4 mR 19 cm'
Full pressure 37 mR 19 cm'
Low pressure 11.7 mR 19 cm'
Spraylat 5 9 9 4 8 2 19- I copper con- Thickness = 2 mils 16.8 mR 8.82 cm'
ductive coating
Scotch 3M tape with conductive 11.7 mR 19 cm'
adhesive
Conductive fabric over neoprene Compressed to 2 mm 550 mR 1 cm?
gasket
Beryllium copper finger stock Compressed to 2 mm 159 mR 1 cm'
gasket
Multi-layers of very close wire Compressed to 2 mm 105 mR 1 cm2
mesh over neoprene
Tin-plated sprmg steel finger stock Compressed to 2 mm 8 mi2
346 Chapter 6
Table 6.13 Contact Resistance of Conductive Treatments on AZ91D High

Pressure. in PR,for I-in.? Surfaces
Surface resistance, pQ/days of cyclic

humidity exposure
Treatment Initial 21 days 50 days
Abraded 70- l40 140-340 Erratic
# l Chrome pickle MIL-"3171,
ASTM D 1732 140-200 90- 180 90- 130
#l 8 Phospate no cond. no cond. no cond.
#20 Modified chrome pickle 150-220 130-170 90- 150
#23 Stannate immersion 90- l60 120-320 70-118
#21 Ferric nitrate bright pickle 50- 130 90- 120 10-50
gasket and with nonconductive compression stops, i.e., a seam with gaps. The volume resistivity
of the NiGr gasket was highly variable, ranging from 0.085 ohm-cm to 0.372 ohm-cm.
The copper coating used in the tests was a two-part urethane coating containing a stabi-
lized-copper filler, copper corrosion inhibitors, or aluminum corrosion inhibitor andan inorganic
pigment, which was added over a MIL-C-5541 coating. This type of copper coating showed an
initial SE 10-20 dB higher than a sample coated only with a conversion coating per MIL-C-
5541, Class 3. Both types of coating with the Ag-AI gasket showed some degradation in SE
after 1000 hours of salt spray.
I
W
L
b
a
-2.5
-
-
MAGNESIUM
-20 -
-1.5
-
-
ALUMINUM
-_
-
-1.0 MANGANESE
ZINC
- -5
- IRON ~
NICKEL
COPPER
SILVER
+ 1.5 GOLD
Figure 6.42 Standard potential in the electromotive series for common materials.
Paint underneath
edge of gasket Silver loaded
silicon gasket
Non-conductive Conductive
‘0’ ring ‘ 0 ring
Figure 6.43 Methods of excluding moisture from thc conductive part of gaskets. thus reducingthe
possibility of corrosion.
Figure 6.43 illustrates methods of excluding moisture from the conductive part of gaskets
thus reducing the probability of corrosion. Some of the many manufacturers of gasket material
are as follows: Information on gasket material is available from Chomerics Ltd.. 77 Dragon
Court, Woburn, MA0 1801. Chomerics produces an EMI/RFI gasket design manual and a gasket
catalog. Tech-etch Ltd. of 45 Aldrin Road, Plymouth, MA, produces in addition to elastomer
and metal mesh gaskets a rangeof beryllium copper finger material. Tecknit also manufactures a
large range of gasket materials and supplies, a useful EM1 shielding design guide, and a catalog,
available from Tecknit, 129 Dennody Strect, Cranford, NJ 07016. instrument Specialities is an-
other supplier of finger stock material. Spira, at 12721 Saticoy St. So., Unit B, No. Hollywood,
CA 9 1605, manufacturesthe stainless steel and tin-plated berylliumcopper spiral gasket material.
348 Chapter 6
A manufacturer of conductive silver metallized nylon ripstop fabric bonded to foam is

Schlegel, P.O. Box 23197, Rochester, NY 14692. The manufacturer of waveguide gaskets, as
well as O-ring and molded gaskets is Parker Seals, 10567 Jefferson Blvd., Culver City, CA
90230. Two manufacturers of circuit board shields are Leader Tech, 14100 McCormickDrive,
Tampa, FL 33626,and Boldt Metronics International, 345 North Erie Drive, Palatine, IL 60067.
6.6 PRACTICAL SHIELDING AND LIMITATION ON EFFECTIVENESS

Our discussion thus farhasassumed the use of a totallyenclosed box, cabinet, etc. Often,
especially between printed circuit boards or to break an enclosure up into compartments, thin
metal plates are used that are not totally connected around their peripheries to the inside of the
enclosure. Figure 6.44 shows a metal plate inserted between a PCB that is a source of emission
and a PCB containing susceptible circuits. The source of emission is likely to be due to switching
current flowing around a current loop and thus a source of magnetic field. The current flow
induced into the metal plate cannot be constant over the surface of the plate; instead it must
reduce to zero at the edges of the plate. This edge effect means that the incident magnetic field
is not canceled but reradiates from the edges of the plate, as shown in Figure 6.44.
Where the receptor circuit or PCB track to be shielded has a small area and is located
close to the center of the PCB, the method of shielding described may be adequate. However,
should the metal plate be grounded, either via a ground track on the receptor board or via a
length of wire to the enclosure, the EM1 situation may be exacerbated by either increased noise
currents in the receptor PCB ground or radiation from the ground wire. If the distance between
the two boards is kept constant and the metal plate is connected to signal ground on the receptor
board, the coupling to the metal plate will be greater due to closer proximity to the source and
the potential for EM1 may again be increased.
EMITTER
SHIELD
RECEPTOR
Is = S H I E L D CURRENT DENS I TY
Figure 6.44 Metalplate shield placed between two PCBs.

349
If the metal plate cannot be connected around its periphery to the inside of the enclosure,
then there is no reason to ground it at all. Increasing the distance between the source and the
receptor board with or without the metal shield may be an adequate solution.
Placing susceptible circuits in small, shielded enclosures on PCBs or in enclosures with
shielded input, output, and power cables may be required for low-level high-input-impedance
circuits. For example, a high-input-impedance op amp circuit with a gain of 1000 was used to
increase the “pink noise” level from a noise source diode. The output of the amplifier should
have been noncoherent noise, whereas the measured signal contained coherent amplitude-modu-
lated signals from local AM transmitters. Placing a small enclosure made of copper foil lami-
nated to cardboard over the circuitandconnectingtheshield to powergroundreduced the
interference. However, it was not until a ground plane was added under the enclosureon the track
side of the board and electrically connected to the enclosure on the component side, thus com-
pleting the shield, that the interference was eliminated.
6.7 COMPARTMENTALIZATION
Placing susceptible circuits or noise sources in a compartment within an enclosure is an option
that may be mandatory when dealing with high-level noise sources or low-level analog, video,
or RF circuits. Just as with shielded enclosures, the effectiveness of the compartment may be
compromised by bringing in power or signallines that containnoisevoltages.Feedthrough
filters should be designed into the compartment. The need for the filters may then be assessed by
removal, and those filters found unnecessary may be replaced with nonfilter-type feedthroughs.
When apertures exist in the compartment, the levels of E and H fields generated from
noise sources should be calculated from the equations of Chapter 2, the coupling through the
aperture may be predicted from equations presented i n this chapter and the response of the
receptor circuit may be predicted using the techniques described in Chapter 2 .
6.8 SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS OF BUILDINGS

Shielded rooms are designed to achieve specific levels of attenuation and are used principally
for EM1 measurements and to contain classified electronic information or restricted transmis-
sions. Thecharacteristics of shielded rooms used in EM1 measurements are discussed in Chapter
9. In this section we examine the shielding effectiveness of commercial buildings and residential
houses. The reduction in the signal strength of a radio transmission as it propagates inside a
building is undesirable when reception is required. Most of us have noticed the reduction in
signal strength as a portable radio is moved from a position close to a window to one further
inside the building. However, building attenuation is a desired attribute when the source of the
field is either high-level broadcast transmissions, lightning, or radar, which have the potential
for interference.
I n an EMC/EMI investigation that includes a building in the radiated propagation path,
data on the average attenuation for different types of buildings is required. When susceptible
equipment is contained in the building, the magnitude of the field incident on the building may
be predicted from the distance and source characteristics. When the building is used to shield
a receptor from a source, the diffraction of the wave around the building must be accounted
for, in addition to attenuation through the building. Diffraction and coupling around a structure
are discussed in Chapter IO.
As noted, in enclosure shielding the E field and H field components nlay not be equally
attenuated by a material, and the waveimpedance Inay change aftertransmissionthrough a
medium.
350 Chapter 6
In Ref. 17, both the E and H fields of ambient broadcast signals were measured inside
and outside seven different types of buildings:
1. Single-familydetachedresidence of thesplit-levelranchtype. Materials: wood-

framed with wood and brick siding, aluminum foil-covered insulation in the ceiling.
2. Single-family detached residence of the wood-framed, raised ranch type. Mrlterials:
concrete block walls on the lower levels and aluminum siding covering the upper
levels; brick veneer front on the main level.
3. Single-story concrete block. Muterirrls: concrete blocks with a large storefront win-
dow; structure framed with steelcolumns and a steel bar joist-supported roof; interior
divided into cubicles with demountable steel and glass. An extensive array of ducts,
pipes, and cables occupied the space above a suspended ceiling.
4. Single-story concrete block. Materirrls: concreteblock,steel-framedbuilding con-
structed on a reinforced-concrete slab. Interior description similar to 3.
5 . Four-story office. Ml/tericrls: Steel-framed with preformed-concrete exterior wall pan-
els; one side covered with metal exterior wall panels. The floors are corrugated steel
covered with poured concrete. Interior description similar to 3 .
6. Four-story office. Mcrterials: steel frame with brick exterior walls; corrugated steel
floors covered with poured concrete. Interior description similar to 3.
7 . Twenty-story office. Mrrterials: Steel frame with marble exterior wall panels; interior
steel columns spaced approximately 7 m apart; corrugated steel floors covered with
poured concrete. The interior is uncluttered, with few interior walls and partitions.
The level of attenuation depends on the interior location at which the measurement was
made. Thus measurements were made at a number of different locations in each building. Table
6.14 provides a summary of the fitted mean, minimum, and maximum measured attenuations
of the seven buildings.
The attenuation of UHF radio signals by buildings has been measured in Ref. 18. Table
6.15 gives a summary of the effects of frequency and building type on the attenuation. The
average attenuation from measured data is 6.3 dB. The table shows correction factors that must
be added to or subtracted from 6.3 dB to account for frequency, room location, and building
materials used in the construction.
When equipment housed in a building is found to be susceptible to a source of high-power
radiated emissions, suchas a transmitter, and it can be proven that the EM1 problem is marginal,
then a few decibels of additional attenuation may be all that is required to eliminate EMI. The
first step in such an investigation is to prove that thecouplingpath is truly radiated to the
equipment inside the building and not radiated to or conducted on external power or signal
lines. The next step is to ensure that a modicum of additional shielding is all that is required.
One method of enhancing the building attenuation is to paint it with conductive paint. In
Ref. 19, a powdered nickel acrylicbase conductive paint was used on concrete or concrete
block walls. The measured attenuation after painting increased by 20 dB over the 100-350-
MHz frequency range and by 16 dB for the pulsed field from lightning. Additional shielding
at windows may be achieved by the use of wire mesh in a frame electrically connected to the
conductive paint. A transparent plastic film coated with copper or gold may also provide suffi-
cient shielding at windows, but is a more costly solution. Care must be taken to ensure that the
conductive side of the film contacts the paint either directly or via a metal window frame.
When a higher level of shielding than achievable with conductive paint is required, the
use of sheets of metal foilsoldered or tapedtogether on theinsidewallsand ceiling is an
alternative. Earth is a good absorberof electromagnetic radiation; therefore, installing equipment
Table 6.14 Building Attenuation

H field H field E field E field
Building Frequency mean [dB] limits [dB] mean [dB] limits [dB]
20 1 0 - 32 -
1 MHz 0 - 30 -
500 MHz 0 -5 to 3 0 - 5 to 8
20 2 kHz 3 - 22 12 to 33
1 MHz 0 9-5 to 2 -8 to 34
500 MHz 10 12
2 to 20 l to 20
20 3 kHz -1 - - -
MHz 1 3 - 18 -
500 MHz 8 -3 to 19 8 -3 to 15
20 4 kHz -3
1 MHz 12 12 285 to 25 to 28
500 MHz 8 - 10 -
2 kHz
5 20 - - -
l MHz 3" - 22 -
500 MHz 6 - 3 -
20 6 kHz 3 - 32 -
1 MHz 8" - 28" -
500 MHz 10 - 10 -
l 20 kHz 20 - 40 -
1 MHz 20' - 35" -
500 MHz 10 - 10 0 to 25"

~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~
" Measured 1 m from the outer wall of the buildings. Measurements madc 15 m from the outer
wall showed attenuation of up t o 35 dB for magnetic fields and up to 50 dB for electric fields.
Mobile homes provide an average of 28 dB of attenuation over the 20-kHz to 500-MHz frc-
quency rangc.
Table 6.15 Attenuation Correction Factors

Correction
factor" [dB]
Frequency 2569 MHz 1.160
1550 MHz 0.390
860 MHz (V) -0.169
860 MHz (H) 0.140
Construction Wood siding -0.58
Brick veneer 0.58
Insulation Blown in ceiling -0.8
Ceiling and walls 0.8
Room position Exposed walls -0.3
No exposed walls 0.3
" Avcrdge attenuatwnfrom whlch the correction factors arc
addcd/subtractcd is 6.3 dB.
352 Chapter 6
below ground level andlor building up a 2-m-thick wall of earth around the room housing the
equipment is another potential solution.
6.9 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR EVALUATING

SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS
‘Program for evaluating shielding effectiveness
‘Function for logarithms to base 10
DEF FNLOG (x)
FNLOG = LOG(x)/LOG(lO)
END DEF
‘Initialize constants for PI and speed of light as well as other
‘parameters used in the program
C = 3E + 08
PI = 3.14159
f = 100: Gr = .35: Ur = 1: R1 = 8.78: t = 62.5: ANS$ = “H”
GOTO ComputeAttenuation:
Attenuationlnputs:
CLS
PRINT “COMPUTATION OF SHIELDING ATTENUATION”
PRINT ‘I”
PRINT “INPUTS:”
PRINT “[A] Compute H or E-field reflection”, ANS$
PRINT “[F] Frequency, F”,, f; “Hz”
PRINT “[D] Distance from conductor, Rl”, R1; “inches”
PRINT “[TI Thickness of shield, t”, t; “mils”
PRINT “[G] Relative conductivity, Gr”, Gr
PRINT “[U] Relative permeability, Ur”, Ur
PRINT “[X] Exit program”
PRINT “Please select variable you wish to change (A,B,etc)”
PRINT “”
GOSUB Outputs1:
MonopoleLoop:
SEL$ = INKEY$
IF LEN(SEL$) > 0 THEN LOCATE 11, 1
IF LEN(SEL$) > 0 THEN PRINT SPACE$(70)
LOCATE 11,3
IF (SEL$ = “A’) OR (SEL$ = “a”) THEN INPUT “Enter H-field(H)/E-field(E) ANS$ ’I,
IF (SEL$ = “F”) OR (SEL$ = “f”) THEN INPUT “Enter Frequency f ‘I,
IF (SEL$ = “G”) OR (SEL$ = “g”) THEN INPUT “Enter relative conductivity ”, Gr

IF (SEL$ = “U”) OR (SEL$ = “U”) THEN INPUT “Enter relative permeability ”, Ur
IF (SEL$ = “D”) OR (SEL$ = “d”) THEN INPUT “Enter distance from conductor ”, R1
IF (SEL$ = “T”) OR (SEL$ = ‘It”) THEN INPUT “Enter thickness of shield ”, t
IF (SEL$ = “X”) OR (SEL$ = “X”) THEN END
IF LEN(SEL$) > 0 THEN GOTO ComputeAttenuation:
GOTO MonopoleLoop:
ComputeAttenuation:
IF (ANS$ = “E”) OR (ANS$ = “e”)THEN ANS$ = “ELECTRIC (E-field)”
IF (ANS$ = “H”) OR (ANS$ = “h”) THEN ANS$ = “MAGNETIC (H-field)”

LAMBDA = (C / f ) * 39.37 ‘LAMBDA = wavelength in inches
Tcm = t * ,00254 ‘Shield thickness in cm for calculation
‘of skin depth
‘Reflection of electric field
Re = 353.6 + (10 * FNLOG(Gr/(f 3 * Ur * R1 2)))
A A
‘Reflection of magnetic field

Rm = 20 * FNLOG(((.462/R1)* SQR(Ur / (Gr * f))) + ((.l36 * R1) / SQR(Ur / (f * Gr)))
+ ,354)
‘Absorption by shield
A = .003334 * t * SQR(Ur f * Gr)
‘Metal impedance
Zm = 369 SQR((Ur * (f / lOOOOOO!)) / Gr) * .000001
‘Wave impedance
GOSUB ComputeZw: ‘Zw is different depending on whether one is looking
‘at magnetic or electric fields
K = ((Zm - Zw) / (Zm + Zw)) 2 A
‘K is a function of Zw and is different depending on the type of field as well

IF K 1 E-09 THEN K = 1E-O9‘Program sets minimum K at 1 .OE-05
‘The re-reflection, Rr, will be different depending on type of field since
‘it is a function of K
Rr = 20 * FNLOG(1 - (K * 10 (-.l
A * A) * EXP(-.227 * A)))
SEe = Rr + Re + A
SEm = Rr + Rm + A
GOT0 Attenuationlnputs:
Outputs1:
IF ANS$ = “ELECTRIC (E-field)” THEN GOSUB ElectricFieldOutputs:
IF ANS$ = “MAGNETIC (H-field)” THEN GOSUB MagneticFieldOutputs:
RETURN
ElectricFieldOutputs:
PRINT “Shielding Attenuation”,, SEe; “dB”
PRINT “Wave Impedance”,,Zw; “Ohms”
PRINT “Re-reflection attenuation, Rr”,Rr; “dB”
PRINT “Reflection of electric field, Re”,Re; “dB”
PRINT “Absorption loss, A ’ , , A;“dB”
PRINT
RETURN
MagneticFieldOutputs:
SkinDepth = .0066 / SQR(Ur Gr * (f / lOOOOOO!))
Zb = 369 * SQR((Ur * (f / lOOOOOO!)) / Gr) * (1 / (1 - EXP(-Tcm / SkinDepth)))
Rrb = 20 * FNLOG(1 - ((((Zb * .OOOOOl) - Zw) / ((Zb * .OOOOOl) + ZW)) 2) * 10
A A
( - . l * A) EXP(-.227 * A))
PRINT “Shielding Attenuation”,,SEm; “dB”
PRINT “Wave Impedance”,,Zw; “Ohms”
PRINT “Re-reflection attenuation, Rr”, Rr; “dB”
PRINT “Re-reflection based on Zb, Rrb”,Rrb; “dB”
PRINT “Reflection of magnetic field, Rm”,Rm; “dB (Based on Zm)”
PRINT “Absorption loss, A”,,A;“dB”
IF A > 10 THEN PRINT : PRINT “NOTE: For A > 10: A = 10 in calculating Rr”
354 Chapter 6
RETURN
ComputeZw:
IF (ANS$ = “MAGNETIC (H-field)”) AND (R1 < LAMBDA / (2 * PI)) THEN
Z, = (377 * 2 * PI * R1) / LAMDDA
END IF
IF (AN% = “ELECTRIC (E-field)”) AND (R1 LAMBDA / (2 * PI)) THEN
Z, = (377 * LAMBDA) / (2 PI * R1)
END IF
IF R1 > = LAMBDA / (2 * PI) THEN Z, = 377
RETURN
REFERENCES
1. J. R. Moscr. Low frequency shielding of a circular loop electromagnetic field source. IEEE Trans.
on Electronlag. Compat.. Vol. EMC9, No. I , March 1967.
2. A.Broaddus, G. Kunkel.ShieldingEffectivenessTestresults of AluminizedMylar. IEEE EMC
Symposium Record, 1992.
3. R. B. Cowdell. Nomograms simplify calculations of magnetic shielding effectiveness. EDN p. 44,
September 1972.
4. T. Sjoegrcn. Shielding effectiveness and wave impedance. EMC Technology, July/August, 1989.
5. A. C. D. Whitehouse. Screening: new wave impedance for the transmission line analogy. Proc. IEEE,
Vol. 116, No. 7, July 1969.
6. D. R. Bush. A simple way of evaluating the shielding effectiveness of small enclosures. IEEE EMC
Symposium Record.
7. L. 0. Hoeft. J. W. Millard, J. S. Hofstra Measured magnetic field reduction of copper sprayed panels.
IEEE EMC Symposium Record, Sept. 16-18, 1985, San Diego, CA.
8. R. K. Kcenan. Digital Dcsign for interference specifications. The Keenan Corporation.
9. M. P. Robinson, T. M. Benson, C. Chrisopoulus, J. F. Dawson, M. D. Ganley, A. C. Marvin, S. J.
Portcr. D. W. P. Thomas. IEEE Transactions on ElectromagneticCompatibility, Vol. 40, No. 3,
August 1098.
10. H. Bloks. NEMPlEMI Shielding. EMC Technology, Nov./Dec. 1986.
11. L. 0. Hocft, J. S. Hofstra. Experimental and theoretical analysis of the magnetic field attenuation
of enclosures. IEEE Trans. Vol. 30, No. 3, August 1988.
12. L. 0. Hoeft. How big a hole isallowable i n ashield: theory and experiment. 1986 IEEE EMC
Symposium Record. Sept. 16-18, 1986, San Diego, CA.
13. E. Groshart. Corrosion control in EM1 design. 2nd Symposium and Technical Exhibition on Electro-
magnetic Compatibility. Montreux, Switzerland, June 28-30, 1977.
14. A. N. Faught. An introduction to shieldjoint evaluation using EM1 gasket transfer impedanccs. IEEE
International Symposium on EMC. Sept. 8-10, 1982, New York.
15. R. J. Mohr. Evaluation Techniques for EM1 seams. IEEE International Symposium on EMC. Aug.
25-27, Atlanta, CA.
16. P. J. Madle. Transfer impedance and transfer admittance nxxs.urement on gasketed panel assemblies
and honeycomb air vent assemblies. IEEE International Symposium on EMC, 1976.
17. A. A. Smith. Attenuation of electric and magnetic fields by buildings. IEEE Trans. on EMC. Vol.
EMC20, No. 3, Aug. 1978.
1 8. P. I. Wells. IEEE Transactions on vehicular technology. Vol. VT 26, No. 4, November 1977.
19. H. E. Coonce. AT&T Bell Labs, G. E. Marco, AT&T Technology Inc. IEEE National Symposium
on EMC. Apr. 24-26, 1984.
20. L. 0. Hocft, T. M. Sales. J. S. Hofstra. Predicted shielding effectiveness of apertures in large enclo-
sures 3s Inensured by MIL-STD-285 and other methods. IEEE National Symposium on EMC. May
23-25, 1989, Denver, CO.
21. L. 0.Hoeft, J. W. Millard, J. S. Hofstra. Measured nlagnetic field reduction of copper sprayed panels.
IEEE EMC Symposium. Aug. 20-22, 1985, Wakefield, MA.
22. L. 0.Hoeft. The case for identifying contact impedance asthe major electromagnetic hardness degra-
dation factor. IEEE EMC Symposium Record. Sept. 16-18, 1986, San Diego, CA.
23. F. Olyslager, E. Laermans, D. De Zutter, S. Criel, R.D. Smedt, N. Lietaert, A. De Clercq. IEEE
Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol 41. No 3, August 1999.
24. B. Archamneault, C Brench. Shielded air vent design guidelines from EM1 modeling. IEEE Interna-
tional Symposium Record, 1993.
25. J. P. Quine. Theoretical forlnulas for calculating the shielding effectiveness of perforated sheets and
wire mesh screens.
26. G. J. Freyer, J. Rowan, M. 0. Hatfield. Gasket shielding performance tneasurcmnts obtained from
four test techniques. IEEE International Symposium on EMC, 1994.
27. P. Lcssner, D Inman. Quantitive Ineasurement of the degradation of EM1 shielding and mating flange
materials after environmental exposure. IEEE International Symposium on EMC, 1993.
28. G. Kunkel. Corrosion effects on field penetration through apertures. IEEE Electromagnetic Compati-
bility Symposium Record, 1978.
29, IEEE Guide for the Electromagnetic Characterization of Conductive Gaskets in the Frequency Range
of DC to 18 GHz. IEEE Std 1302-1998.
30 B. Kountanis. Electric contact resistanceof conductive coatings on aluminum. IEEE Electro~nagnetic
Compatibility Symposium Record, 1970.
7
Cable Shielding, Coupling from E and H
Fields, and Cable Emissions
7.1 INTRODUCTIONTOCABLECOUPLING AND EMISSIONS

Cables are a majorsource of radiatedemissionsandreceptors in electromagneticcoupling.
Commercial equipment that is designed for EMC and includes a well-thought-out grounding
scheme and wiring and PCB layout can meet commercial EMC requirements with a number of
unshielded cables connected to the equipment. When the equipment enclosure is also unshielded,
the sources of emission are likely to be both the enclosure and the cables, although in some
cases emissions from cables are higher when the enclosure is shielded!
For equipment that must meet the more stringent MIL-STD-461 RE02 or similar require-
ments, the use of unshielded cables is the exception. Assuming equipment does not generate
noise voltages, which is typical of analog, video, or low-level RF circuits with linear power
supplies, the level of noise current on unshielded cables may be low enough to ensure meeting
the radiated emission requirements. However, the same low-signal-level equipment is likely to
be susceptible to noisevoltageinduced in unshieldedcablesduring exposure to the E field
generated in the radiated susceptibility RS03 test. In many cases, even equipment with shielded
cables fails these tests. This chapter describes some of the reasons why this is possible.
Apart from EMC requirements, the severity of the EM environment may necessitate the
use of shielded cables. Also, some standardinterfaces,such as GPIB, MIL-STD 1553, and
Ethernet, require the use of shielded cable.
The use of fiber-optic cables may appear to eliminate the need for concern about cable
radiation and coupling. However, with the present high cost of fiber-optic links and the need
for power interconnections, the use of shielded cables is not quite obsolescete.
7.2 CABLESHIELDINGEFFECTIVENESS/TRANSFERIMPEDANCE
The shielding effectiveness of a shielded cable is dependent on a number of factors in addition
to the cable characteristics: cable length relative to the wavelength of the field incident on the
cable or the wavelength of the current flow on the cable core (where this current flow is the
source of emission), the wave impedance (i.e., a predominantly H field, Efield, or a plane wave),
and the termination of the shield. One of the most common questions is how to tenninate the
shield of a cable, whether at both ends or at one end only, and if so which end. We shall see
indeed that how the shield of a cable is terminated has an effect on its shielding effectiveness.
For all types of shielded cable, the shielding effectiveness is not constant with frequency but
can be characterized over approximately three frequency ranges:
357
358 Chapter 7
60 Hz-100 kHz
100 kHz-30 MHz
30 MHz-I0 GHz
The physicalcharacteristics of a cable play a largerole in itsshieldingeffectiveness.
Types of shielded cable are single braid, double braid, triple braid, two types of foil, braid and
foil, conduit, semirigidandflexiblecorrugatedconduit.Many cable manufacturerspublish
curves of attenuation plotted against frequency. The method of measurement is of importance
in the evaluation of these curves. For example. the induction or near-field leakage information
is found using probes, current loops, test fixtures, etc., whereas in far-field measurements large
broadband antennas are often used. Some of these test methods are described as follows:
TEM Cell: The TEM cell is a transmission line used either to generate transverse electro-
magnetic waves or to measure the radiation from a current-carrying cable. A cable
may generate radial or axial fields as well as TE and TM modes, and ideally all
these should be measured.However, it is believed that the TEM mode is the predom-
inant one.
Absorbing Clcrmnp: The clamp inductively detects emissions from a cable in the frequency
range 30-1000 MHz. The clamp fits over the cable under test, and the radiation
from the shielded cable is compared to the radiation of an unshielded cable carrying
the same current. The difference between the two radiated values is the shielding
effectiveness of the cable.
Allterow Site: The open field site is most oftenused to measure the emissions from a
current-carrying cable and is of particular use when the cable interconnects two
pieces of equipment. Broadband antennas, a spectrum analyzer with a preamplifier
or an EM1 receiver with peak hold capability are required for this test setup. This
test method is often limited, especially at high frequency, by the ambient noise level;
it is. however, an effective method of measuring the radiation from a cable, espe-
cially in the far field. The height of the cable above the ground plane and the cable
length are two important parameters affecting the results obtained using this method.
A source of error i n this test is radiation from the signal source and its power lead.
Due to the number of variables, the reproducibility obtained with this test
method is relatively poor. When the actual configuration in which the cable will be
used, i.e., connected to equipment, vehicles, or close to structures and ground, is
being simulated, this is the method of choice.
Shielrled-Room Test Method: This test method minimizes the coupling between the signal
source and the receiving antenna by enclosing the receivingantenna inside a shielded
room, with the cable entering and exiting the room via feedthrough fixtures con-
nected to the wall of the room. This test method suffers from the sanle room reso-
nance and reflection errors inherent in the MIL-STD-285 test method.
Reverberrrtiorr Chatrrber or Mode-Stirred Chmnber Test Method: The reverberating cham- .
ber or mode-stirred chamber is well suited to immunity testing and for cables and
connectors, because the method is not sensitive to cable layout. Testing 011 compo-
nents has been performed up to 40 GHz.
Test Fixtures: Many test fixtures have been designed and built to measure the transfer
impedance of cables using the methods described in Section 7.2.2. The use of an
outer solid tube, with the coaxial cable under test placed concentrically inside the
tube, the whole forming a triaxial transmission line, is a common test jig. Thetriaxial
assembly is terminated either in its characteristic impedance or in a short circuit,
and a current is caused to flow in the cable under test. Such a test fixture is capable
Cable Shielding, Coupling, and Emissions 359
of transfer impedance measurement up to 3 GHz. However, at these high frequen-

cies, great care is required in the correct termination of the cable, which tends t~
dominate the transfer impedance, especially when very short lengths of cable are
used. Alternatively, any error due to an impedance mismatch must be well under-
stood. In addition, a difference in the propagation delay in the shielded cable under
test, which will have a core insulation with a relative permittivity greater than 1,
and the air cored test fixture will introduce long-line effects.
One simpletransfer impedance test method has been adopted in the European International
Electrotechnical Commission Publication IEC 96- 1, Radio Frequency Cables. In this method a
current is injected into a shielded cable by an injection cable that forms a transmission line in
parallel with the shielded cable under test. One possible criticism of test methods confined to
current injection on the shield of the test cable is the omission of electric field coupling through
the transfer admittance of the cable. Generally we find the transfer impedance the most useful
measure of the shielding effectiveness of a cable in EM1 predictions.
The concept of transfer impedance was introduced in Section 6.5, which described gasket
transfer impedance. Cable surface transfer impedance is specified in milliohms or ohms per
meter length of cable. To obtain the overall shielding picture,we must include the shield ternlina-
tion technique and its transfer impedance. Where the shield connection is via the connector, the
transfer impedance of the backshell plus that of the two mating halves of the connector, as well
as the receptacle-to-bulkhead transfer impedance, must be included.
The transfer impedance is of use when the current flow on thc cable sheath is known.
The current flow on the shield may be due to a wave incident on the cable or to the signal
current when the shield is the return path for the core current or to common-mode noise between
the chassis of two units of equipment connected together by the cable shield.
There often is a relationship between the specified shielding effectiveness of a cable and
its transfer impedance. One definition of cable shielding effectiveness is the ratio of the current
flow on the shield of a cable (I,) to the current flow on the core/s (10, usually expressed in
decibels:
The core current I, = V,,,/2R,,, where R,, is the termination resistance at each end of the shielded
cable. When R,, is not given, the assumption that R,, equals the characteristic impedance of the
cable will be correct for the majority of the test methods used. V,,,.is the open-circuit voltage
on the core, and for electrically short lengths of cable,
v,,,
= Z,I.J (7.2)
where l = length of cable [m].
For samples that are electrically short, one can obtain the shielding effectiveness in terms
of the transfer impedance and the termination resistance:
Due to the different definitions of shielding effectiveness and the various test methods,
the conversion of a manufacturer's shielding effectiveness figure to transfer impedance may not
360 Chapter 7
be without error. However, whenthe transfer impedanceis not otherwise available, and assuming
the cable is terminated in its characteristic impedance:
7.2.1 FrequencyDependency 60 Hz-l00 kHz

For the majority of flexible coaxial cables, the wall thickness of the shield does not approach
one skin depth until approximately 100 kHz. The skin depth is defined as the surface thickness
of a metal in which 63% of the current is flowing. For copper, skin depth = 0.0066 f (MHz)
[cm]. The transfer impedance below 100 kHz, except for thick-walled shields such as conduit,
is approximately equal to the shield resistance Rg.
Other factors important in assessing the shielding effectiveness of a coaxial cable at low
frequency are cable inductance and the eccentricityof the inner conductor/s relative to the outer
shield. A coaxial cable exhibits an inductance per unit length of
where is the diameter of the shield and d, is the diameter of the center core. For a coaxial
cable above a ground plane, the inductances of inner and outer conductors are
where 11 is the height above the ground plane. The mutual inductance between the inner and
outer conductors is given by
It can be seen that Eq. (7.7) equals Eq. (7.8), so the mutual inductance is identically equal
to the shield inductance. This can be visualized by considering that all the flux produced by the
shield current encircles the center conductor. The mutual inductance is independent of the posi-
tion of the center conductor relative to the shield. Further, the cable inductance L, = L, - L,.
In transmission-line theory, the mutual inductance of a transmission line such as a coaxial
cable is normally ignored, because the assumption is made that equal and opposite currentsflow
and therefore the mutual inductance between shield and center conductor is effectively zero.
Figure 7.la shows the schematic of a coaxial cable connected at both ends to a ground plane
with a signal current flow on the cable. This is a typical shield connection and is effective at
shielding against both the ingress and theegress of magnetic radiation, above a given frequency,
as well as electric fields. As we shall see later, if either or both ends of the cable shield were
removed from the ground plane, then the magnetic field shielding is improved. Figure 7.1 b is
the equivalent circuit of the cable and Figure 7.1 c is the equivalent open-wire line producing
the same external magnetic field as the shielded-wire line produces.
Li
1
Rb
Figure 7.lb Equivalent circuit of the cable. (0 1967, IEEE.)
Figure 7 . 1 ~Equivalent open-wire line producing the same external field as a shielded-wire line pro-
duces. (@ 1967, IEEE.)
How the attenuation of magnetic fields is achieved is described as follows. The leakage
current flow in the ground plane 1, is the current i attenuated by the factor
1
(7.9)
L
1 +joA
R .\
From Eq. (7.9) it can be seen that at low frequency the cable is ineffective at reducing the
magnetic field from the cable because I / , is large. At high frequencies the magnitudeof I,. reduces,
the current in the shield approaches the center conductor current due to the mutual inductance
between the center conductor and the shield, and the external magnetic field tends to cancel.
The position of the center conductor relative to the shield plays a role in the external magnetic
362 Chapter 7
field produced by the cable. With equal shield and center conductor current and a perfectly
concentric cable, the external magnetic field is exactly canceled.
One application of the effect of mutual inductance between pairs, or a number, of wires
in close proximity (bundled) is to provide a return wire in the bundle with the supply or signal
wires, even when the return is connected to ground at both ends. Then, at higher frequencies,
a large proportion of the supply or signal return current will flow in the return wire even though
the DC resistance of thealternativegroundpath is lower than that of thereturnwire. The
attenuation coefficient cl is plotted versus (jZslR,) in Figure 7.2. For the low-frequency case,
where a current flow is either induced into the shield of a cable due to an incident magnetic
field or caused by a common-mode voltage between signal return and the ground plane, the
voltage appearing across the shield V s is equal to
Vs = -joMlS + joL,sI,s+ I,\RS (7.10)
Since L.$ = M , then V s = Rsls. Therefore, R,s at low frequency equals the transfer impedance.
In Figure 7.3a the current path is shown for common-mode noise, and it can be seen that V s
adds to the signal voltage V and appears as noise in the signal.
The shielding effectiveness of the coaxial cable against a magnetic field may be seen by
comparing the shielded case to an unshielded cable. The unshielded case is shown in Figure
7.3b. Here the induced current due to the magnetic field flows through the signal and source
impedances and generates a noise voltage across the load R,~.With the shield connected, as
shown in Figure 7.3c, the currentflow in the shieldgenerates a noise voltage across the resistance
of the shield in the same way as the common-mode current did in Figure 7.32~and the noise
voltage V, is again equal to RSIS.If we assume that the magnetic-field-induced current flow in
the loop is the same for the shielded and unshielded cables and that all of the signal current
Figure 7.2 Attenuationcoefficient N , versus.fL,IR,. (01967, IEEE.)

Vs Rs
W
SlGNAL I
C.M.
t 8 j R L
NOfSE 'L
GROUND
VL = v+vs
Figure 7.3a Current path for commonmode induced current in a shielded cable.
SIGNAL
VL = ( I + I n ) R L
GROUND
Figure 7.3b Unshieldedcase for magnetic wavcs.
GROUND
Figure 7 . 3 ~ Shieldedcase for magnetic waves.
returns on the inside of the shield, then the shielding effectiveness of the cable is given by the
ratio of the load resistance to the shield resistance. Thus with a load resistance of 1000 R and
a total shieldresistance of 20 mQ, the shielding effectiveness is 20 log 1000/20 X = 94
dB. The lowerthe DC resistance of the shield, the higher the shielding effectiveness of a cable
at low frequency. A braided-wire shield will have a lower DC resistance than a foil-type shield;
and the thicker the braid or the more braids in the shield, the lower the DC resistance.
As we can see by comparing Figures 7.3b and 7.32, a shielded cable with a tin copper braid
shield does exhibit magnetic field shielding effectiveness when bothenclosures areconnected to
ground, even at DC. However, the tin copper braid shield has a relative permeability of 1 ; if a
shield with a higher permeability is used, increased magnetic field shielding will be achieved.
This improvement is greatest at DC and at power-line frequencies from 50 Hz to 400 Hz. The
364 Chapter 7
Magnetic Shield Corporation, of 740 North Thomas Drive, Bensenville, IL 60106-1643, manu-
factures a shielded four-center conductor cable in which the braid of the shield is manufactured
from CO-NETICAA wire that has a relative permeabilityof 30,000. Placing cables in a seamless
galvanized cold rolled steel conduit, which has a relative permeability of close to 200, will
provide approximately 20 dB of attenuation against 60-Hz magnetic fields.
7.2.2 FrequencyDependency 100 kHz-22 GHz

From the discussion on shielding effectiveness at low frequency, the transfer impedance of a
shielded cable was seen to equal the DC resistance of the shield. At some frequency where the
current density through the shield is no longer uniform, Z, no longer equals Rs.
When a current flow is induced by an incident field, the current density is greater on the
outside of the shield. When the shield is used as a signal return path or the current is the result
of common-mode noise on the center conductor and the shield, the current density is greater
on the inside of the cable shield. The transfer impedance of several types of cable are shown
in Figure 7.4, from which can be seen that for a solid copper shield of wall thickness 0.89 mm,
the transfer impedance relative to the DC resistance begins to decrease at frequencies as low
as 20 kHz. Transfer impedance is defined as
(7.1 1)
v, = zll,sl [V] (7.12)
100 1
I
I
1 RG62lU
RG108NU
RG22N
RG71N
RG22WU
MOD RG22BN
0.01 1 'I
I \ Solid copper shield
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 7.4 Transfer impedance of several types of cable.

Figure 7.5 Shieldcurrent flow (transferimpedance).
where
V, = transferred noise voltage [V]

I.$ = shield current [A]
I = length of the cable
Figure 7.5 shows a shield current flow due, for example, to an incident electromagnetic
field. Only a percentage of the shield current flows on the inner surface of the shield, and it is
this current flow that generates a voltage between the inner surface of the shield and the center
conductor. Two basic methods are used to measure the transfer impedance, these are shown in
Figures 7.6 and 7.7.
In the test configuration of Figure 7.7, the current flow is provided by a generator con-
nected to both ends of the shield, which simulates the situation where current flows on the
outside of the shield, either due to an incident electromagnetic wave or due to a common-mode
current.
Z,= 3V
I L
L L ’ I
Figure 7.6 Transferimpedance test method 1 .
366 Chapter 7
Figure 7.7 Transferimpedance test method 2.
AS the frequency is increased, the voltage developed across the shield increases due to
its inductance; however, this is not the transfer voltage measured atone endof the cable between
the center conductor and the inner surface of the shield.
The voltage developed from one end of the center conductor to the other end is equal to
the shield voltage, with a difference equal to the transferred voltage V,. It is not necessary to
make a physical electrical connectionto the inside of the shield when measuring V,; a connection
to the end of the shield, inside or outside, will suffice.
In Figure 7.6 the current flow is between the center conductor and the shield and V, is
measured across the ends of the shields.
Some of the test fixtures used to measure surface transfer impedanceare the MIL-C-85485
and the IEC 96- 1 A triaxial fixtures the quadraxial and the quintaxial. The generic triaxial line
looks like a coaxial cable in which the center conductor is the shielded cable under test. The
drive voltage is connected to the shield of the cable under test, and the outer cylinder of the
test fixture is used as the current return path. The triaxial fixture has the internal line. the cable
under test, terminated in its characteristic impedance at the drive end, and the outer line, the
return current line, either terminated in its characteristic impedance or a short circuit at the far
end. A detector that has the same characteristic impedance as the cable is used at the far end
of the cable under test to monitor the transferred voltage. When the outside line is terminated,
the upper test frequency is extended, as cable resonances are reduced; however, the long-line
effects at high frequency are not eliminated, since the inner-line and outer-line phase velocities
are usually different. This difference is due to the higher core dielectric constant of the cable
under test compared to the air core outer line. One difficulty with the triaxial fixture is ground
loop problems, which interfere with measurements at low frequency. These problems can be
reduced by the addition of ferrite baluns on each end of the cable under test. The quadraxial
test fixture will typically have all three lines correctly temlinated, and the current in the drive
line is relatively independent of frequency. However, due to the extra exterior line. the outer
diameter is larger than that of the equivalent triaxial test fixture and non-TEM waves can occur
at a lower frequency than with a triaxial fixture. Reference 1 describes two triaxial test methods
and one quadraxial test method in more detail. Figure7.8 showsthe measured transferimpedance
of an RG-58C/U coaxial cable measured using the quadraxial and two triaxial test methods.
Reference 1 describes thepredominant high-frequency coupling as “porpoising” coupling
in this sample rather than aperture coupling. Thus the surface electric field makes only a minor
contribution to the measurement. At low frequency, the triaxial measurements are higher than
lo00
100
10
1
1 10 100 1 10 100
kHz
FREQUENCY (HERTZ)
Figure 7.8 Surface transfer impedance of RG-58Clu as measured by quadraxial and triaxial (IEC 96-
1A and MIL-C-85485) test fixtures.
the quadraxial due to the ground loop problems. At high frequency, the triaxial response is
smoother than that of the MIL-C-85485, which has a dielectric constant of 2.6, and the resonance
occurs at 50 MHz. The IEC 96- 1A fixture, which has a dielectric constant of I , has a resonance
above 100 MHz, this is not seen in Figure 7.8.
A test method that in effect makes an easy-to-construct triaxial fixture is the pull-on braid
method. This isillustrated in Figure 7.9. The cableunder test has the shield andcenter conductor
short-circuited at the drive end, and this is connected to a pin in a connector. An additional
braid is “milked” on over the insulation of the shielded cable under test. The center conductor
of the cable under test is connected to a pin in the connector at the signal-detector end. The
milked-on braid shield is then connected to the signal-source connector case and the signal-
detector connector case. The far-end connector pin connects to a detector/measurement device
that has the same impedance as the cable under test, and the source signal is driven through an
impedance equal to the cable impedance. In this triaxial fixture, the cable under test is terminated
correctly at both ends and the outer cylinder to cable shield is short-circuited. If the cable under
test is electrically short, then the measurement error is low. At high frequencies, where the cable
is electrically long, a correction factor must be made for resonances. The input impedance of
the outercoaxial circuit canbe measured by use of a network analyzer andthe current computed,
but this correction factor can introduce severe errors.
Other test methods include the IEC 96-1 line injection test method, in which an injection
wire that is typically a flat copper braid is taped to the cable under test. The great advantage
in the injection line test method is that it is capable of measuring surface transfer impedance
to very high frequencies (above 1 GHz).
The construction of the test fixture is simple and requires only a coaxial cable, injection
wire, signal generator, and measuring device. Figures 7.10 and 7.1 1 show the test setup. The
transition from the coaxial injection cable to the injection wire and the transition back can easily
be matched to the impedance of the coaxial injection line up to very high frequencies. With a
50-cm coupling length, the phase velocities in the injection circuit and in the cable under test
368 Chapter 7
cable
Connector Cable core center Connector
case
Cable shield insulation conductor caTe
\
Pin Pin
Cable outer
SIGNAL insulation SIGNAL
Outer braid
SOURCE DETECTOR
END END
vs
i
Figure 7.9 Simple triaxial-type transfer impedance test fixture using a “milked”-on braid, and sche-
matic.
are sufficiently well matched to permit measurements up to 3 GHz. With a 10-cm coupling
length, measurements up to 20 GHz are feasible; however, at frequencies above even I GHz,
extreme care must be taken at the transitions and in matching the source and load ends of the
cables. Ferrite baluns on the near and far ends of the cable under test and on the near and far
ends of the injection lines are recommended to reduce common-mode current caused by line
radiation. And it is recommended that the signal source be placed outside of a shielded room,
with the cable under test shield terminated at the shielded-room wall. A coupling transfer func-
tion between the excitation current and the near- and far-end coupling are contained in the IEC
96-1 standard. One potential source of error is that this method excites only a portion of the
circumference of the cable shield. The question of whether this yields the same test results as
with other methods is addressed in Ref. 2 . Here the test results obtained with the line injection
method were compared with the test results using a quadraxial fixture. It was found that in the
frequency range up to 50 MHz the results were reasonably close and the results up to I GHz
were more credible using the line injection method.
One other simple test method is to place the cable under test at a fixed height above a
ground plane, which forms a two-wire transmission line with the coaxial cable and its image
in the ground. If an RG58 cable is placed with its outer insulation in contact with the ground
plane, the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is approximately 50 s1; and at a
CUT
/
New transmission type lineinjection

test set-up
Subscripts n, f: Near and f a r end
1, 2: Primary (i.e. in jec-
tion), secondary cir-
cuits
20 Characteristic
impedance of
circuit 1 and 2
G Generator
V Voltmeter,
Receiver
E Usual
earthing p o i n t f o r coax-
ial instruments
Figure 7.10 Schematic diagram of thclincinjectiontestsetup. (01998 IEEE.)
height of 5 cm above the ground plane it is approximately 3 17 Q. The shield of the transmission
line can be excited either by an injection current probe or directly by a signal source with a
series impedance equal to the transmission-line impedance. The most common configuration
has the shield of the cable under test short-circuited at the far end. In this configuration, shown
in Figure 7.12a, a current probe is used to monitor current. When the cable is electrically short
(less than 1/10 of a wavelength), the current probe measurement can be used directly with the
measurement of the transferred voltage to determine transfer impedance. At higher frequencies
a correction factor is required and errors can be introduced. A very short cable length can be
used to increase the frequency range; however, the influence of the connector-to-connector and
connector-to-bulk head transfer impedances become significant. Measurements made on a 50-
cm-long cable 5 cm above the ground plane have shown a good correlation between a transmis-
sion-line method (with direct injection,a short circuit at the far end, and a current probe monitor)
to line injection and triaxial methods up to 1 GHz.
A second transmission-line test setup, shown in Figure 7.12b, uses direct injection and
terminates the shield of the cable at the far end in the characteristic impedance of the transmis-
sion line, which reduces the long-line effects. Placing the cable insulation on the ground plane
means that the velocity of propagation i n the cable-to-ground plane transmission line is approxi-
mately equal to that of the shielded cable. This would not be true with a predominantly air
370 Chapter 7
Cornploto instollation'for practical tronsfcr impcdonco mooturcmonts
Cablc undcr lcsl (CUT)

Scracncd rooni wall
Gcnarator (synlhosizcr or tracking gcnoralor. clc.)
Tcsl rccoivcr (spoctrum anslytcr, nolwork analyrcr, ctc.)
Launclicr to iiijcction wirc
Dross tuba for additional scrccning for CUT
Fccding c i ~ l h slor injcclion wiro (low loss. approxima-
livoly 0.5 m)
k Focditig cablo from gcncralor
m Fcrrilc rings (Icnglh opproximativcly 100 mm)
n Addiliocial scrocning for connoction bclwccn scrccncd
room and CUT
P Addilionol scrconing for lormineling rosistanco of CUT
9 lnjcclion wire
Figure 7.1 1 Pictorial diagram of the setup used in the line injection test. (0 1998 IEEE.)
space between the cable and the ground. A spacer may be used between the cable and the ground
plane that has a similar permittivity to the cable-core insulation material to minimize this effect.
In this test setup, the addition of the measuring device will present a complex impedance between
the shield of the cable under test and ground, in parallel with the terminating resistor. To control
this impedance, many ferrite baluns should be placed on the shielded cable connecting the mea-
suring device to the termination point. Even with the baluns in place, it is recommended that
a network analyzer be used to measure the transmission-line impedance and to detect any major
deviation from the required impedance.
In all, five different types of coupling to cables have been identified, as described in Refs.
3 and 4. These include axial transfer impedance induced by a magnetic field parallel to the
cable, such as generated down the axis of a solenoid or when the magnetic component of an
Figure 7.12a Transmission-line transfer impedance test setup with SIC termination and current probe
monitoring.
/\ .
Ground Plnnc
mF=dl==
1 dcvlce
Figure 7.12b Transmission-line transfer impedance test setup with the transmission line terminated in
its characteristic impedance.
electromagnetic field is parallel to the cable, which sets up circumferentialcurrents. It also

includes parallel electric jield coupling, which would occur if the cable were placed between
parallel plates at different RF potentials. A third type is parallel transfer impedance, caused by
a magnetic field loop that penetrates the shield. All of these new couplings disappear for a
typical coaxialcable with asingleconductor that isconcentric. It has been shown that for
multiconductor cables, the new coupling modes can induceboth common-mode and differential-
mode signals in the cable. The circumferential current flow caused by the axial magnetic will
not introduce an EM1 voltage in a multiconductor cable in which the conductors are straight,
but it will introduce a voltage in twisted conductors, such as contained in the twisted-shielded-
pair cable.
At low frequency, in practical cables a magnetic field is generated by the cable, due to
eccentricity between the center conductor and the shield. This magnetic field is given by
(7.13)
372 Chapter 7
where
R = distance between the core and the measurement point

AI. = eccentricity between the shield and core
Equation (7.13) assumes equal and opposite currents in the shield and core. For a cable where
the transfer impedance decreases with frequency, the current flow on the outer surface, assuming
the test method shown in Figure 7.7, decreases, as does the external magnetic field generated
by the cable.
From Figure 7.4we see that the transfer impedance of the solid copper shield continuously
reduces with increasing frequency, unlike the braided flexible-shield cable, for which it typically
begins to increase above 2 MHz.This effect is dueprimarily to a leakage of the external magnetic
field through the apertures in the braid, although electric coupling due to an external electric
field can also penetrate the holes in the braid. A second coupling mechanism is referred to as
porpoising coupling. Porpoising coupling results from current that is pulled into the shield on
the strands of wires, or carriers, of which the shield is constructed. This form of coupling has
been attributed to the contact impedance between the carriers, which forces some of the current
flow to remain on the carrier instead of flowing into the next carrier. If this mechanism is valid,
then the porpoisingcoupling of a cable is expected to increase with an increase in contact
impedance with use, due to flexing of the cable that results in loosening of the carriers and due
to corrosion. A second cause for porpoising coupling has been proposed: an inductive effect
due to the twist in the carriers. Reference 5 says that most cable samples havea surface transfer
impedance signature that was indicative of porpoising coupling. Reference 6 notes that the aper-
ture and porpoising coupling should be out of phase and describes a cable with an optimized
shield in which wires have been removed and then degraded until the aperture and porpoising
coupling components of the transfer impedance tend to cancel.
In open-weave cables, the aperture coupling is often predominant above 1 MHz and be-
comes more so in the majority of cables above 30 MHz. When aperture coupling is predominant,
the transfer impedance of a cable is
Z, = jwMA (7.14)
where MA is the mutual inductance due to shield apertures which has a nominal value of 3 X
10""H/m.
The electric field coupling through apertures is modeled by a transfer admittance, which
may not be accounted for in measured transfer impedance, especiallywhen the test fixture injects
a current flow on the shield of the cable under test. A correction may be obtained for transfer
admittance by multiplying Z , by (1 + A,,/A,),),where A,. is the electricpolarizability of the
apertures and A,,, is the magnetic polarizability of the apertures. From Ref. 9, the ratio AJA,,,
for circular apertures is 0.5, which corresponds to an approximate braid weave angle of 40".
Reference 10 providesadditionalvalues for ellipticalapertures at a number of braidweave
angles. It should be noted that the transfer admittance correction is strictly valid only when the
shield is terminated to ground at both ends by the characteristic impedance of the cable above
the ground. Sections 7.2.3.2 and 7.2.3.3 also discuss transfer admittance.
With the advent of foil-type cables, one might expect them to achieve the low transfer
impedances of a solid copper shield; however, this is not the case. In the construction of early-
type foil shields, a spiral wrap was used; later a longitudinal edge contact was used. At first
the longitudinal join was insulated, forming a slot. However, most foil braids of recent manufac-
ture are foldedat the longitudinal edges. Figure7.13a shows the transfer impedances of combina-
tion braid- and foil-construction shields. Above approximately 50 MHz, the transfer impedance
Sealed foil
60% braid
Foil
40% braid
Sealed foil
96% braid
Foil
96% braid
Sealed foil
60% braid
Foil
40% braid
Frequency [MHz]
Figure 7.13a Foilandbraid type cable transferimpedance.
of the combination shield tends to increase. This is dueto the AC resistance of the longitudinal
joint in the foil. As with the transfer impedance of gasket material, the current is not confined
to the outer surface of the foil. But because of an impedance change at the joint, the current
diffuses into the center of the foil at the joint.
As the combination cable is flexed, the transfer impedance rises. Figure 7.13b, from Ref.
15, shows a large increase from 0.004 Q to approximately 0.6 Q for the worst case, unsealed
foil-and-braid cable after 49,000 flexures.
Transfer impedance data is available on both military- and RG-type cables. Figure 7.14a
reproduces transfer impedance curves for coaxial cables and triaxial cables and Figure 7.14b
for twinaxial cables, by permission of Belden Wire and Cable. It has been found that cables of
the same type from different manufacturers may have very different transfer impedances, so
the data in Figures 7.14a and 7.14b is valid for the cables manufactured by Belden. RG 58 is
a very common 5042 coaxial cable, and we see a very large variation of up to 20 dBQ (factor
of 10) between cables from different manufacturers, as shown in Figure 7.15, from Ref. 1 1.
Reference 11 describes one of the transmission-line techniques for the measurement of transfer
impedance. For this reason it is advisable either to obtain the transfer impedance from the cable
manufacturer or to use one of the simple test methods, such as the transmission-line or line
injection methods, to measure the transfer impedance of the cable of choice.
The shield construction of cables shown in Figure 7.14a are
cable Belden Shield type

9259, 8254, 9555, 9269, 9268, 9862. 9228 Bare copper braid, 95% coverage
9889 Duofoil (TM) with 4/24 AWG drain wires
9888 Triax, Two bare copper braid, 95% coverage
374 Chapter 7
5
2045 Foil
40% braid
1 2345 Sealed foil

60% braid
-5 2545 Sealed foll
i
.-E
0.5 96% braid
L 0.1 2245 Sealed foll

2
v) 60% braid
0.0: Foil
c 40% braid
2
I
0
0
0
0.01
0.00:
0.00'
250k 49k ' 500k
Flexure cycles
Figure 7.13b Increaseoftransferimpedance with flexure. (From Re,f. 15. 0 1979, IEEE.)
The shield construction of cables shown in Figure 7.14b are
Belden cable
number Shield type
927 1 Beldfoil""' with stranded
copper
drain
wire
coverage
93%
Tinned
braid,
copper
9212
985 1 Foil with shorting fold and
stranded
copper
drain
wirc
Tinned
braid,
copper
9207 95% coverage
9463
Beldfoil with 57% coverage
tinned
copper
braid
Tinned
braid,
copper
8227 85% coverage
9860
Duofoil (TM) with 92% coverage tinned
copper
braid
The terms single-. double-, ruld triple-broid shielded cable refer to the number of braids
in a shield that are, typically, in electrical contact.
A comparison between the transfer impedances shown i n Figure 7.4, 7.14a, and 7.14b
indicates that the cables with multiple-braid shields exhibit a lower transfer impedance. The
upper curve of the RG22B/U in Figure 7.4 is for a double-braid cable, whereas the lower curve
for the modified RG22B/U is that for a triple-shield cable.
The term triaxial refers to a cable with a center conductorand two shields that are electri-
cally isolated from each other. Triaxial connectors exist that allow the center shield connection
9555,9269
9862.9228
Figure 7.14a Transfer impedance of Belden coaxial and triaxial cable. (Reproduced by courtesy of
Belden Wire and Cable.)
0.1 1.o 10 0 50.0

Frequrncy-MHz
Figure 7.14b Transfer impedance of Belden twinaxial cable. (Reproduced by courtesy of Belden Wire
and Cable.)
376 Chapter 7
Results for different manufacturer's RG58 leads
10 -
5-
-
- /
,
.
.I"l
-25 .. . . -
RG58 Published [6]

-30 - '
"_
"
Cable No.2
-35 1 cab50
10' 1o2
Freq. in MHz
Figure 7.15 Transfer impedance of two samples of RG58 from different manufacturers. (From Ref. 11.
0 IEEE, 1998.)
to continue through the connector and remain isolated from the enclosure and in which the outer
shield is connected to the case of the connector. The triaxial configuration allows the signal
return currents to flow on the center shield and the outer shield to be connected to the equipment
enclosure. Thus the transfer voltage does not appear directly in the signal path. The remaining
coupling between the inner and outer isolated shields is via electric field coupling through the
transfer admittance. This advantageof the triaxialcable overa double-braid cable is considerably
reduced if the signal ground is connected to the enclosure at both ends. One example of the
correct use of a triaxial cable is shown in the HAR-l circuit in Figure 5.62, in which the signal
is transformer coupled at the receiver end. At high frequencies it becomes increasingly difficult
to isolate signal grounds from the enclosure, dueto stray capacitances, so the transfer impedance
of triaxial cable in which the shields are connected together at both ends is of interest. The
transfer impedances of isolated, single-, double- (triaxial), and triple-braided cables with the
braids shorted are shown in Figure 7.16 (from Ref. 8). We see that at frequencies below that
at which the cable length is equal to h/2, the transfer impedance is lower for the multibraided
cables; however, above this frequency the difference is negligible due to intersheath resonances
or different propagation delays down the shields.
Twinax cable is constructed of two center conductorswith an overall shield, and quadrax
is a two-center-conductor cable with two isolated shields. A typical use for these cables is in
105
Figure 7.16 Comparison of thetransfer impedances of isolated,single-, double-,and triple-braided

cables, in which the braids are shorted together at both ends. (From Ref. 8. 0 IEEE, 1967.)
fully balanced or single-ended driver/differential input circuits. Typical shield connections are
shown in Figure 7.17a and b. The shielded-cable transfer voltage is common mode; that is, it
appears equally on all the center conductorswithin a shielded cable. Thus to achieve maximum
immunity, the input circuit must exhibit a sufficiently high common-mode noise rejection, and
any imbalance in the input impedances of the circuit should be minimized. The quadrax cable
will exhibit a lower transfer impedance than the twinax by approximately the same magnitude
as shown for triax cable. The options for shieldconnectionsin Figure 7.17 show the outer
shield connected to the enclosure at both ends, for reasons discussed in Section 7.5 on shield
termination.
Reference 12 describes a comparison of five cables with shields constructed of copper
braid and aluminized plastic foil, with a sixth cable shield constructed of braid alone. These
cables were examined for use with l-Gb/s signals. In most of the cables the braid was on the
outside and provided the turn-to-turn contact for the foil shield. In two cables the braid was
inside the foil but still provided the turn-to-turn contact (Figure 7.18b). The core four of the
cableswas a balancedquad(one pairtransmits and one pairreceives,with no individual
shielding of the pair. In two cables the pair was individual shielded. In one cable the metal of
the internal shield faced the inside, and turn-to-turn contact was made with a drain wire (Figure
7.18d). In another cable the metal of the internal foil faced the outside and the braid made the
turn-turn contact (Figure 7.18~). The highest transfer impedance is that of the shielded twisted
pair, or inner shield. The measurements showed that the aluminized foil plastic tape did not
provide a good electromagnetic shield by itself, particularly at high frequencies. This is consis-
tent with experience with inexpensive computer serial and parallel cables, where the shield is
an external foil alone with an internal drain wire. Although this type of cable is better than an
unshielded type, its shielding effectiveness is not as high as a braid type of cable.
The lowest transfer impedance is with two layers of shielding, one the outside layer and
the second the individual shield over the pairs of conductors. Where the plastic foil insulation
is between the braid shield and the aluminized layer, resonances occur due to the difference in
378 Chapter 7
Enclosure
(a) Twinax
"""""""""""""""""""-
(b) Quadrax
Signal ground isolatedfrom enclosure except the optional connections shown

Chassis enclosure ground
Optional connections
Figure 7.17 Typical shield terminations for a twinax and quadrax cable. (0IEEE, 1980.)
propagation delay as a result of the plastic between the shielding layers. This effect is shown
in Figure 7.16 for insulated shields. Reference 12 concludes with:
The measured transfer impedance of six cable samples that used combinations of braid and
foil showed that these cables do not have the classic R OM,^ frequency dependence. Above
a few MHz, they exhibited a frequency dependence that was approximately proportional to
- Braid
a b -Foil
8 Conductor
0 Drain wire
C d
Figure 7.18 Cross sections of the cable construction used in the l-Gb/s cables.
Cable Shielding,
Emissions
Coupling, and 379
the square root of frequency. This suggests that the coupling mechanism is due to contact
resistance sotncwhere in the shield. The two cables withindividually shielded pairs had lower
transfer impedances than those that used an overall shield over a balanced quad core. The
transfer resistance of the 6 cables ranged from 9 to 21 m a . This is in the range of single-
braid cable shield and is appropriate for 1-Gb/s interconnect cables. At 500 MHz, the transfer
impedance ranged from a little more than 10 mR/m to 135 mR/m. The cables with individu-
ally shielded pairs were best (12.4 and 21.8 R/m).
Figure 7.19 compares the transfer impedances at 500 MHz.

Thus far we have examined the voltage induced in shielded cables when the length of the
cable is less than 0.5h, where h is the wavelength of the current flow on the shield of the cable.
Equation (7.12),which gives the magnitude of the induced voltage, is no longer valid when the
cable is longer than 0.5h, due to so-called long-line effects.
Long-line effects are considered in Section 7.2.3 (30 MHz-IO GHz), although for long
cables they may occur in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 30 MHz.
Should an unshielded or a shielded cable be the culprit in a susceptibility/immunity prob-
lem or result in excessive radiation, the addition of an overbraid may solve the problem. Tin-
plated copper braid is sold as shielding and bonding cables with IDS of 3.18 mm to over 25.4
mm. Thesebraids can be either attachedto a circular connector by use of a hose clamp,soldered
to a brass connector, or clamped under a strain relief on a none EM1 backshell, as described in
E
\
cn
0
0
C
Q
U l.OE-01
0
n
E
L
0
c
C
a
1.OE-02
Cable Cable Cable Cable Cable Cable
A B C D E F
Figure 7.1 9 Transfer impedance (cxtrapolated) of the six combination braid/foil shields at 500 MHz.
(Ref. 12 0 IEEE 1998.)
A = figure Id, Individually shielded pair with the metal of the foil faced inside (drain wire used
for turn-to-turn contact) plus overall shield
B = figure la, Overall shield. no individual shielding of the pair
C = figure lb. Braid inside the foil, no individual shielding of the pair
D = figure Ib, Braid inside the foil. no individual shielding of the pair
E = figure la, Overall shield, no individual shielding of the pair
F = figure IC, Individual shielded pair with an overall shield.
380 Chapter 7
1 l I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I IIIII l I 1 I I '''I I I I 11111 I I l I Ill
CABLE
-
DESCRIPTION
NUMBER SYMBOL
3 SINGLE TUBULAR BRAID
10'
A
9
DOUBLE TUBULAR BRAID
TRIPLE TUBULAR BRAID -.-
""
E
d 102 2
ez
U
8 """""","
U1
S
z
2 104:
105
10-6 - I 1 I Ill11 l I I I I I I I l I I I1111 I l I l I Ill I I I IIIII
l@ lW 105 1oC 107 l@

FREQUENCY (HERTZ)
Figure 7.20 Measured surface transfer impedance of l-m-long tin-plated copper tubular braid shields.
(0IEEE, 1988.)
the section on connectors. The measured transfer impedance of l-m length of single tubular
braid, double tubular braid, or triple tubular braid is shown in Figure 7.20.
Above 30 MHz the leakage effects are more pronounced, because the holes in the braid
of a shielded cable become more effective antennas with increasing frequency. The method of
testing cables in the gigahertz region becomes difficult because the geometries must be more
rigorously controlled. Forward and backward waves can be generated in the test fixture, and
the magnetic field induced in the cable is confined to the TEM mode. Therefore the test fixture
may be far removed from the real-life useof shielded cables where radial, axial, and circumferen-
tial fields can be generated by a cable at very high frequencies. Using the line injection test
method, the transfer impedances for single- and double-braid cables up to 22 GHz are shown
inFigure7.21 (from Ref.13). The transfer impedance increasesalmostconstantlyup to 20
GHz. Figure 7.22 shows the near- and far-end coupling for a single-braided cable. The far-end
transfer impedance increases rapidly above 10 GHz. Reference 13 attributes this to radiation
loss through the shield and makes the point that cables used at these frequencies are in some
way antennas. Much earlier data on the measured transfer impedance in the gigahertz region is
shown in Figure 7.23a for single-braid cable and in Figure 7.23b for double-braid (from Ref.
21). The transfer impedance of the single-braid RG58C/U is 400 mR/cm, or 40 R / m at 4 GHz,
which is similar to that of the single-braid cable in Figure 7.21, which has a transfer impedance
of approximately 30 R/m at 6 GHz. The double-braid cable GR cables in Figure 7.23b have
an impedance of 40 mR/cm, or 4R/m, which is much higher than the double-braid shielded
cable in Figure 7.21 with a transfer impedance of 0.2 R/m at 6 GHz. However, as we have
seen, even samplesof the same type of cable show a surprising variation in transfer impedance.
2,
Figure 7.21 Singlc- and double-braid shielded cablc transfer impedance up to 22 GHz using the line
injection tcst method. (From Ref. 13. 0 IEEE, 1992.)
Figure 7.22 Single-braided cable showing near- and far-end transfer impedance. (From Ref. 1 3 . 0 IEEE.
1992.)
Modem triple braid stainless steel armored cables have a shielding effectiveness
ofapprox-
imately 80 dB which, using Eq. (7.3), corresponds to a transfer impedance of 10 nd.l/m.
7.2.2.1 Semirigid
Cable
Semirigid cable isconstructed of a solid metal outer sheath, normally copper. The inner insula-
tion is either solid or air with spacers used to support the inner conductor. The cable either is
hand-malleable or must be bent by machine. Connectors are soldered directly to the ends of the
cable or crimped on.
This type of cable is the best available for the prevention of EM1 at high frequency. When
properly soldered at the cable-to-connector interface, the only source of ingress or egress of
radiation is at the connector mating, due to the transfer impedance of the connector-to-bulkhead
interface. Manufacturers offer a quick-connect type of semirigid connector, in which the cable
is crimped to the connector, thus adding an additional transfer impedance. In common with all
shielded cables the low-frequency performance is dependent on the thickness and conductivity
of the shield and the concentricity of the cable. A new form of solid shield is the “semiflexible”
cable, which is a braided shield in which the shield braids have been soldered together. The
cable is much more flexible than the semirigid variety, with almost the same shielding effective-
ness, but is less flexible than a small-diameter braided cable.
382 Chapter 7
I 2 4 6 8
F REQUENCY-GC
Figure 7.23a Single-braid coaxial transfer impedance up to 8 GHz.
FREQUENCY-GC
Figure 7.23b Double-braidcoaxial transfer impedance up to 8 GHz.

7.2.2.2 Long-Line Effects

From Eq. (7.14) it is seen that when the transfer impedance is dominated by aperture coupling,
transfer impedance increases monotonically with increasing frequency. From Eq. (7.12) it ap-
pears that the transferred voltage is proportional to the transfer impedance, the shield current,
and the length of the line and, where Eq. (7.14) applies, to frequency; however, this is not true
when the line length is greater than 0.5h. Such a cable is termed electrically long. The wave-
length of a wave in air is equal to 300/f(MHz), whereas the wavelength of the same wave in
a material with a relative permittivity greater than 1 is 300/(f(MHz) X dc). When the shield
of a cable is terminated to ground at both ends, the cable is resonant at frequencies for which
the line length equals ( k h / 2 ) ,where k is an integral multiple, i.e., 1, 2, 3,. . . .
The transfer voltage for an electrically long cable in which the shield is terminated to
ground at both ends with the characteristic impedance of the cable above ground, derived from
Ref. 7, is given by
sin 0
v, = I , Z , - [VI (7.15)
0
where
Z, = transfer impedance [ W m ]
I, = shield current [A]
and
0 = %(dC + 1) 12 [radians]
300
where
f = frequency [MHz]
E,- =relative permittivity of the cable sheath
I = length of cable [m]
Figure 7.24 plots the ratio of d(sin0/8)?, in decibels, for a 20-m-long cable with a relative
permittivity of 2.2. From Figure 7.24 an envelope reduction of 6 dB per octave or 20 dB per
c -40
-
8
0
(U -50
-60 I 9.51 ,l.Ok , 1.51, 2.0,k

I
384 Chapter 7
decade is seen, i.e., a monotonic decrease with increasing frequency above the first resonance
frequency of the cable. Equation (7.14) predicts a monotonic increase in transfer impedance
with increasing frequency, so the envelope of the transfer voltage, above the first resonance
frequency, should be constant with frequency. One definition of the shielding effectiveness of
a cable is the ratio of the shield current Z, to the core (center conductor/s) current Z, with the
cable terminated, between core and shield, in its characteristic impedance.
The measured voltage, in decibels referenced to the test fixture voltageof a 1.18-m-long
RG/58A cable from 1 MHz to 1 GHz is shown in Figure 7.25. The center reference graticule
is -75 dB, which corresponds to a shielding effectiveness of 69 dB. The graticule is graduated
10 dB per division. As the measured voltage increases by 10 dB above the reference graticule,
the shielding effectiveness decreases by 10 dB. Thus, at 300 MHz, the shielding effectiveness
from Figure 7.25 is 59 dB.
Figure 7.26 plots the measured voltage, in decibels, referenced to the test fixture input
for a Raychem shielded twistedpair 10595-24-2-9 of 1.2-m length.The center graticule is -70
dB, which is equivalent to a shielding effectiveness of 51 dB.
7.2.2.3 TransferAdmittance
Sections 7.2.1 and 7.2.2 briefly discussedthe transfer admittance of shielded cables.
In most cases
the transferadmittance is a secondary phenomenon that can be ignored. When cable
a is electri-
cally long, a current is set up on the cable regardless of whether the shield is terminated to
ground or not. For an electrically short cable with the shield connected to ground at both ends,
an incident field will, depending on the angle of incidence, set up a current flow on the cable.
The worst-case figurein these cases is the transferimpedance alone. However,for an electrically
short cable on which a high-impedance field is incident, thecable current may be low and the
coupling may be via the charge that appears on the cable. This also applies to an electrically
short cable connected to an enclosure that is disconnected from ground. Another situation would
C
Figure 7.25 Measured voltage for a 1.18-m length of RG/58A cable, in decibels, referenced to the test
fixture input voltage, as a function of frequency on a log scale. The center reference graticule 1s at -75
dB, corresponding to a shielding effectiveness of 69 dB. The first marker is at 10 MHz, all other markers
areat 100-MHz steps.
pling,
Shielding, Cable 385
Figure 7.26 Measured voltage, in decibels, for a 1.2-m length of Raychem shielded twisted-paircable
10595-24-2-9. The center reference graticuleis 70 dB, which is equivalent to a shielding effectivenessof
51 dB.
be an electrically long cable over which a fieldin the gigahertz frequency rangeis incident over
a small area of the cable. This would in practice occur when a radar beam is incident on a
section of cable. At gigahertz frequencies, the predominant coupling may be of the localized
field through the apertures in the shield.
Transfer admittance is not an intrinsic electromagneticparameter, for it is a characteristic
of the cable and its surroundings (the test setup in the case of measurements). The through-
elastance KT,which is a property ofthe cable alone, can be used to characterize coaxial cables,
and it can be related to the transfer admittance YTby
Yr
KT = ___
j o C ,C?
where C, is the per-unit capacitance of the outer circuit (test fixture to cable shield) and Cz is
the per-unit length capacitance between the two conductors of the coaxial cable. Obviously Y T
is dependent on the measurement setup, because C, will differ from one setup to the other.
Reference 14 describes through-elastance measurements and providesthe following con-
clusions: On coaxial cables of any length and matched at both ends, i.e., the cable matched to
its characteristic impedance between the center conductor and shield at both ends, the transfer
admittance can be neglected up to 6 MHz and cannot even be measured. However, a cable
connected at both ends to a high impedance and submitted to a high-impedance field wouldbe
more susceptible to transfer admittance coupling.
In the measurements described in Reference 14, the KT measurements are very close to
the 2, measurements, and the transfer impedance coupling may be the only one of concern.
7.3 SHIELD TERMINATION EFFECTS ON TRANSFERRED VOLTAGE

One of the most common errors made in the use of shielded cables is to connect the shield to
the backshell of the connector or tothe enclosure by a“pigtail” (either a length of braidor, more
386 Chapter 7
Figure 7.27 Common-mode current inducing a noise voltage (V,) into the signal
commonly, a length of wire). Alternatively, the pigtail may be connected through aconnector pin
and then to the inside of the equipment enclosurelchassis. As we shall see in Section 7.6 on
radiated emissions from cables, the use of a pigtail to connect the shield at both ends of the
cable results in emissions close to an unshielded cable. Likewise, the EM1 voltage induced in
a shielded cable with pigtail connections approaches that of a two-wire unshielded cable. The
noise voltage developed across the transfer impedance by the shield current flow I , is effectively
in series with the signal, V,,:, in the configuration of Figure 7.27.
If the shield is terminated at the backshell of the connectors and via the connector to the
chassis, then theshieldcurrent flow I , is effectivelyisolated from thesignalpath,with the
exception of current that diffuses through the cable, couples through the cable apertures, and
diffuses through the transfer impedances at the connector. However, if the shield is connected
Figure 7.28 Shield connection extended into the enclosure.

Table 7.1 NoiseVoltages V , and V,,,CableTransfer

Impedance and Inductive Rcactancc of the Wire versus
Frequency
0.1 70 0.035 70 0.035

1 50 0.350 50 0.350
10 20 3.5
3.5 20
100 35 20 35 20
300 70 350 70 350
via a length of wire to the chassis and the signal path continues from that point to the load
resistor R,,, as shown i n Figure 7.28, then the shield current I , develops a noise voltage across
the inductance of the length of wire V!<.Assume a shield current flow of 1 mA (this current
may be due to the common-mode voltage source as shown, or to an incident electromagnetic
wave) and a 26-gauge two-inch length of wire connecting the shield via a pin in the connector
to chassis. Assume also that a moderately effective foil/braid shield is used and that the 26-
gauge wire is 1 inch above the chassis and therefore has an inductance of 0.056 pH. Table 7.1
shows the two noise voltagesV, and V,,, the cable transfer impedance, andthe inductive reactance
of the wire versus frequency.
Table 7.1 illustrates how important it is to terminate the shield to the backshell of the
connector. Had a second wire been attached between the shield and the load resistor, then V,,
would be effectively isolated from the signal; however, the 2-inch length of wire carrying I , is
still capable of radiating noise to internal circuitry. Also, when the second connection between
the load resistor and the shield exists and the load resistor is connected to a signal ground,
which is connected at some other location to the enclosure or to chassis ground, then some
fraction of the noise current is injected into the signal ground. The optimum connection of a
shield is at 360" around the circumference of the braid to a metal backshell. EM1 backshells
achievethedesiredlow-impedance connection, typically by clamping the end of theshield
around the circumference to the backshell. Backshells are available from Glenaire that allow
the connection of the shields of a number of cables, using the same connector, to the backshell.
Where a connector must be used that does not allow thc clamping of the shield to the backshell,
thebraid may be terminated by one of thefollowingtechniques:solderingthe braid to the
backshell, use of conductive adhesive (note that the conductive adhesive cannot beused as strain
relief; use instead a cable clamp or a thin bead of nonconductive epoxy), the insertion of a
canted coil spring between the cable clamp nut and the bared braid, hose clamp. One supplier
of a suitable spring is Bal Seal Co., Santa Ana, California. An alternative backshell is a shielded
heat-shrink boot, which contacts the connector and the cable shield as the boot is heat-shrunk.
The supplier and transfer impedance of a heat shrink boot is provided in Section 7.8.
7.4 COUPLINGFROM E AND H FIELDS

The coupling into a shielded or unshielded wire disconnected from ground and far removed
from a ground plane was examined in Section 2.5.4. Chapter 2 also described the receiving
properties of a loop far removed from a ground plane (Section 2.2.5). In this section we shall
examine the current flow induced in either an unshielded wire/cable or a shielded wire/cable
located above a ground plane. Provided that the height of the wire above the ground plane, h,
388 Chapter 7
is much less than the length, l , and h << h, then the single wire can be considered a two-wire
transmission line formed by the wire and its electromagnetic image in the ground plane. The
terminating impedances of the transmission line are Z,, and Z , and may be close to 0 R when
the line is a shielded cable with both ends connected to the ground plane. The characteristic
impedance of the line is given by
(7.16)
where
Z , = distributed series resistance of the two wire line [R/m]
2x
k = mdCl,e,, = -
h
1 , = & l n - 2 12
x c1
p,,= 4 x X 10" [H/m]
cl = diameter of wire [m]
When l >> h and h << h, transmission-line theory is expected to be accurate. However,

when h 1 << h, circuit theory using the inductance of a rectangular loop of wire will provide a
more accurate solution. The impedance of the loop (with image), including termination resis-
tances, is given by
z = 42 (z,,+ z,)' + (jmL)'

(7.17)
The inductance of a rectangular loop of wire L with image is
L=lln"- 4k1 + 2h In 4h1 + 2d - -7( l + 2h) (7.18)

+ a(l d ) + n(2h d ) 4
+ 1:. When l >> h and / I
where d = d(211)~ >> N , then L = 1,.1
Equation (7.19) multiplies the physical height h above the ground plane by 2 to account
for the electromagnetic image and may be used to find the inductance of a wire loop by changing
4h to 2h and 2h to h. The current in the termination impedance Z,, = I,, and Z , = I,. These
currents are
I,, = I, = -j d h B , , , (7.19)
d2(Z,, + Z , ) ? + (OIL):
B,, is the incident magnetic flux density, and the illumination is considered as causing worst-case
maximum coupling. Maximum coupling occurs for a plane wave when the plane of incidence is
coincident with the plane of the loop, with the magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of
incidence, as shown in Figure 7.29.
The magnetic flux density B,, is related to the magnetic field H by the permeability of
free space p,,(471 X 10" [H/m]); i.e.,
B = poH
When Z,, = Z , = 0 R , which is true for a shielded cable, and where the transmission-
line equation applies, then
Figure 7.29 Magnetic field induction in a transmission line formed by a wire over a ground plane.
(7.20)
E,, may be found fromH by the relationship E = H X Z,,. The angleof incidence of the electro-
magnetic wave does not affect the magnitude of the induced current; however, the magnetic
field vector must be perpendicular to the plane of the loop for the assumption of maximum
coupling to remain valid. Figure 7.30 compares the results of calculations using transmission-
line theory and from a computer program (The Numerical Electromagnetic Code, NEC).
Resonance can be seen at 7.5 MHz and 15 MHz, and these correspond to the frequencies
where h12 and h equal the line length of 20 m. Other resonances occur at l = khl2, where k
is an integral multiple. Transmission-line theory does not predict these resonances, though they
do exist. The resonances may be calculated based on the termination impedance of the transmis-
sion line. In practical shielded cables, the impedance is predominantly the impedance of the
vertical section of cable as it terminates to the enclosure. Less typically, the cable does not bend
up or down as it connects to the enclosure, in which case the termination impedance is the
impedance of the enclosure to ground plane connection, which may be confinedto theimpedance
of the enclosure wall. This impedance may be found from the impedance of a ground plane as
5
OOOOoO Wire antenna theory
__”””_
Transmission line theory

4 0
z
5 3 0
S 2
Figure 7.30 Termination current for a rectangular loop oriented normal to a perfect ground plane and
illuminated by a plane wave. (01987, IEEE.)
390 Chapter 7
described in Section 5.1.2. The impedance of the vertical section of the transmission line is
given by
(7.21)
where N is the radius of the vertical section and h is the height.

If the incident plane wave has a vertical E field component, then some coupling to the
end sections will occur. However, because we assume that the length of the translnission line
is much greater than the height of the line above the ground plane, we ignore any contribution
from coupling tothe vertical section of the line. Theoretically, when the termination impedance
is zero, the termination current is infinitely high. In practice, some terminating impedance will
always exist. Figure 7.31 (from Ref. 16) shows the predicted cable current amplitude for a 1-
V/m E field incident on a 20-m-long line of radius 5 m m and at a height of 50 cm above the
ground plane. The cablecurrent was predicted by use of method-of-moments antenna theory and
by a modification to transmission-line theory described in Ref. 16. We see that as the termination
impedance approaches the characteristic impedance of the cable abovea ground plane, the maxi-
mumcurrentreduces to that predicted by thetransmission-lineapproach. Often in radiated
susceptibility tests, such as the MIL-STD-461 RS03 test where the interconnection cables are
located at a height of 5 cm above a ground plane, equipment is found to besusceptible at
frequencies corresponding to the resonant frequency of the interconnection cables. This isespe-
cially true for shielded cables with a low-impedance connection of the shield at one or both
ends to the ground plane. A simple test, which may be used to verify shielded-cable resonance
susceptibility, is to short the shields of the interconnection cables to the ground plane at some
distance along the length of the cable and thus shift the resonance frequency. The use of ferrite
beads or baluns at the ends of shielded cables will often increase the termination impedance
and reduce the cable resonance currents sufficiently to achieve EMC. When this is impractical,
the type of shield or number of braids may be changed to increase shielding effectiveness. As
described in Section 7.2 on transfer impedance, there is a limit to the level of shielding achiev-
able in a flexible cable, and in some instances the only solution is to increase the immunity of
the equipment.
Transmission-line theory or the inductance of a loop may be used to find the shield current
flow on a shielded cable. The transfer voltage is then found by use of Eq. (7.15). The (sin @)/
8 function of Eq. (7.15) is valid for a cable with a matched shield termination only. Therefore,
when an unmatched termination exists, the transferred voltage should be multiplied by a factor
that accounts for the increase in shield current at resonance. When the cable shield is terminated
at both ends to the enclosure, a nominal multiplication factor of 5 may be used. To more ac-
curatelyaccountforresonanceandterminationeffects, softwaresuch as GEMACS,NEC,
MININEC, and a commercially available Radiated Immunity software form SpectraSoft can be
used to model cables above a ground plane, typically as a two-wire transmission line formed
by the cable and its electromagnetic image in the ground plane. In one example, a 2.5-111 length
of cable located 5 cm above a ground plane was modeled using GEMACS and the SpectraSoft
Radiated Immunity software. Also, the simple transmission-line equation (Eq. 7.20) was used
to predict the current flow, but this does not account for cableresonances, which are significant
when the termination impedances arelow. Thetermination impedances at both ends of the cable,
which represent a typical short circuit, were set at 50 nH in series with 2.5 mQ. This would be
the case for a shielded cable with the shield terminated to the ground plane at each end. The
transmission-line and termination impedances were modeled in GEMACS using wire segments
and a MOM analysis, with a plane wave incident on the structure. The current flow on the cable
with a horizontally polarized field broadside onto the cable was analyzed, as well as a vertically
391
Cable Shielding, Coupling, and Emissions
! zL=o n
1OE-lA-
IOE-2 -
J
10E-3 -
1OE-4 I l*
20 46
1OE-2 1
I,
1OE-4
0 20 4
0
'
10E-1 -
A
zL= 10 n
l>
0 20 40
10E-2
f zL= 100 n
0 20
Figure 7.31 Cable current with 0-, I-, IO-, and 100-!2 termination impedances. (From Ref. 16. 0 1988,
IEEE.)
polarized sidefire field, i.e., illuminating the vertical end section. In either case it was the maxi-
mum current in any of the wire segments down the length of the cable that was recorded. The
same analysis was performed usingthe Spectrasoft Radiated Immunity program, which provided
a plot of cable current in the cable versus frequency so that the current at resonant and antireso-
nant frequencies could beseen. It was not clear in the use of this program if the predicted current
was an average value or a peak value. The peak current at the first resonant frequencies of 60
MHz and 180 MHz and an incident field of 40 V/m were analyzed.
In addition, cable currents at 1-GHz and 4-GHz and an E field of 3500 V/m, which would
be representative of illumination by radar, were analyzed.
The current flow using Eq. (7.20) for the horizontal, broadside on, field was also predicted.
392 Chapter 7
The height of the cable above the ground plane must be much less than h for this equation to
remain valid, so the prediction at 4 GHz was omitted. Also, Eq. (7.20) does not account for
current flow at resonance, and this is significant at 60 and 180 MHz, where the termination
impedances were lower than the transmission-line impedance. However, at 1 GHz the termina-
tion impedances are high and the transmission line equation predicts a higher current flow than
was calculated by GEMACS or the Spectrasoft Radiated Immunity program. The results of the
predictions are shown in Table 7.2, with a good correlation between the GEMACS program
and the Spectrasoft program.
At gigahertz frequencies it may be more appropriate to conduct a shielding effectiveness
test on cables in the configuration in which they are to be used. One test was made of the
coupling through a cable when exposed to a local field from 1 to 2 GHz. A capacitive injection
clamp was used to inject a high-level E field into the cable, as shown in Figures 7.32 and 7.33.
A 20-W TWT amplifier was used to generate the field, and the capacitive injection probe was
designed to have a VSWR of less than 3: 1 to avoid damage to the TWT. Other TWTs require
an even lower VSWR. A 2.4-m length of RG58 coaxial cable was set up on 5-cm blocks above
a ground plane, with the capacitive injection clamp placed around the cable. A number of loca-
tions down the length of the cable were tried for the injection probe. It was found that a large
number of locations down the length of the cable resulted in the same cable current and trans-
ferred voltage; however, the maximum induced values were highly dependent on moving the
injection probe a centimeter or so relative to the cable at any of these locations. The far end of
the RG58 was terminated with 50 R, while at the opposite end the center conductor led to a
pin in an MIL 38999 connector. The reference to a “38999 connector” implies the combination
of a Matrix D38999/24WF35SA female connector, a Bendix JD38999/26WF35PA male con-
nector (mating half), and a Glenair M85049/19-19W06 backshell (mounted on the Bendix con-
nector). The direct termination of the RG58 cable shield to the EM1 backshell is not the ideal
360” termination aroundthe periphery of the cable, but it is representative of the type of connec-
tion used in the cable harness. An aperture exists between the cable shield and the backshell,
as can be seen in upcoming Figure 7.35, and coupling from currents flowing on the shield,
through this aperture, is almost certainlyone reason why the attenuation of the direct connection
is so poor. In Ref. 17 a conductive elastomer is described that is used to plug the hole in the
backshell and to make a connection around the periphery of the shield Figure 7.38 shows an
improvement at some frequencies with the conductive elastomer compared to an unshielded
cable at frequencies from 0.2 to 1.2 GHz.
The 38999 connector was mounted on the end of a metal box, that also had an N-type
Table 7.2 Comparison of Cable Currents Induced by a Plane Wave Incident on a Two-Wire
Transmission Line, Using GEMACS, Commercial Radiated Immunity Software, and Eq. (7.20)
Current using GEMACS Radiated
E field TX line Eq. peak current immunity
f (MHz) (V/m) Field orientation (mA)
(7.20) (mA) software (mA)
40 60 Vertical (sidefire) - 6.1 7
60 40 Horizontal (broadside) 43 320 150
180 40 Vertical (sidefire) - 7.4 5.6
1000 3500 Vertical (sidefire) - 860 500
4000 3500 Vertical (sidefire) - 600 110
4000 3500 Horizontal (broadside) - 630 300
upling,
Shielding, Cable
Capacltwe
Injection
Spectrum
cable or cable bundle
I I Analyzer
I
-l -PF
tube
Ground plane Box w t h
trnnlmtxon
Pow3
Amplitier
Signal
Genaator
Figure 7.32 Capacitive injection clamp setup.
Figure 7.33 Injection clamp.

394 Chapter 7
connector mounted on the opposite end. Inside, a short length of RG213 coax led from the N-
type connector to the pin that connected to the RG58 cable. The unshielded length of RG213
cable was kept to a minimum. The box setup can be seen in Figure 7.34. The box lid was
fastened with EM1 gasket electromagnetically sealing the box, as shown in Figure 7.35. The
signal from the N-type connector was taken via coaxiala cable covered in asolid copper conduit
to a spectrumanalyzer located outside of the shielded room where the measurements were made.
The injected signal was swept from 910 MHz to 2 GHz, and the level was recorded on the
spectrum analyzer. This test was performed three times in three different configurations. The
first was to connect the RG58 shield directly to the pin in the Matrix connector to simulate an
unshielded wire, andthe level from 910 MHz to 2 GHz was recorded. The test was then repeated
with the center conductor connected to the pin and the coax shield terminated directly at the
backshell of the connector.Once again the test was repeated, this time with the shield terminated
via a 1” pigtail. These two levels were subtracted from the unshielded-wire reference level to
obtain the shielding effectiveness of the cable.
The results of thistest give the shielding effectiveness achieved with adirect shield termi-
nation as well as with a 1”pigtail termination usingthe 38999 connector. The results are shown
in Figure 7.36. As shown in thegraph, the attenuation achieved with a good shield termination
is higher than that achieved with 1” pigtails at most frequencies. Above 1400 MHz the coupling
may have been primarilyaperture coupling and not transferimpedance coupling due to the long-
line limit on transfer impedance. Why the direct termination and the pigtail is better than an
unshielded cable from 1700MHz to 2000 MHz is unclear. However,the test setup is representa-
tive of the actual cable, connector, and backshell configuration.
The next test was on a cable with an “ARINC” connector with a provisional copper
backshell. This backshell was open, and the copper surround was used to solder the cable shields
via the 1” pigtail. Because the makeshift backshell was wide open at the back, each conductor
in the cable had short unshielded lengths of wire leading from where the shield ended to the
pins in the ARINC connector. Radiated couplingto these lengths of wire from the currents set
Figure 7.34 MIL-38999 connector measurement jig.

Cable Shieldin& Coupling, and Emissions 395
Figure 7.35 MIL.-38999 connector measurement jig with lid fastened.
2o T
-
. 5 +
0-
900 lo00 1100 1200 1300 1400 I500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Figure 7.36 RG58 shielding effectiveness.

0
W
Q)
Figure 7.37 Shielding effectiveness of a representative cable harness with ARINC connector and provi-
sional “open” backshell. Direct connection and I” pigtail.
up on the cable shield is very probable. Figure 7.37 shows the attenuation with a 1” pigtail and
a direct connection of the braid of the shielded cable to the provisional backshell.
7.4.1 Polarization and Angle of Incidence

In the following discussion we refer to a wave with horizontal polarization as one in which the
electric field component is parallel to the ground plane and a vertically polarized wave as one
in which the electric field is perpendicular to the ground plane.
In many cases we do not know the polarization or the angle of incidence of the wave,
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
GHz
Figure 7.38 Voltage induced in: (A) shielded cable with a standard EM1 backshell; (B) unshielded
cable; (C) shielded cable with conductive elastomer backshell. (0IEEE, 1995.)
398 Chapter 7
and a worst-case coupling of either the magnetic or electric field component must be assumed.
One example in which the assumption of worst-case coupling is valid is the RS03 test setup,
in which, above 30 MHz, both vertical and horizontal orientations of the E-field-generating
antenna must be used. The antenna is located 1 nl from the edge of the ground plane. Thus for
frequencies below 50 MHz the field is near field and exhibits curvatureand horizontal, vertical,
and radial field vectors. When the RS03 test is conducted in a shielded room, the electromagnetic
image of the antenna is formed in the ceiling and the angle of incidence of the wave on the
interconnection cables is both directly from the antenna and that of the reflected wave from the
ceiling. Thus, especially at low frequency, the assumption of worst-case coupling in the RS03
test setup is perfectly valid. I n some instances both the polarization of the wave and the angle
of incidence are known. One example is when the orientation and locations of a transmitting
antenna that couples to an above-ground signal or power cable areknown. The angle of incidence
and polarization determine the directivityof the configuration that is used to correct the predicted
open-circuit voltage induced in a transmission line above ground. Reference 10 contains directiv-
ity patterns for vertical polarization, for which the directivity may be as high as 3.7, and for
horizontal polarization, which may have a directivity as high as 2. Reference 10 also provides
information on the compensation in the coupling prediction when the transmission lineis located
above a ground plane with less than perfect conductivity.
7.5 SHIELDTERMINATION
Thus far we haveassumed that the shieldof a cable is connected to ground at bothends (symmet-
rical connection) via the metalwalls of an enclosure. We have seen that this configuration
providesshieldingagainst an incidentmagnetic field butthatthisshieldingeffectiveness is
limited at low frequency. When one orboth of the enclosures can be disconnected from ground,
greatly increased shielding against a magnetic field may be achieved. However, when it is the
shield of the cable that is disconnected from an enclosure at one end and the two enclosures
remain connected to the ground plane, the configuration is effectively the same as shown in
Figure 7 . 3 with minimum attenuation of magnetic-field-induced voltages. When a shielded
cable is used to connect a component such as a potentiometer mounted on a front panel, thermis-
tor, strain gauge, orheating element in which the electrical connections are isolated from chassis
ground, then the shield should be connected as shown in Figure 7.39. Here the shield is isolated
from ground at the component end and maximumshieldingagainstboth E and H fields is
achieved. The capacitance between the component (and associated connections) and enclosure
must beminimized for this to remain valid at high frequencies. As with all guidelines, exceptions
exist; one in which a shield is deliberately disconnected from the enclosure at low frequencies
Equipment
Shielded cable
Figure 7.39 Shield connection for components with low capacitance to ground (chassis).
Figure 7.40a Current flow in a near-resonant length of shielded cable in which one enclosure is con-
nected to ground (asymmetrical connection).
at one end but effectively connected at RF is described later in this section. In the following
discussions we assume that the shield is connected to the enclosures at both ends of the cable,
and isolation of the cable at one end (asymmetrical connection) means that the enclosure is
disconnected from ground.
Assuming the conditions for use of transmission-line theory are met and that the length
of the cable is close to orgreater than h/4, then Eq. (7.20) may still be usedto determine the cable
current flow for the asymmetrical connection. Figure 7.40a illustrates the current distribution on
the shield due to an incident electromagnetic wave for the asymmetrical connection and where
the cable length is a significant fraction of a wavelength but not greater than h/4. The effect
of removing one end of the ground connection (asymmetrical connection) is merely to move
the frequency of resonances; the magnitude of the shield current at nonresonant frequencies is
of the same order. The resonances for the asymmetrical connection occur when
l=
(2k + I)h (7.22)
4
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Thus resonances for the asymmetrical connection occur for line
lengths that equal 0.25h, 0.75h, 1.25h, etc., and for the symmetrical connection when the line
length equals OSh, h, l.%, etc.
Figure 7.40b illustrates that a current does flow on a shield when both ends are discon-
Figure 7.40b Current flow in a cable and enclosures disconnected from ground(or for the symmetrical
connection).
400 Chapter 7
0
A
P H
-50
-100
-150
-150 /
Symmetrical
Asymmetrical
I
No connection
Figure 7.41a EMI voltage induced in coaxial cablewith asymmetrical, symmetrical, andno connection
of the shield and enclosures to ground. (From Ref. 18.)
nected from ground. The current distribution for the symmetrical connectionis the same as the
distribution shown in Figure 7.40b for the totally disconnected configuration.
Figure 7.41a, from Ref. 18, illustrates the voltage induced in a leaky coaxial cable, one
in which the transfer impedance increases linearly with frequency, i.e.,
Z , = R, + j o L , (7.23)
and for which L, = 16 nH/m and R, = 9 mQ/m. The incident electromagnetic wave is a 1 =
V/m plane wave, and the cable has a diameter of 8 mm, a characteristic impedance of 50 Q,
and a length of 15 m and is located 30 cm above a ground plane.The angle of incidence of the
plane wave ensures worst-case coupling for all three shield terminations, which are symmetrical,
asymmetrical, and no connection. Below 1 MHz, the symmetrical connection exhibits a lower
level of shielding than either the asymmetrical or no connection. At 5 MHz, where the cable
length is approximately equal to h/2,the symmetrical connection achieves the highest level of
shielding. In Figure 7.41b experimental results are shown compared to theoretical, in which the
difference in the asymmetrical and symmetricalconnections is no greater than 25 dB at 10 kHz
in the measured values. This is attributed to additional E field coupling through the transfer
-50
-100
Symmetrical
Theoretical
Experimental 0 0 0 0
Asymmetrical
Theoretical
Experimental o o o o
Figure 7.41 b Comparison of calculated and measured EMI voltages. (From Ref. 18.)
admittance of the shield, which increases the measured EM1 voltage, especially for the asyniniet-
rical connection.
In practice a lower transfer impedance than indicated is achieved above I MHz for the
majority of cables, and therefore the shielding effectiveness will typically be higher. When the
incident electromagnetic wave is not a plane wave but predominantly an electric or magnetic
excitation, then at frequencies where the line length is less than the wavelength, the symmetrical
or asyinnietrical connection of shields results in different values for the shielding effectiveness
of the cable.
For a magnetic field incident on the same cable configuration (i.e., 15-111 cable length
etc.), the asymmetric connection achieves a higher level of shielding effectiveness below 1 MHz
but a lower level above 5 MHz. For an electric field, the symnietrical connection achieves a
higher level of shielding than the asyinnietrical at frequencies below 5 MHz, for the IS-m cable
length, with little to choose between the two at higher frequencies. Again, measured values of
shielding show less difference than predicted for the two configurations and for E and H fields,
due to the coupling through the transfer admittance of the cable.
In practice it is difficult to achieve a true asymmetric connection unless the inner conduc-
tors of the shielded cable terminate on a physically sinall component, such as a transducer, at
the end where the shield is floated.
Where considerable circuitry exists, either capacitance to ground or a ground connection
via a power supply and the line cord safety ground may negate the true asymmetrical connection.
The configuration we have considered, of cables running close to a ground plane, is nornially
achieved only on spacecraft, in vehicles, aircraft, and ships, and in the RS03 test setup.
When the cabinets or cases of two pieces of equipment are connected together via shielded
cable and conductive connector backshells, the second connection is often made via additional
interface cables or via the two equipment line cords to the safety ground. Where the incident
electromagnetic field induces current flow on the shields of two or more adjacent interface
cables, transmission-line theory may be used to calculate the magnitude of the current flow. In
contrast, when a second case-to-case connection is made via safety grounds, a high impedance
due to inductance is included in the loop and circuit theory is applicable. These two configura-
tions are shown in Figure 7.42.
It should be emphasized that in neither of the situations in Figure 7.42 is the cable shield
disconnected from the enclosure; only the enclosure is disconnected from the ground plane.
This is also true for Figures 7.40a, and b. Where the cable shield is disconnected from the
enclosure at one end, the attenuation of the configuration to a inagnetic field is negligible. With
the shield disconnected, some attenuation to an E field is achieved, especially at low frequency
and where circuit impedances are high or where the cable length is much greater than the wave-
length, in which case a low level of attenuation to a plane wave is achieved. The level of plane-
wave attenuation for a leaky cable will be approximately the same as for the asymmetrical
connection, shown in Figure 7.41a, at 5 MHz and above.
One example where the shield of a cable was deliberately disconnected from an enclosure
is as follows. The shielded cable was kilometers long and in proximity to a 60-Hz magnetic
field. Connecting the shield of the cable to the enclosure at both ends would result in very high
levels of 60-Hz current flow on the shield of the cable, which in turn would be coupled via
mutual inductance to the center conductors of the cable. Disconnecting the shield of the cable
meant that the center conductors of the cable were exposed to the 60-Hz field with virtually no
shielding. The signals were differential and terminated in a high impedance at the receiver, so
the 60-Hz current was liniited by the high input impedance of the receiver. The 60-Hz conimon-
mode voltage appearing at the receiver input was rejected by the common-mode noise rejection
of the receiver. In addition to 60 Hz, the long cable carried currents induced by FM and AM radio
402 Chapter 7
Equipment
l
'
3
"-2
"__t
Interface cables
C
< Equipment
I Equipment
-
3
"- C
Equipment
2
line
cord
Figure 7.42 Loop area andcommon-modecurrent induced by an electromagnetic wave.
transmissions. The cablewas electrically long and achieved the levelof attenuation predicted in
Eq. (7.15), which is independent of the typeof shield termination (asymmetricalor symmetrical),
as shown in Figure 7.41a. Thus the type of shield termination appears ideal for the application.
The problem is that the shield at the end of the unterminated cable enters the enclosure and,
due to a high level of noise voltage between the shield and the enclosure, radiates inside the
equipment. Onesolution is to add an RF capacitor, with a sufficiently low impedance connection,
of approximately 100-pF value, between the end of the shield and the enclosure. The capacitor
maintains the isolation of the shield at 60 Hz but effectively connects the shield to ground at
RF. The correct location for the capacitor is outside of the enclosure to ensure that the noise
currents do not flow on the inside of the enclosure. Not only was the location of the capacitor
outside of the enclosure not feasible, but the connection of the physically small capacitor be-
tween the shield of a large cable and chassis was extremely difficult. A potential solution was
to use the high permittivity of the cable insulation and, by either bringing the cable through a
metal tube or wrapping the cable with metal foil, to form a 100-pF capacitance between the
shield of the cable and the enclosure.
7.6 EMISSIONS FROM CABLES AND WIRES

Many of the considerations we have given to coupling from E and H fields into cables apply
to the generation of E and H fields by cables. One of the more useful axioms to be remembered
in EMC work is that where a time-varying current exists, so does an electromagnetic field;
conversely, where a time-varying field impinges on a conductor, a current flows. The path and,
where possible, the magnitude of the current flow must first be identified in predicting the resul-
tant radiation.
Where differential currents flow on a multiconductor cable and the conductors are close
together,the amount of radiation from the cable is often lessthan for alower-magnitude
common-mode current that flows in a loop of large area or on an isolated cable. The practicing
engineer with little exposure to EMCwill often dismiss the potential for radiation from a signal
or power interconnection cable on the grounds that the signal- or differential-noise voltage is
at a low frequency and, thereby, ignore the common-mode contribution. The EMC engineer,
on the other hand, may incorrectly ignore differential-mode currents due to the common experi-
ence that the source is so often common-mode current flow.
A practical instance of this is a digital data bus connecting two pieces of equipment in
which common-mode noise voltage exists between the PCBsin the equipment and theequipment
case. A current flow may then exist between the case-to-PCB connection and the data bus re-
turning via a ground connection in the far enclosure, as illustrated in Figure 7.43. In the case
of shielded cables, the differential current flow on the center conductors induces only a low
level of current on the inside of the shield, whereas any common-mode voltage between the
center conductors and the shield results in a typically higher current flow on the inside of the
shield. Even without a connection of any one of the conductors to the far-end enclosure, a
current still flows on the inside of the shield due to the impedance of the transmission line
formed by the center conductors and the shield.
_"-"
"-"
Equipment 1 Equipment 2
""
""
-"
- PCB
/"- L L L - \
PCB
PS
0
1)
.
"1-
.
\
Figure 7.43 Radiation as a result of common-mode current generated by noise voltages within equip-
ment.
404 Chapter 7
When a piece of equipment is connected to ground, for example, via the AC safety ground,
it is often common-mode currentson the AC power cordthat is the major contributorto radiation.
As described in Ref. 22, experiments with a battery-powered broadband noise source connected
via a length of cable toa load in which no ground connection existed still resulted in the detection
of common-mode current on the interconnection cable. The most likely explanation for this
surprising result is displacement current flow via capacitance between the circuit and grounded
structures.When a groundconnection is made to a similar setup with a radiating loop, a
common-mode current flows on the groundconnection that may be theprincipal source of
radiation, as discussed later and in Chapter 11, Sections 11.1 and 11.6.2, on PCB radiation.
The most accurate method of obtaining the common-mode current flow is measurement
by use of a current probe around the shield of a cable or around all of the conductors in an
unshielded cable. Alternatively, circuit theory may be used to calculate current flow on cables
based on measured or predicted values of common-mode voltage and circuit or transmission-
line impedance. When the current flow on the inside of the shield is known, the current flow
on the outer surface of the shield of a cable may be derived from the methods used to calculate
cable-to-cable coupling below 200 kHz and from the transfer impedance of the cable above 200
kHz. The field radiated by the cable may then be calculated by use of the monopole, electric
current element, or currentloopequations,whicheverareapplicable to the cable geometry,
contained in Chapter 2. Alternatively, moment method techniques may be used. In the example
shown in Figure 7.43, the geometry of the current path must be known in order to arrive at the
loop area.
7.6.1 Emission from Loops

Forloops of any shape but that do not fall under the definition of a transmissionline,the
equations of Section 2.2.3 may be used. These equations are valid when the load impedance at
the end of the loop is less than or equal to the transmission-line impedance of the loop, as
discussed later. For calculations of the electromagnetic wave in the far field, the equations may
be simplified to Eq. (7.24) with identical results:
(7 24)
where
z, = 377 n
I,, = maximum loop current
A = area of loop
7.6.2 Emission from Transmission-Line Geometries

To calculate the radiation from a transmission line made up of either two cables or a cable
above a ground plane, use is made of the concept of the rndic~tionr-esistrrnceof the line. Radiation
resistance of an antenna or a transmission line is used to describe that part of the conductor
resistance that converts a fraction of the power delivered to the load into radiated power. In an
efficient antenna, the radiation resistance is designed to be high and the resistance, which con-
verts the input power into heat, is low. In the transmission line, the opposite is true. The radiation
resistance for a resonant section of two- wire line of length h / 2 (or integral multiples of h / 2 )
when the line is short-circuited (symmetrical connection), or 114 and other multiples shown in
Eq. (7.22) when the line is open-circuited or terminated in a load higher than Z, (asymmetrical
connection), is
30P2b' (7.25)
where b is either the distance between the two-conductor line or twice the height of the cable
above a ground plane. The radiated power for the resonant line is given by
30P'b'I' (7.26)
where I is the current flow on the line, either measured or calculated. For the majority of EM1
conditions, the radiated noise covers a wide range of frequencies, and resonant line conditions
can be expected. For example, when the source of current is converter or digital logic noise,
the harmonics may range from kilohertz up to 500 MHz.
Where a single frequency with negligible harmonics is the source of current in the line
and the cable length is electrically long, i.e., l > 0.251, but either the line is not a resonant
length at the frequency of interest or the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the
radiation resistance equals
30pb' (7.27)
and the power is
3Opb'I' (7.28)
The magnetic field some distance R from the line is
(7.29)
where
P = radiated power
Z,, = waveimpedance
k = directivity, which is approximately 1.5 for a current loop and resonant
line and 1.0 for a nonresonant line
and the electric field is
Z,,.Pk
E = { z (7.30)
In the near field, the wave impedance is close to the characteristic impedance Z,. of the
transmission line, which may be calculated from Eq. (7.16). The wave impedance then changes
linearly until the near-fieldlfar-field interface, at which Z,, = 377 Q. The E field radiated by
the current loop may be obtained from E = H X Z,v. The equation for calculating the wave
impedance in the near field is
z,, = - R (Z,. - 377)

1l2n
+ 377 ( Z ) ,< 377 Q)
where R is the distance from the radiation source, in meters.

406 Chapter 7
Figures 7.44 a, b, and c compare the calculated and measured magnetic field from a trans-
mission line 2 m long suspended 5 cm above a ground. In the near field, the calculated H field
using transmission-line theory produces results closer to the measured values, whereas large
errors are obtained for the use of current loop equations. In the far field, the two calculated values
tend to converge and the niaximum error between calculated and measured is approximately
6 dB.
The criteria for assessing when circuit theory or transmission-line theory is applicable are
the same as described in Section 7.4 on coupling into wires. The directivity factor of 1.5 does
not take into account the height of the antenna with reference to the transmission line. Even
more important when measurements are made in a shielded room, as were those shown in
Figure 7.44, are the reflections of the transmission line from the ceiling and wall of the room.
Compensation for reflections is discussed in Section 9.3.2.
The transmission-line model is applicable to the RE02 and DO-160 test setups, in which
cables are located 5 cm above a ground plane and 10 cm from the edge of the ground plane
for a distance of 2 m. When shielded cables are used, the shield is often terminated at the
equipment enclosure, which is bonded to the ground plane, at one end and connected to the
ground plane, after the 2-m length, at the other end. If we assume that the cable length between
the ground connections is 3 m and the relative pemiittivity of the dielectric is 2, then the cables
first resonant frequency is 35 MHz, at which h/2 = 3 m. A typical RE02 narrowband limit at
35 MHz is 22 dBp V/m measured at a distance of 1 in from the edge of the ground plane. The
current flow on the shield of the cable must be below 9 pA at 35 MHz in order to meet the
specification limit using Eq. (7.28), from which the predicted H field at a distance of 1.05 nl
from the cable is 3.478-8 A/m. The characteristic impedance of the transmission line is approxi-
mately 317 R,and thus the wave impedance 1.05 in from the transmission line is approximately
377 Q. The predicted E field is therefore 3.47 E-8 A/m X 377 = 13 pV/m = 22 dBp Vlm.
Distance [m]
Figure 7.44a Comparison of calculated and measured fields from a transmission line with distance at
79 MHz.
100
.-
c
V
E 1
P)
0.1
0.2 0.6 1.o 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
Distance [m]
Figure 7.44b Comparison of calculated and measured fields from a transmission line with distance at
34 MHz.
A
100
W
cu
cu
m
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Distance [m]
Figure 7.44C Comparison of calculated and measured fields from a transmission line with distance at
228 MHz.
408 Chapter 7
In Figure 7.44b the measured H field was approximately 12 dB above the predicted value
at a frequency of 34 MHz and a distance of 1 m, based on the measured cable current. Some
of the difference may be accounted for by reflections from the ceiling and wall of the shielded
room, plus errors in antenna calibration and the damping effect of the current probe on the cable
when the cable current is measured. Thus engineers must set a design goal of less than 1 pA
of common-mode current on a cable at 20-35 MHz to ensure meeting RE02 limits.
Measurements were also made in a well-damped chamber that, over the frequency range
of the measurements, showed a correlation of between 0 and 4 dB tomeasurements on an OATS.
A 2-m-long insulated #16AWG wire was raised 5 cm above and 10 cm from the edge of a
ground plane and terminated either in a short circuit, in an open circuit, or with 3 17 R. The
current on the line was monitored by use of a current probe. The current on the cable when
terminated with the characteristic impedance of the line is constant down the length of the line.
For the short-circuit and open-circuit termination, the current probe was moved up and down
the length of the line to intercept the highestlevel of current. The measuring antenna was located
at a distance of 1 m from the edge of the ground plane and raised and lowered in height (not
a requirement in MIL-STD-462 or DO-160) to measure the highest E field from the test setup.
The antenna orientation was changed to intercept both the horizontally and the vertically polar-
ized field. Either Eq. (7.26) or Eq. (7.27) was used to calculate the power, and Eq. (7.30) was
used to calculate the E field.
Table 7.3 provides a comparison of the measured and predicted E fields. The accuracy
of the prediction is typically acceptable, with some error in the current measurement introduced
by the presence of the current probe on the cable. The type and size of antenna used affected
the measurement, with a significant difference in the data using a log periodic/biconical versus
a reference dipole antenna. A smaller contribution to the error is from the chamber.
7.6.3 Emissions from Loops With and Without Attached Cables

The situation arises where the radiation from a loop that either is disconnected from any ground
connection or more commonly is connected to ground is required. One example is wiring or
PCB tracks inside an unshielded enclosure to which a ground connection is made.
One practical example of such a loop connected to a square wave generator is as follows.
A 20-cm X 5-cm rectangular loop is connected to a square-wave generator that drives the loop
via a 51-R resistor with a 2.5-V l-MHz square wave. The 1 -m-long cable driving the loop is
a double-braid type wrappedfour times around a ferritebalun to reduce radiation from thecable.
The pulse generator is shielded and the AC power line is shielded at the generator enclosure.
Thus the prediction is that a low level of current will flow on the cables. The majority of EM1
sources are pulses or square waves, and in meeting EM1 specifications we are interested in the
frequency domain spectral density. Thus in an EMC prediction we must often convert from the
time domain to thefrequency domain. The maximumcurrent flow in our example loop at
the fundamental l-MHz frequency is 2.5 V/51 R = 49 mA. Using the equations of Figure 3.1,
the amplitude at the 21st harmonic (21 MHz) is 62 dBpA.
Using this current in the computer program that computes the E field from a loop results
in a predicted E field of 0.28 mV/m, with no compensation for reflections from ceiling and
floor. A very approximate correction is to add 6 dB for reflections, resulting in a predicted E
field of 0.56 mV/m. The E field from the loop measured by a monopole antenna located 1 m
from the loop is shown in Figure 7.45. The level measured by the monopole is -57 dBm at
21.7 MHz. A 26-dB preamplifier is used, so the output level from the monopole is -57 dBm -
26 dB = -83 dBm. This converts to a voltage of 16 pV. The antenna factor of the monopole
is 40, and so the measured E field is 0.64 mV/m. Removing the loop from the end of the cable
Table 7.3 Predicted and Measured E Field From a Wire above a Ground
Plane in an MIL-STD-462/DO-160 Test Setup
Frequency Calculated Measured Delta
(MH4 level (dBpV/m) level (dBpV/m) (dB)
Short-circuit termination, horizontally polarized field
83 91.1 85.5 5.6
140 95.6 91.0 4.6
200 96.7 88 8.7
260 96.0 85.0 11
Short-circuit termination, vertically polarized field
77 90.5 89.0 10.5
146 96.0 89.0 7.0
200 96.7 90.5 6.2
252 96.7 83.5 13.7
Open-circuit termination, horizontally polarized field
55 85.5 85.5 0.0
I18 93.1 86.0 7.1
166 96.1 96.0 0.1
228 94.9 85.0 9.9
293 89.0 87.0 2.0
Open-circuit termination, vertically polarized field
48 84.4 86.0 1.6
110 92.6 90.0 2.6
172 95.4 93.5 1.9
225 94.8 94.9 0.8
297 89.2 87.0 2.2
Line terminated in its characteristic impedance of 317 0,
horizontally polarized field
35 76.2 77.0 0.8
140 78.2 80.0 1.8
233 81.4 77.0 4.4
45 76.3 77.0 0.7
77 77.6 81.o 3.4
112 80.3 75.0 5.3
15 I 78.5 81.5 3.0
185 80.4 85.5 5.1
216 80.1 84.5 4.4
250 80.7 81.0 0.3
and replacing it with a near-perfect short is expected to reduce emissions considerably. However,
as shown in Figure 7.46, this is not the case. A measurement of the current flow on the AC
power-line cable was made using a current probe, with the results as shown in Figure 7.47. The
level at 21.7 MHz is -58 dBm, which, accounting for the 26-dB preamplifier, results in a probe
output level of -84 dBm = 14 pV. The transfer impedance of the current probe at 21 MHz
is 0.89 R,so the cable current is 15.7 pA. Using this current in the computer program for E
field from an electric current element results in a predicted E field of 0.65 mV/m. This example
illustrates very nicely the importance of common-mode current on cables as the predominant
source of radiation, for approximately the same E field is generated by the 15.7 pA on the AC
cable as by a current of 1.26 mA in the loop. In subsequent measurements the loop was located
in the shielded room close to a tube through which the double-shielded cable was fed, and the
410 Chapter 7
hp REF AlTEN 0 dB
IO d&
START 900 Hz STOP 30.0 MHz

RES BW 30 kHz VBW 1M) Hz SW 90.0 rnw
Figure 7.45 Output voltage from a monopole antenna with the loop in circuit.
generator and power cable were located outside of the room. With this configuration, no emis-
sions were measured with the end of the generator cable shorted.
7.6.3.1 Loop Termination
The loop may be terminated in a low-impedance load, representative of logic gates, or a high-
impedance load, representative of analog circuits, or, less commonly, an open circuit. The equa-
tions for radiation from a current loop assumes a short-circuited loop. Therefore an important
question is how applicable the equations are when, as is so often the case, the loop is terminated
in an impedance.
The currentsflowing in a loop terminated in a load impedanceare composed of the uniform
current flowing into the load and a nonuniform displacement current that decreases to zero at
the end of the loop, as shown in Figure 7.48. The magnitude of the nonuniform current is
determined by the input impedance of a short open-circuited transmission line, which, from
Ref. 10, is given by
(377 or Z,,)h
ZI" = (7.3 1)
2x1
where 1 is the length of the transmission line, in meters.
The uniform loop current is given by VJR, and the nonuniform current by V,JZIl,.The
E field radiated by the nonuniform current may be modeled by two electric current elements
separated by a distance h, which is the distance between the two conductors of the loop, in
meters. The direction of current flow in the two elements is out of phase, and so are the E fields
Cable
Emissions
Shielding,
andCoupling, 41 1
REF -10.0 dh AllEN 0 dB

hp
l0 dB
START
RES BW 30 kHz VBW 100 kHz
Figure 7.46 Output voltage from thc monopole antenna with a short circuit replacing the loop.
generated by the elements. At some measuring distance in the plane of the loop the measured
E field is thedifferencebetweenthe fields generated by thetwo elements. As an example,
consider the 20-cm-long by 5-cm-wide loop open-circuited at the end. The input impedance of
the loop at 30 MHz, from Eq. (7.31 j, is 3 kR. The voltage applied to the loop is 0.55 V, so
the value of nonuniform current is 0.183 mA. The E field at a distance of 1 m from the closest
conductor in the loop is required. Using Eq. (2.12) forthe E field at 1 In from an electric current
element results in 7.6 mV/m. The E field at a distance of 1.05 m from the furthest conductor
is 6.555 mV/m. The difference between the E fields is 1 mV/m and is the magnitude of the
predicted field at l-m distance.
In the test setup shown in Figure 7.49, the loop was either unterminated or terminated
with a short circuit,a 50-R, l-kQ, or IO-kR resistor. The E field resultingfromeitherthe
nonuniform or the uniform currents for each termination was calculated and measured by a
monopole antenna at a distance of 1 n~ from the loop over a frequency range of 1-30 MHz.
Table 7.4 provides a summary of the predicted and measured E fields at 5.8 MHz and 30 MHz.
With a short circuit or a SO-R termination, it is the E field from the uniform loop current that
dominates, with minimalcontribution from thecurrentelementsources. With a termination
impedance greater than 377 R, the dominant source is the nonuniform current in the loop mod-
eled by the electric current elements. With a fixed loop current, the measured E field is constant
with a loop termination from a short circuit to a 5 0 4 load; for a fixed input voltage, the E field
is constant from a l-kR load to an open circuit.
When a long wire is connected to the loop, the nonuniform current flows on the long wire
as shown in Figure 7.50. The E field with the wire attached both grounded and ungrounded is
412 Chapter 7
hp
10 d l
START
RES BW M kH VBW 100 M SW 90.0
r
mSec
Figure! 7.47 Output voltage from the current probe placed around the generator AC power cable.
MHz
reproduced in Figure 7.5 1, from Ref. 19, from which we see that the field is almost independent
of the current flowing in the loop. Here is yet another example of the common-mode current
on a wire acting as the dominant source of the field. It is no wonder that engineers with EMC
experience tend to neglect differential-mode current flow on cables. The danger in doing so is
when not all of the differential-mode current returns on the cable, for when current returns on
the ground, a large loop is formed that may become the major radiation source.
The current flow on the long cable is difficult to predict without the use of the moment
method model, as discussed in Ref. 19. The solution when the equipment exists or a breadboard
model can be constructed is to measure the current flow on the long cable by use of the current
Non-uniform component Uniform component
Figure 7.48 Uniform and nonuniform current flow in a loop.

Cable Shielding, Coupling, and Emissions
Shielded room
wall
-1 l m
413
I
ZL I Monopole
+n-
Metal tube +W-)
i 1I
1 am,pl,ifier
Signal
source
1 I I_ 0.3rn 1
cable
./\
Figure 7.49 Loop measurement test setup.
probe. Once the current is known, the electric current element equation may be used to predict
the E field from the cable, as previously described. The electric current element model should
be valid only for infinitesimally short lengths of wire. However, when the model is compensated
for long lengths of wire, the predicted field is invariably higher than seen in near-field measure-
ments and the unmodified model is found to be accurate.
Although a complete shield around the loop will completely eliminate the induction of
common-mode current from the nonuniform loop current source, an incomplete shield may
actually increase the common-mode current on the long cable. Reference 19 shows that the
Table 7.4 Predicted and Measured E Field from a Loop with Differcnt
Terminations
Frequency Current loop Electric current Measured

[MHzl Termination [ mVIni] cleincnts [ mVlm 1 1niV/ni]
5.8 SIC 0.40 0 0.49
5.8 50 R 0.40 0.2 0.49
5.8 IkR 0.02 0.2 0.39
5.8 OK 0 0.2 0.39
30 SIC 2.4 0 0.90
30 50 R 2.4 1 0.90
30 IkR 0.122 1 0.4 1
30 OK 0 I 0.4 1
SIC = short circuit; OIC = open ~II'CUII.
414 Chapter 7
NON-UNIFORM
COMPONENT
Figure 7.50 Nonuniform current flow on a loop connected to a long wire.
Measurement
location
0
Frequency: 30 MHz
Source voltage: 100 mV
Wire radius: 0.5 mm
3-metre maximum electric field strength

[dBpVlm]
50 Cl Circuit
(dipole
prediction): 24.0
50 Q Circuitwithungroundedwire: 35.2
50 Q Circuit
with
groundedwire: 42.6
800 Q Circuit
(dipoleprediction): 6.4
800 C
2 Circuitwithungroundedwire: 35.0
800 Q Circuitwithgroundedwire: 42.3
10 kfl Circuit
(dipole
prediction): 6.4
10 kfl Circuitwithungroundedwire: 34.8
10 kfl Circuit
withgroundedwire: 42.3
Figure 7.51 The E field from a loop connected to a long wire. (From Ref. 19. 0 1989, IEEE.)
Shielding,
Cable Coupling, and Emissions 415
impedance of the long wire close to the loop is high, approximately 3 kR, 10 cm below the
source, and therefore the inclusion of a ferrite bead on the line reduces the current only slightly.
Although the common-mode current flow on interconnection cables is more oftenthe
result of common-mode voltage between ground and the conductors or shield of the cable, we
see from the foregoing that differential-mode currents in the cable can induce a common-mode
current on an attached wire. This is also shown for PCBs in Sections 11.2 and 1 l .3.
7.7 REDUCTION IN THE EMISSION OF E AND H FIELDS FROM CABLES

The principal EM1 reduction technique is to reduce at source. Where the source of current flow
is common-mode noise voltage, RF capacitors between the signal ground and chassis ground
or the use of filter connectors may be effective. Other techniques, such as the use of beads and
baluns, are dealt with in Sections 5.1.10.3 and 5.1.10.4.
The introduction of an impedance (i.e., inductor or resistor in the return current path) is
often an effectivereduction method. When the current flow on a cable is reduced in both ampli-
tude and frequency content to the extent compatible with normal operation of the interface/
power line, the remaining reduction techniques are
The useof shielded cable exhibiting alow transfer impedance at the frequencies of interest,
possibly by use of double-, triple-, or quad-braided shielded cable
The use of connectors and backshells with a low transfer impedance
Where used, removal of a “poor” connector bulkhead gasket, such as graphite-loaded,
porcupine, wire-screen types, and replacement or installation of an effective gasket,
such as thin-sheet or O-ring silver-loaded elastomer
Isolation of the signal return current from the shield by use of triaxial or twinaxial cable
Reduction in the loop area of the cable (achievable by decreasing the height of a cable
above the ground plane or bundling together the cables that carry a differential-
mode current)
When a shielded cable cannot be used, any spare conductors in the cable should be con-
nected to a “clean” ground. If the cable enters a metal enclosure, current flow on the outside
of the enclosure is likely to be minimal, whereas current flow on the inside of the enclosure
may be considerable. Thus connection of the spare conductors or the shield of the cable to the
outside of the enclosure is likely to be effective, whereas connection of spare conductors or the
shield of a cable to the inside of the enclosure or to a noisy signal ground may increase the
level of radiation!
7.8 SHIELDED CONNECTORS, BACKSHELLS, AND OTHER SHIELD

TERMINATION TECHNIQUES
The effectiveness of a shielded cable is often compromised by use of a connector that exhibits
a high transfer impedance or low shielding effectiveness (i.e., high leakage).
Connectors specifically designed for use in harsh EM environments usually include metal
fingers that make electrical contact between the mating halves of the connector and reduce the
high transfer impedance inherent in a purely metal-to-metal interface that is not under pressure.
In addition, the bulkhead mounting section of the connector often contains a groove for
the inclusion of an O-ring type of EM1 gasket. Where the surface is flat, a rectangular gasket
may be used of the correct material, as discussed in Chapter 6.5. Use of the wrong material,
as previously noted, may decrease the shielding effectiveness. EM1 backshells are designed to
connect the shields concentrically around the backshell with a low-impedance connection, with
416 Chapter 7
another low impedance at thebackshell-to-connectorinterface.Backshellsdesignedfor less

harsh EM environments but that provide some EM protection, for example, to meet FCC levels
of emission, are often constructedof nonconductive material coated with thin a layer of deposited
conductive material. It should be emphasizedthat such backshells arenot suitable for the conduc-
tion of high-level transient current such asthat indirectly induced in cables by EMP or a lightning
strike. The shielding effectiveness of various types of backshells designed for D-typeconnectors
is plotted in Figures 7.52 and 7.53, from Ref. 20. The test setup is shown in Figure 7.54, in
KEY
1 Unsllielded Cable 6 Cast Zinc (AMP)

2 Pigtail Connection l Zinc Cas1 (Northern Technologic
3 Copper Tape (Chonlerics) 8 Drawn Metal (Mako Minodot)
4 Copper Foil 9 DrawnMetal (Kern)
5 Melalked Plastic (AMP) 10 Quad Sllieldcd Cable
>IFFEHEN'I'IAL MOUE
I
0
2
-10
/v
-20
-30
3
40 I
S
-50
6
7
-60
-70
-80
8
-90 910
~ 100
KEY
I -____
Ulisliielded Cable 6 Soldered Copper Backsllell
2 Collneclwu I'igtnil 7 Cast Zinc (Northern 'Iecllnologies)
3 ________ Metalized I'laslic ( A M I ' ) 8 Drawn Melal (Mako Microdot)
4 ________ Copper 'Iape (Choalerics) 9 -- _ _ ___ Drawn Metal (Kern)
S Cast Zinc ( A M I ' ) IO Quad Sllicldcd Cable
-l0
-20
-30 3
0
-40 5
6
7
-50
-60
-70
-80
8
10
0 I00 200 300 4W 500 M 700 800 900 I GI17
Figure 7.53 Common-mode noise, backshell shieldingeffectiveness. (From Ref. 20.)
which a 3-foot welded-aluminum cube enclosure contained the test antenna and the cable under
test. The cable was brought into the enclosure via feedthrough connectors and was terminated
in the characteristic impedance of the system. Antenna reflections were calculated and removed
from the final data; however, some of the artifacts of the system are still present in the curves.
The cable was used as the radiation source, andthe test antenna was used to measure the relative
magnitude of the field generated. The zero- or close-to-zero-dB reference is the field measured
from the unshielded cable, with shielded cable radiation at minus-dB levels referenced to 0 dB.
418 Chapter 7
Shielded enclosure
Feedthrough + Cable under test
connectors
, 7
Terminator 3- -l Antenna
Bulkhead feedthrough
RFI
a
IN
Spectrum
analyzer
Power Tracking
amplifier generator
Recorder
Figure 7.54 Backshell shielding effectivenesstest setup.
The maximum attenuation is achieved by the quad shielded cable, which was solidly attached
to the walls of the test chamber. The same cable was used in the connection to the various
backshells. The connectorused with allof the backshells was a 25-pin D type with solder-plated
metal parts and EM1 controlling dimples that are used to ensure good contact.
In the differential-mode test setup, the shieldof the cable carries no signal current, because
the signal conductor and its return are isolated from the shield. In the common-mode setup, the
signal return is made via the shield of the cable. The results of the common-mode test indicate
shielding effectiveness 5-15 dB lower than for the differential-mode test.
The metallized plastic backshell in the common-mode test (curve 3) exhibited the lowest
level of shielding for a correctly terminated shield, that is, one not connected via a wire pigtail.
One important factor found by experiment is that a degradation of as much as 30 dB in the best
readings was seen when the backshell was not installed or terminated correctly.
Curve 2 is a clear example of the importance of terminating a shield correctly; here a (2-
inch) pigtail was used to connect the shield to the backshell. As discussed in Section 7.3 on
coupling to shielded cables, the termination of the shield with a pigtail results in almost-negligi-
ble shielding, especially at high frequencies. Curve 1 is theunshieldedreferencecable. The
curves may best be used by first calculating or measuring the potential radiated emission from
an unshielded cable and comparing the predicted electromagnetic field at a specified distance,
either 1 m, 3 m , or 30 m (depending on the EMC requirements) to the maximum allowable
level contained in the requirements. The reduction due to the use of the quad shielded cable
and different types of backshell may then be assessed and the most cost-effective type of back-
shell selected for the application. It should be noted that the quad shielded cable used during
the measurements exhibits a high level of shielding; use of a different type of shielded cable
will almost certainly reduce the overall level of shielding.
When MIL-STD-461 or similar radiated susceptibilitytests are a requirement or the worst-

case electromagnetic ambient is known, coupling to the cable with the different types of back-
shells may be calculated as follows. The combined transfer impedance of the cable and connector
may be found very approximately from the shielding effectiveness of the combination and the
characteristic impedance of the test setup using Eq. (7.4). The current flow on the shield may
be calculated using the methods described in this chapter, and the transfer voltage is then found
from the transfer impedance.
As a rough guideline, any of the backshells tested, when correctly terminated to the shield,
are likely to meet FCC emission limits. For MIL-STD-461 and TEMPEST applications, only
the solid metal backshells are likely to suffice. Figure 7.55 show cables terminated via very
effective “Glenaire” backshells and by use of the ubiquitous pigtail. Above 1 GHz, connectors
and backshells are common sources of leakage. Figure 7.56a shows the leakage characteristics
of four types of HF connector (from Ref. 21), and Figures 7.56b and 7 . 5 6 ~are the leakage
characteristics translated into transfer impedance. Even the best backshells may be limited by
loose-threaded interfaces. In one instance, military equipment failed a radiated emission test,
and it was found that the connector backshell was loose. As the backshell was tightened, the
emissions could be seen to reduce until they disappeared into the noise level and the equipment
passed the emission requirements with a significant safety margin. When the MIL-C-38999
I
Figure 7.55 Left: cable shields terminated in a pigtail. Right: cable shields terminated in a “Glenaire”
EM1 backshell.
420 Chapter 7
FREQUENCY- GC
Figure 7.56a Leakagecharacteristics of thetype BNC, type N, andGeneralRadioType 874B and

Type 874BL connectors. (From Ref. 21.)
Series III/IV connector-to-backshell interface was loose, the measured transfer impedance was
0.5 R at 100 MHz; as the connection was tightened, the transfer impedance was reduced, as
shown in Table 7.5.
Figure 7.56d shows the combined transfer impedance of the interfaces of the braid of a
shielded cable to the EM1 backshell, the backshell to the connector, thetwo halves of the connec-
tor, and the connector to the bulkhead. The connector is a D (non-EMI) type, either gold-plated
over brass or zinc-plated (AST"B633) over steel. The backshell is manufactured by GlenAire.
Adding Technit Consil A silver aluminum-filled silicon gasket material between the connector
and the bulkhead filled up the gap at the interface and reduced the transfer impedance above l
GHz, as shown in Figure 7.56d.
1 .oo
0.1c
n nl
".",
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FREQUENCY GC -
Figure 7.56b Surface transfer impedance of the type N and General Radio Type874 BL coaxial connec-
tors.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FREQUENCY -GC
Figure 7 . 5 6 ~ Surface transfer impedance of the Type BNC and General Radio Type 874 B coaxial
connectors.
An alternative to a solid backshell is a shielded heat-shrink boot. The interior surface of

the boot is covered with a conductive coating. As the boot is heat-shrunk, the coating makes
electrical contact with the metal of the connector housing and the braid of the shielded cable.
A shielded heat-shrink boot for D-type connectors is available from Raychem CanadaLtd., 113
Lindsay Avenue, Dorval, Quebec, H9P 2S6. The transfer impedance of the Raychem boot is
38 mR at 10 kHz, increasing almost linearly to approximately 70 mRat 100 MHz. As expected,
the transfer impedance of the heat-shrink boot is higher than that of the solid cast GlenAire
backshell, and therefore the shielding effectiveness will be lower.
One way of terminating a number of shields to a backshell is via a compressible disk of
conducting elastomermaterial with wire-insertion holes, as described in Ref. 17. This conductive
elastomer is pressed against the entry of the backshell and is used to terminate the individual
shields.Figure 7.38 showstheattenuation compared to an unshielded cable and a standard
backshell.
Table 7.5 Effect of Torque on Connector and Backshell

Transfer Impedance at 10 MHz and 100 MHz
Transfer Transfer
Torque impedance impedance
(in.-lb) at 10 MHz (mR) at 100 MHz (mQ)
25 300 500
50 15 9
100 3 3
150 2 2
200 1 1.5
422 Chapter 7
O = UiTH GASKET
A = NO GASKET
Figure 7.564 Surface transfer impedance of the two halves of a 25-pin D-type connector with “Glen-
Aire” hackshell.
When a tin-plated copper braid is used over either an unshielded or a shielded cable to
improve the shielding effectiveness, one technique for terminating the braid to the connector
case is by clamping under a hose clamp. The transfer impedance of this type of termination is
shown in Figure 7.57 from Ref. 23.
Additional data on the transfer impedance of a 15-pin D-type, N, UHF, BNC, and SMA
connectors are shown in Figure 7.58 from Ref. 24. NI is the N-type connector attached to an
RG214 cable, and N2 is the N-type attached to a solid tube. This illustrates that it was not
the N-type connector transfer impedance that was dominant but rather that of the cable. The
SMA connector was attached to a semirigid cable, and the characteristic dip in transfer imped-
ance of a solid-walled cable is seen at 10 MHz. However, above 10 MHz the connector transfer
impedance predominates, and it rises to 1.S mR at 1 GHz. Data on a gold-plated SMA connector
soldered to a semirigid cable states an attenuation of 100 dB at 1 GHz, which can be converted
to a transfer impedance of 0.5 mil. It is important to make a solder connection of the SMA
connector to a semirigid or a semiflex cable, fora crimped termination exhibits a higher transfer
impedance.
The dips around 800 MHz for the N- and D-type connectors are caused by the differences
I 0'
in wave velocities at the inside and outside of the connector under test, which becomes important
because of the larger length of these connectors.
Additional data on a 15-position D-type connector shows a transfer impedance ot 40 nil2
at 100 MHz, 400 mi2 at 1 GHz, and 3 R at 3 GHz. These values are much higher than the
values i n Figure 7.56d but lower than the values in Figure 7.58 at 100 MHz and almost the
same at 1 GHz. The problem with transfer impedance measurements on D-type connectors is
the typically poor contact area between the connector case and the mounting surface.
Although connectors are the most common method for terminating shieldsto an enclosure.
bulkhead, or ground, othermethods may be more suitable. For example when signal and return
conductors in shielded cable must be connected to a terminal block, the most conmoll shield
termination method is the ubiquitous "pigtail." A much better method is the cable clamp. typi-
cally constructed from a brass block, or tin-plated metals, as shown in Fig. 7.59. The insulation
is peeled back from the end of the cable to exposethe braid shield. The safest and most effective
way of removing the insulation without damaging the shield is to cut around the insulation using
nylon fishing line. The shield is placed in the clamp, and a solid metal strip is tightened over
the shield, as shown in the figure.
If a cable clamp cannot be used, the braid of the shield can be soldered directly to a solder
lug, which is bolted to the chassis, as shown in Figure 7.60, keeping the braid length very short.
These shield termination techniques are effective up to 1 GHz. But increasingly the shield
attenuation is degraded due to the radiated coupling from the shield to the unshielded sections
of cable. If a cable must terminate at a bulkhead and a connector is not desirable, the bared
shield can be soldered to a brass plate connected to a slot cut or milled into the top of the
bulkhead, as shown in Figure 7.61. If the cable must be soldered at either end to a circuit, the
cable and brass plate can be manufactured as a cable assembly.
EM1 transits are used for the penetration of cables and waveguides and to achieve a con-
ductive bond to bulkheads and to the decks of ships. Multiplug transits (NELSON) are available
424 Chapter 7
x
0
frequency in Hz
Figure 7.58 Transfer impedances of N, SMA, BNC, C, UHF and 15-pin high density D connector.
From Ref. 24; 0 1998 IEEE.
inal
cable
Figure 7.59 Cableshieldterminatedundera cable clamp.
Figure 7.60 Cable shield terminated at a solder lug.
that can be inserted into pipes with diameters of 2-8 inches; by the use of Nelson insert blocks,
these can accommodate a wide range of cables and waveguides.
A poured transit is another technique for bonding the shield of cables or waveguides to
a deck or bulkhead. In a poured transit, a conductive compound is used to make electrical contact
at the penetration of the cable or waveguide; either sealing compound or a swell strip and
impregnation fluid is used to seal the conductive compound from moisture, thereby minimizing
Brass plate
Shielded cable
/ / around periphery
3 / / 2
0 , Bulkhead
Figure 7.61 Cable shield connected to a bulkhead wall.

426 Chapter 7
corrosion. The major disadvantage of the poured transit is the difficulty of adding or removing
a cable.
Another type of transit is the nonpoured rubber block transit, which is constructed of
upper and lower module halves of conductive rubber that clamp the cable and are mounted into
a frame. By peeling off the inner sheets of the module, it can be modified to fit a number of
different cable diameters. The insulation is removed from the cable, exposing the shield, and
this exposed area is clamped between the module halves. To make a good electrical contact
between the cable shield and the metal frame, a strip of copper tape is placed on the inner
surface of each half of the module prior to clamping. The modules are then assembled in rows
in the frame. Once the packing space in the franie is full of modules, some of which may be
empty and others of which may contain cables, the modules are compressed via a compression
plate and the upper space filled with a top packing piece. These transits can be fire resistant,
gas-tight, and watertight if required. Roxtec and Brandshuttechnik (bst) manufacture transits;
more details can be obtained from Jastram, 188 Bunting Rd., Unit 310, St Catherines, Ontario,
Canada, L2M 3Y 1.
The computer prograins at the end of Chapter 2 can be used to calculate the field coupling
to a loop. transmission line, and a short wire terminated on a ground plane (monopole antenna),
as can the emissions froin a loop, short wire/cable, or transmission line. Chapter I 1 contains
case studies of coupling to wires and cable shielding against 2-3 1,000-V/ni fields over the
frequency range from 14 kHz to 40 GHz. These techniques can be used to calculate the current
flowing through the transfer impedance of the connector and the transferred voltage.
7.9 PRACTICAL LEVEL OF CABLE SHIELDING REQUIRED

TO MEET MIL-STD/DO-l60C OR COMMERCIAL RADIATED
EMISSIONS REQUIREMENTS
The practicing electronic design engineer who is not a specialist in EMC often requires an idea
of the level of cable shielding and the type of cable shield termination required to meet an EM1
requirement. To help provide some of this information, a cable shielding effectiveness test was
made with a number of different test configurations and cable shield termination techniques.
The source of RF current flow on the cable was a battery-supplied clock and driver contained
within a well-shielded enclosure that generated the fundamental frequency and harmonics up
to 1000 MHz. With the source powered up in the enclosure and without a cable attached, the
emissions froin the RF source were measured and found to be below the noise floor of the
preamplifier and spectrum analyzer over the 40- 1000-MHz frequency range. Thus the source
of emissions is confined to the cable alone. A log periodic biconical antenna was used to measure
radiated emissions over the 40- 1000-MHz frequency range. The clock frequency was 40 MHz,
and the driver output was 3.8 V peak, with a rise time of 5 ns and a fall time of 5 ns. An MIL-
STD D38999 connector was mounted on the enclosure and used for the clock signal. A Glenair
M85049 non-EM1 backshell with a cable strain relief was used on the external connector. A
2.8-in-long RG58 50-Q cable was used to connect the signal to a 5 0 4 load at the far end of
the cable. The 5042 load was contained in a brass enclosure that was soldered on all sides, and
the braid of the RG 58 cable was soldered to the case around 360", as the cable entered the
brass enclosure. The RG58 shield was thus used as the signal return, and the full signal current
flowed on the inside of the shield.
Figure 7.62a shows the connection of the source, shielded cable, and load for the case
where the shield braid is connected to the strain relief clamp on the backshell. Figure 7.62b
shows the source and load enclosure connected to the ground plane in the MIL-STD/DO-160
test setup. Figure 7 . 6 2 ~is the typical commercial test set-up for radiated emissions contained
CrlblC
Sh,rldcd c*wlosrlre
Figure 7.62a Enclosure,source, and load connection
Figure 7.62b MIL-STD-462/DO-160 radiated emission test setup.
Figure 7 . 6 2 ~ ANSI C63.4Radiatedemission t a t setup.
in ANSI C63.4. The cable shield was terminated at the source end in one of the following four
methods:
1. Shield taken through a pin in the D38999 connector and then connected to the inside
of the enclosure, using a pigtail in the external connector and inside the enclosure
2. Shield connected using a l-inch pigtail to a solder lug fastened beneath one of the
screws in the backshell strain relief
428 Chapter 7
3. Shield braid connected directly to a solder lug fastened beneath one of the screws in
the backshell strain relief
4. Large overbraid clamped to the shield of the RG58 cable using two hose clamps and
to the Glenaire backshell using a large hose clamp (this termination technique pro-
duces results close to an EM1 backshell with 360” shield termination)
The first test setup was in accordance with MIL-STD-462 or DO-160, with the two enclo-
sures bonded to a ground plane. The cable was routed 5 cm above and IO cm from the front
edge of a ground plane located 1 m above the conductive floor in a semi-anechoic chamber.
The tipof the measurement antenna was located 1 m from the cable. Radiated emission measure-
ments were made at the fundamental and the harmonic frequencies of the 40-MHz clock up to
1000 MHz. The radiated emissions were narrowband in nature, and the measured level was
almost independent of the measurement bandwidth.
Figure 7.63 compares the emissions with the four shield termination techniques to the
MIL STD 461C Part 2 narrowband limits for aircraft showing curve 1 for the Army and curve
2 for the Air Force and Navy. As the figure shows, only the full overbraid shield termination,
#4, comes close to meeting the requirements, and even this “best” method results in emission
that are 5 dB above curve 1 at 120 MHz and 5 dB below curve 2 at 120 MHz. The weak link
is not the #4 shield termination technique but the high level of current flowing at the second
and third harmonic (80 MHz and 120 MHz) and the limited shielding effectiveness of the RG58
at these frequencies. Although the shielding effectiveness of the cable continues to decrease
with increasing frequency, it does reach a limit, due to thelong-line effect, whereas the current
flow on the cable at these upper harmonics continues to reduce. Another reason for reduced
radiation from the cable is that it becomes electrically long and a less effective antenna. The
net effect is that the radiated emissions above 120 MHz are well below either the # l or #2
curve when the full overbraid termination technique is used. For the braid-to-backshell shield
termination, #3, the limitation is the cableshielding effectiveness at 120 MHz. Above 120 MHz
the braid termination and the aperture in the backshell at the strain relief are the weak links,
+
x
Z Termlnatlon
-A-=Tcrmlnatlon
x
*
4 Tcrmlnatlon
Figure 7.63 Radiated emissions compared to MIL-STD-461C Part 2 with the four types of shield termi-
nation.
and this means that even the #3 termination is above curve 1 at a number Of frequencies and
even above curve 2 at 280 MHz. The l-inch pigtail is, as we would expect, less effective than
a short braid termination, and bringing the shield through a pin in the connector and attaching
this to the inside of the enclosure results in the highest level of emissions, i.e., is the least
effective. One reason is the increased length of the shield connection caused by the external
pigtail i n the backshell, the pins of the connector and in the internal pigtail.
Another effect, which can be demonstrated very effectively, is RF current that flows on
the inside of the enclosure, which is caused by internal fields and C/M ground connections.
This current will be conducted out on the cable shield. To reduce emissions, the useof a double-
braid shielded cable will be required to meet the curve 1 requirements. Alternatively, a twisted
shielded pair can be used in which the signal return current flows on one of the pair and not
on the shield. An even better method is to use an overall braid and to use the RG58 shield as
a signal return path. The shield is connected to signal ground inside the enclosure using a pin
in the connector. The overall braid shield is connected at both ends of the cable to an EM1
backshell. This overall braid is not used to carry signal return current, and thus the radiation,
due to thelimitedshielding effectiveness in the cable and due to theshieldtermination, is
dramatically reduced. This type of overbraid is ideal for the typically multipin D38999 connec-
tor, for the cable bundle inside the shield can contain a mix of unshielded wires, individually
shielded wires, and multiconductor shielded cables.
The same RF source cable and enclosurewere also measured in the ANSI C63.4 radiated
emission test setup on a 3-m open area test site (OATS). In this test setup, the enclosure con-
taining the source and the enclosure containing the load were mounted on nonconductive turnta-
ble located 0.8 m above the OATS ground plane. The 2.8-m-long cable was laid out with a
horizontal section and also looped down at the back of the table. A 14-AWG wire connected
the source enclosure to the OATS ground plane. Measurements were made with the antenna
oriented both horizontally and vertically and scanned in height to measure thehighest emission
levels. The turntable was also slowly rotated, again to measure the highest level of emissions.
Measurements were made using the quasi-peak detector and a 120-kHz bandwidth.
Figure 7.64 shows the maximum level of emissions with the antenna either vertically or
horizontally oriented usingthe braid shield termination#3 and the full overbraid #4. The radiated
emissions are compared to the FCC Part 15 Class A and Class B limits in Figure 7.64. The shield
terminations with #3 and with #4 are above the Class B limit, and thebest shield termination, #4,
is just at the Class A limit at 120 MHz. The problem here is again the signal current return on
the shield and the limiting shielding effectiveness of the cable. We know that the # l and #2
shield termination methods areless effective, and we know by how much, so these were omitted
from the OATS tests. It may be surprising that the FCC limitsare exceeded, for themeasurement
distance is 3 m instead of the MIL-STD lm. Also, MIL-STD-461 curve # l is 9 dB below the
FCC Class B limit at 120 MHz. The reason that radiated emissions are increased in the ANSI
C63.4 test setup is that the cable is 0.8 m above a ground plane and the MIL-STD-462 distance
is only 5 cm; the closer a cable is routed to ground, the lower the level of radiation.
The measurements in Figures 7.63 and 7.64 are valid for a 40-MHz 3.8-V clock into a
5042 load and a 2.8-m-long cable. The results may be scaled to your specific signal level and
the level of emissions corrected. For example, the emissions may be adjusted based on signal
current, which in the test setup is equal to the shield current. Thus, for a 40-MHz clock with
a I-V signal into a 1 0 0 4 loadandthe same riseandfalltimes as the 40-MHz clock, the
reduction in emissions will be approximately 20 log [(3.8/50)/(I/lOO)] = 17 dB at any of the
harmonics. For different clock frequencies, a Fourier analysis of the current at the different
harmonics can be made and compared to a Fourier analysis of the current at the harmonics of
the 40-MHz clock pulse used in the test. Even though the harmonics of the two clock pulses
430 Chapter 7
n
n
6
u
.
i
m
P
z!
E
w
Figure 7.64 Radiated emissions measured on n 3-in OATS with two types of shield termination and
plotted against the FCC Class A and FCC Class B limits.
do not exactly coincide in frequency, an approximate correction to the eniissions shown in

Figures 7.63 and 7.64 can be made.
REFERENCES
1. J.S. Hofstra, L.O. Hoeft. Measurement of surface transfer impedance of multi-wire cables, connectors
and cable assemblies. Record of the IEEE International Symposium on EMC, 1992.
2. L.O. Hoeft, T.M. Sala, W.D. Prather. Experimental and theoretical comparison of the line injection
and cylindrical test fixture methods for measuring surface transfer impedance of cables. IEEE 1998
Symposium record.
3. F. Boyde, E. Clavelier. Comparison of coupling mechanisms on niulticonductor cables. IEEE transac-
tions on electromagnetic compatibility, Vol 35, No 4, November 1993.
4. F. Broyde, E. Clevalier. Definition, relevance and measurement of the parallel and axial transfer
impedance. IEEE Symposium record 1995.
5. J.S. Hofstra, M.A. Dinallo, L.O. Hoeft. Measured transfer impedance of braid and convoluted shields.
Record of the IEEE International Symposium on EMC 482-488. 1982.
6. L.O. Hoeft, J.S. Hofstra. Experimental evidence for porpoising coupling and optimization i n braided
cable. 8th International Zurich Symposium and Technical Exhibition on EMC. March 7-9, 1989.
7. K.L. Smith. Analysis and measurement of CATV drop cable RF leakage. IEEE Trans. on Cable
Television, Vol. CATV-4, No. 4, October 1979.
8. B. Denioulin, P. Degauque. Shielding performance of triply shielded coaxial cables. IEEE Trans. on
Electromag. Compat. Vol. EMC-22, No. 3. August 1980.
9. K. Casey. Low frequency electromagnetic penetration of loaded apertures. IEEE Trans. on Electro-
mag. Compat. Vol. EMC-23, No. 4, November 1981.
10. E.F. Vance. Coirpling ro Shielded Crrhles. Robert E. Krieger, Malabar, FL. 1987.
I 1, A.P.C. Fourie. 0.Givati, A.R. Clark. Simple technique for the measurement of the transfer impedance
of vnriable length coaxial interconnecting leads. IEEE Transnction on EMC, Vol. 40, No. 2, May
1908.
12. L.O. Hoeft, J.L. Knighten. Measured surface transfer impedance of cable shields that use combina-
tions of braid and foil and are used for I-Gb/s Data Transfer. IEEE EMC Symposium, 1998.
13. L.O. Hoeft. Measured electromagnetic shielding performance of commonly used cables and connec-
tors. IEEE Transactions on EMC, Vol. 30, No. 3, August 1988.
14. F. Broyde, E. Clavelier, D Givord, Pascal Vallet. Discussion of the relevance of transfer admittance
and some through elastance measurement results. IEEE Trans on EMC, Vol. 35, No. 1 I , November
1993.
15. M.A. Dinallo, L.O. Hoeft, J.S. Hofstra, D. Thomas. Shielding effectiveness of typical cables from
1 MHz to 1000 MHz. IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 1982.
16. P. Degauque, A. Zeddam. Remarks on the transmission line approach to determining the current
induced on above-ground cables. IEEE Trans. on Electromag. Compat., Vol. 30, No. 1, February
1988.
17. J.C. Santamaria, Louis J. Haller. A comparison of unshielded wire to shielded wire with shields
terminated using pigtail and shields terminated through a conducting elastomer. IEEE EMC Sympo-
sium Record, 1995.
18. G. Chandesris. Effect of ground connection on the coupling of disturbing signals to a coaxial line.
4th International Zurich Symposium and Technical Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
March 10-12, 1981.
19. T. Hubing, J.F. Kaufman. Modeling the electromagnetic radiation from electrically small table top
products. IEEE Trans. on Electromag. Compat., Vol. 31, No. 1, February 1989.
20. D. Fernald. Comparison of shielding effectiveness of various backshell configurations. ITEM 1984.
21. J. Zorzy, R.F. Muehlberger. RF leakage characteristics of popular coaxial cables and connectors,
500 MHz to 7.5 GHz. The Microwave Journal, Nov. 1961.
22. C.R. Paul, D.R. Bush. Radiated emissions from common mode currents. Proceedings of the IEEE
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 1982.
23. L.O. Hoeft, J.S. Hofstra. Transfer impedance of overlapping braided cable shields and hose clamp
shield terminations. IEEE International Symposium record 1995.
24. F.B.M. van Horck, A.P.J. van Deursen, P.C.T. van der Laan, P.R. Bruins, B.L.F. Paagmans. A rapid
method for measuring the transfer impedance of connectors. IEEE transactions on electromagnetic
compatibility, Vol 40, No 3, August 1998.
8
Grounding and Bonding
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO GROUNDING

Perhaps one of the most difficult topics is that of grounding. Even the definition of the term
ground is not universally accepted, for example, “One of two conductors used to carry a single-
ended signal.’‘ Or the signal or power return may be termed a groutid. In the majority of cases
the ground is an electrical connection either to the earth or to a structure that serves a similar
function to the earth.
However, we also use the term floating ground, which, as its name implies, is either
disconnected from the enclosure, the earth, or any other structure or connected via a high imped-
ance. Grounds often serve different functions, and it is common to encounter a number of
grounds in equipment, subsystems, or systems. Throughout this book, the function of the ground,
e.g., safety ground or signal ground, is usually described.
In this chapter we use the term sigrzcrl ground to describe a reference plane that is as close
to an equipotential plane as is feasible. To emphasize the definition, the term refererrce groutid
is often used. The term sgfety groutid refers to a conductor (green wire in America) that has
the purpose of conducting fault current and operating a circuit breaker or fuse and in limiting
the voltage to ground during a fault. The purpose of the green wire is to protect personnel and,
secondarily, the equipment. The definition of returrr used here is “A conductor that has the
primary function of returning signal or power back to the source.” The problem with this defini-
tion is that very often the ground and the return are the same. Thus an analog signal return is
often connected to a ground plane to which the analog supply return is connected.
The term ecrrth or ecrrth ground is used to describe a low-resistance connection to earth,
often made via rods, plates, or grids. The earth ground may be used to conduct fault and lightning
current or to tie a reference ground as close to ground potential as possible. It should not be
used for both functions! The term borid is used to describe the mechanical connection holding
two structures together. Depending on the purpose of the bond, a maximum value of resistance
is often specified for the bond.
One of the problems in discussing grounding is the difficulty in describing the geometry
of the connection. A schematic may show a ground connection but not be able to describe the
physical realization. As described in Chapter 5, Section 5.1.2, above a relatively low frequency
(typically kilohertz) the DC resistance no longer determines the impedance of a connection; it
is the total impedance, including AC resistance, and inductive and capacitive reactance. Both
parallel and series resonance circuits are formed and are determined by the geometry of the
ground connection.
The implementation of the ground connection is extremely important. In Chapter 7, in
the section on cable shielding, it was seen that the addition of a 2-inch pigtail shield connection
to ground reduced the shielding effectiveness of a cable to almost that of an unshielded cable.
Likewise, the implementation and location of a signal ground to chassis or enclosure ground
433
434 Chapter 8
connection can make the difference between the equipment’s passing or failing EM1 require-
ments or in exhibiting EMI.
It is advisable to consider the low-frequency and high-frequency grounding schemes in
equipment and systems separately. It is the low-frequency scheme that is shown in power and
grounding diagrams and in grounding schematics.
8.2 SAFETY GROUNDS, EARTH GROUNDS, AND LARGE-SYSTEM

GROUNDING
Some of the reasons for grounding are
Compliance with safety requirements

Lightning protection
Reduction of noise in receiving antennas/equipment
Reduction of common-mode noise between equipment cases/cabinets
Reduction in radiated emissions?
Protection against electrostatic buildup
Line-to-ground filter component return
Reduced crosstalk
The question mark after reduction in radiated emissions serves to remind us that radiated emis-
sions may increase with a second low-impedance ground connection when a primary path to
ground exists, as described in Chapter 7. Where possible, the connection of the AC line safety
ground should be separated from any conductor that connects equipment grounds together or
to a common earth ground.
It is imperative that a grounding system designed to protect against direct lightning strikes
be isolated from all other grounds, except for a single connection at the earth ground electrode.
The lightning ground must be capable of carrying the lightning strike current without fusing,
thereby maintaining the conductive path.
Two examplesof large-system grounding schemes aregiven in Figures 8.1 and 8.2. Figure
8.1 is an ideal large-system grounding scheme in which the steel girdersor rebars in the building
are bonded together. In some steel-framed buildings, the steel columns are used as part of a
lightning protection scheme. Even when the steel frame of a building is not intentionally used
as a lightning ground, lightning may punch through a wall of the building and current may flow
on the structure. The typical 20,000 amps tomore than 250,000 amps of primary lightning strike
current then travels down the steel column, using the easiest path, to earth ground.
If the building is constructed of reinforced concrete, then the current will flow through
the rebars to ground. In reinforced concrete, wood, or masonry buildings it is advisable to provide
down-conductors on the outside of the building for lightning protection. It should be remembered
that for all practical gauge of conductors, the conductor will exhibit an impedance, due to self-
inductance, higher than that of a metal plate. Consequently, if the conductor is in close proximity
to a large structure or sheetof metal, then the lightning current may well flash over and continue
to earth ground in the lower-impedance metal.
In the ideal building ground scheme of Figure 8.1, the steel girders or rebars are welded
together, whereas in the typical grounding scheme nosteps are taken to ensure a low-resistance
bond between structure members. When a lightning strike occurs to the typical building struc-
ture, voltages appear across the ends of the poorly connected metal structure, and an E field is
generated. The voltage may behigh enough to result in a sideflash to adequatelygrounded
structures, such as cables and equipment enclosures.
Grounding and Bondlng 435
I I I
Ground plane or gridof wires

or single large conductor
Figure 8.1 Ideallarge-systemgroundingscheme.
The AC safety ground is a common source of RF voltage induced in the power wiring
by AM/FM transmitters or by equipment that is a major source of conducted power-line noise,
as described in Chapter 1. The technique, shown in Figure 8.1, which reduces safety ground
RF current flow, is to connect the safety ground to a low-impedance earth ground at the entry
point of the power into the building. The safety code takes precedence over all other grounding
rules, but it is possible to tailor thegrounding scheme and comply withthe code. Mostelectrical
safety codes require connection of the safety ground and neutral to earth ground at the main
service panel but do not specify a low-impedance connection.
RF voltages induced on the safety ground by equipment within the building may be re-
duced by the inclusion of one or more inductors in series. The inductors must be capable of
carrying a fault current and thus allow the fuse or circuit breaker to function. The inductors
must also exhibit a low DC resistance and low impedance at 50/60 Hz in order to maintain a
low touch potential in the event of a short circuit of AC hot or neutral to the enclosure. In the
Figure 8.1 grounding scheme it would be correct to assume that the major portion of the fault
current would flowinto the ground plane and via the #2 or lower gauge wire or plate connecting
the groundplane to the earth ground. Anobvious question is why have the safety ground connec-
tion via the green wire? Why not rely on the grounding scheme to provide the safety ground
connection? The reason the green wire must be retained is that the enclosure ground connection,
436 Chapter 8
l Shieldconnected
internally
Concrete rebarsor girders not bonded together
1 AC line leakage conductedvia interface return
Safety return
n
Water system
Figure 8.2 Typicallarge-systemgrounding scheme.
shown in Figure 8.1, may be inadvertently disconnected, whereas the “green wire” is normally
disconnected only when the power connector is removed from the outlet. It is for this reason
that safety codes often make the green wire mandatory.
The scheme of Figure 8.1 assumes that the equipment is located on separate floors inside
the building and, to achieve as low an impedance ground as possible, either a #2 (or lower)
gauge, wire or a wide plate a minimum 1/4 inch thick connects the ground planes on the two
floors together. A lower impedance may be obtained in a building with steel girders by using
the girders as a parallel pathto the wire/plate. The problem isthat the girders may carry lightning
strike currents and will almost certainlycarry AC power leakage currents from equipment such
as rotating machinery, the housings of which are often electrically connected to the structure.
In addition, the frame of the building is an effective antenna at AM broadcast frequencies and
thus carries RF currents. For these reasons it is inadvisable to use the building structure in a
grounding scheme.
In Figure 8.2, the typical ground scheme, it is the safety ground and theshields of cables
and conductors within the cable that connect the enclosures together. One connection may be
made via a signal return in which RF currents and 50-180-Hz leakage currents may flow. The
typical large-system ground may be adequate for digital equipment, but for analog/instrumenta-
Grounding
tion equipment, the grounding may result in EMI, as discussed in Section 8.3.2 on multipoint
grounding.
The voltages appearing between the earth ground-to-neutral connection within a building
and earth ground outside ofa building will containAC power and RF frequencies. For example,
in a three-story office building the measured voltage at a distance of 100 feet between the two
earth grounds was 3 V at 60 Hz and approximately 350 mV at 1.1 MHz. When earth grounds
are muchfurther apart, a concomitant increasein voltage and current flow in conductors connect-
ing the grounds together may be expected.
Thus far the assumption has been made that the large system is powered from the same
service. When this is not the case, the configuration shown in Figure 8.3a may apply. The AC
neutral is connected to safety ground and earth ground in both services, and thus both the safety
ground and earth ground carry some of the neutral return current. The safety grounds are con-
nected to the metal enclosures, as often required by the safety code. A problem exists when a
signal return is also connected to the enclosure in both pieces of equipment. The connection
may not be immediately obvious, especially when the signal returnis routed via a PCB to power
return, which is in turn connected via a power supply to the enclosure. Whatever the route,
some small percentage of the AC neutral return current will flow in the signal return, with the
potential for EMI. One solution to the problem is to use two feeders from a service to the two
pieces of equipment, in which case the only safety ground-to-neutral connection is at the feeder,
as shown in Figure 8.3b. Disconnecting one enclosure from earth ground will reduce earth-
borne leakage current.
The paramount concern in any power distribution is to comply with the applicable electri-
cal safety code. Theuse of isolation transformers on the inputside of both of the services shown
in Figure 8.3a will interrupt the neutral current flow in the signal return conductor. However,
the solution is expensive and may not comply with safety regulations. When the equipment is
AC POWER
-L
'i Service panel Equipment I

I
Servic:e panel
Earth groundJ
Figure 8.3a Equipment connected to separate service panels in which neutral current flows in a signal
return.
438 Chapter 8
Equipment
panel Service Earth ground
Figure 8.3b Equipmentsupplied by separatefeeders from asingleservice panel and with a single
structure-to-earth ground connection.
part of a system and is located some distance from other equipmentin the system, it is preferable
to use one location as the source of power and to feed the outlying equipment from the single
source.Assuming an adequatelysized “green” wire is taken to theoutlying equipment, no
additional earth ground is required and the problem of low-frequency current flow in single-
ended signal returns is reduced. Two situations where the isolation of equipment, such as an
antenna, from earth grounds is inadvisable is when an earth ground exists for the purpose of
lightning protection andis located close to the antenna structure.To avoid flash-over, theantenna
structure should be connected by U single connectiorz to the earth ground. The second reason
to rethink isolation of equipment from earth is when the equipment is in the proximity of a
source of high-power E field (e.g., a transmitting antenna). The connection of the equipment
structure to a low-impedance earth ground will typically reduce the RF current flow on intercon-
nection cables, thereby reducing the probability of EMI.
The sources of electrical codes seldom consider the requirements of instrumentation sys-
tems; however, grounding schemes may be designed that improve signal grounding and that
comply with safety regulations.
8.2.1 Earth Ground

Grounding to earth is required for safety, to minimize touch potentials due to AC line leakage
or equipment breakdown or direct or indirect lightning strikes, or where a receiving or transmit-
ting antenna uses the earth as a counterfoil (ground plane beneath an antenna that forms part
of the antenna design). In practice, a low-impedance connection to earth has been found to
reduce the incidence of failures in equipment, as reported in Ref. 1, pp. 81-107.
8.2.1.1 Earth Resistance
Requirements on the maximum value of earth resistance imposed by insurance, power, and oil
companies vary from 1 to 5 Q. In a survey of USA Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Grounding and Bonding 439
Table 8.1 Resistivities of Different Soils

Resistivity, ohm-cm
Soil Average Min. Max.
Fills-ashes, cinders, brine wastes 2,370 590 7,000
Clay, shale, gumbo, loam 4,060 340 16,300
Same-with varying proportions of sand 15,800 1,020 135,000
and gravel
Gravel, sand, stones, with little clay or 94,000 59,000 458,000
loam
Sorrrce: U S . Bureau of Standards Technical Report 108.
Soil Resistivity, ohm-cm (Range)

~~~ ~
Surface soils, loam, etc. 100 5,000

Clay 200 10,000
Sand and gravel 5,000 100,000
Surface limestone 10,OOO 1,000,000
Limestones 500 400,000
Shales 500 10,000
Sandstone 2.000 200.000
Granites, basalts, etc.
Decomposed gneisses 5,000 50,000
States, etc. 1,000 10,000
Source: Evershed & Vignoles Bulletin 245.
Air Route Control Centers, Air Traffic Control Towers, and Long-Range Radar Sites, contained
in Ref. 1, pp. 135-147, the measured earth resistance vaned, depending on the site, from 0.1
SZ to 12.8 SZ.
The resistivity of earth, expressed in ohms per centimeter, is surprisingly high. Table 8.1
shows typical values for different soils. The effect of moisture is shown in Table 8.2, salt content
in Table 8.3, and temperature in Table 8.4. The conductivity of the soil is primarily electrolytic,
so the higher the concentration of moisture and sodium ions, the lower the resistance. The value
Table 8.2 Effect of Moisture Content on Earth

Resistivity
1 Resistivity, ohm-cm
Moisture content,
% by weight Top soil Sandy loam
0 1,000 x loh 1,000 x loh
2.5 250,000 150,000
5 165,000 43,000
10 53,000 22,000
15 21,000 13,000
20 12,000 10,000
30 10,000 8,000
~ ~ ~~
Source: “An Investigation of Earthing Resistance”, by P. J .

Higgs, I.E.E. Jour., vol. 68, p. 736, February 1930.
440 Chapter 8
Table8.3 Effect of Salt

Content on Earth Resistivity
Added salt, %
by weight
Resistivity,
of
ohm-cm moisture
0 10,700
0.1 1,800
1.o 460
5 190
10 130
20 100
For sandyloam-moisturecontent,
15% byweight;temperature, 17OC
(63°F).
of earth resistance is dependent on the area, quantity, and depth of ground roddplates. A low
resistance is achieved because of the large area of the ground shell surrounding the earth elec-
trode, as shown in Figure 8.4.
The effect of depth of a driven rod on earth resistance is shown in Figure 8.5. As the
depth of a ground rod increases, the area of the shell around the rod increases. At a depth of
approximately 6 feet, the resistance begins to level out. To decrease the resistance further, use
multiple rods, treat the soil with salt, or increase the moisture content. The effect of increasing
the number of ground rods is shown inFigure 8.6. A useful nomograph relating the basic factors
affecting earth resistance is shown Figure 8.7
The foregoing information is reproduced by courtesy of AVO/Biddle Instruments, 4651
S. Westmoreland, Dallas, TX 75237, which manufactures a range of earth testers. The earth
tester is used in a three-terminal, fall-of-potential earth resistance test. Two current terminals
are provided on the tester and two voltage. A current is caused to flow between the ground
electrode connected to the C, terminal and a small electrode placed approximately 50 feet away
and connected to the C?terminal. The resistance between the small electrode and earth is unim-
portant, for the requirement is only that sufficientcurrent flow in the ground todevelop a poten-
tial, and so it is not necessary to bury the electrode more than an inch or two into the soil.
The P , (potential) terminal of the Megger is connected to the C, (current) terminal, and
the P? terminal to a second small electrode located 62% of the distance between the two current
Table 8.4 Effectof Temperature on Earth

Resistivity"
Temperature
Resistivity,
C F ohm-cm
20 68 7,200
10 50 9,900
0 32 (water) 13,800
0 32 (ice) 30,000
-5 23 79,000
- 15 14 330,000
'l For sandy loam, 15.2% moisture.
-Components of earthresistance
inanearthelectrode.
L 1
CURRENT CURRENT
Figure 8.4 Ground shell surrounding earth electrode.
electrodes (i.e., at approximately 31 feet from the electrode under test). The Megger measures
the potentialdifference between the earthelectrode, and theP ] and computes the earth resistance
from the current flowing between the two current terminals. The earth resistance test setup is
shown in Figure 8.8.
Tables 8.1-8.4 and Figures 8.4-8.8 are reproduced courtesy of AVO/Biddle, Dallas TX
75237.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
DEPTH OF ROD, F E E T
8
- 9 1 0 1 1
Figure 8.5 Effect of depth of electrode on decreasing earth resistance.

442 Chapter 8
Figure 8.6 Effect of increasing the number of ground rods on earth resistance.
'1
I l
Figure 8.7 Nomograph of earth resistance.

VOLTAGE
SOURCE AMMETER
U, l
TESTED
D
I
I
l
l
J
I
I
l
-62 FEET- I
JI V 4J
60
50
1
v)
z
40
r
30
W
0
z
2 20
S
v)
IO
0
0 20 40 60 00 100
DISTANCE (ROD3 FROM ROD l ) , F E E T
Figure 8.8 Earthresistancemeasurementtestsetup.
8.3 SIGNAL GROUND AND POWER GROUND

8.3.1 Signal Ground
An idenl sigtznl ground is defined as an equipotential plane that serves as a reference point. In
practice, a signal ground is used as a (hopefully) low-impedance path for current to return to
the source. All conductors exhibit impedance, so when current flows in a ground conductor, a
voltage drop occurs. A good signal grounding scheme limits the magnitude of the current flow
and the impedance of the path. The major cause of impulsive current flow is signal switching
current and changes in IC supply current as the device changes state and these currents flow
back to the source on the power return, which is often the signal return. As we saw in Chapter
4, the closer the proximity of a conductor that carries RF current (signal or power-line noise)
to a conductive ground plane, the lower the inductive and capacitive crosstalk. The plane does
not need to be grounded or connected to either the signal or power return to be effective. How-
ever, ungrounded ground planes will have voltages developed between them and other ground
planes and other grounded structures, which in turn can result in radiated coupling or crosstalk.
444 Chapter 8
Chapter 1 1, Section11.6,describes PCBgrounding, with Figure 1 1.19 illustrating

common-mode voltages developed across a ground plane. Section 11.6.2 describes “Good”
and “Bad” PCB ground planes and Section 11.6.3 describes grounding a PCB within an enclo-
sure. In Chapter 5, the isolation or connection of an RF ground plane to digital/analog ground
is discussed.
8.3.2 GroundingPhilosophy
One of a number of different grounding schemes may be selected; however, very often the
designer/systems engineer doesnot have a choice. The choice may be limited when the ground-
ing scheme is dictated by either a larger system into which equipment or subsystem must fit or
by commercially available peripherals to which equipment must connect.
Where a designer may have somecontrol over the grounding scheme iswithin equipment.
However, when standard, RS232, GPIB,or similar interfaces are used, signal-to-chassis ground
connections are likely in the equipmentin which the interfaces terminate,and the use of a single-
point scheme is not feasible. The basic grounding schemes are
1. Single point
2. Single-pointstar
Multipoint
3.
4. Single-point DC, multipoint RF
5. Floatingground
In practice, schemes 1 and 2 become scheme 4 above some frequency, and scheme 5 becomes
scheme 3, due to parasiticstray capacitance betweencircuitboard trackdsignal wiring and
nearby grounded structure and between signal conductors in cables and shields. Examples of
the first four schemes are shown in Figures 8.9, 8.1 1, 8.12, and 8.13.
The aim of a single-point ground at both the board level and at the system level is to
reduce DC and low-frequency current flow in the structure. The upper frequency beyond which
the single-point ground scheme is no longereffective is determined by the magnitude of capaci-
tance between the signal ground and structure or chassis. The single-point DC, multipoint RF
ground scheme recognizes the limitation of the single-point scheme and deliberately introduces
an RF ground via one or more capacitors in parallel. This scheme hasthe advantage of reducing
common-mode noise voltage on the signal ground at a designated location. One preferred loca-
tion is at the point of entry of interface signals to equipment. We have seen in Chapter 7, on
cable radiation, that the predominant source is common-mode voltage on both shielded and
S I G N A L GROUND lSOI,ATED FROM C H A S S I S I SOLA TED
Figure 8.9 Single-point ground taken from one piece of equipment to another.
PCBs
Single I’oint
Connection to / I
u u U u u u u u u u u u u u u u u
Chassis
/
Bus bar, or chassis layer
011 backplane PCB
Figure 8.10 Single-point ground connecting together PCBs withinan enclosure
Figure 8.11 Single-point DC, multipoint RF ground.

Y
Figure 8.12 Single-point star.

446 Chapter 8
INTERFACES
INTERFACES
Figure 8.13 Multipointground.
unshielded cables. A second location of choice for the RF (capacitor) ground within equipment
is at a common ground point to which a number of different types of ground are connected.
The disadvantage of the multipoint RF grounding scheme is that RF current flow in signal
grounds is typically higher than in the single-point ground. Assume that the potential source of
common-mode noisecurrent is known,forexample, the return of asupply that generates
common-mode noise between the return and caselchassis. The introduction of an inductor in
the supply return may be effective in reducing the current flow on the signal return or ground
plane connected to the return and reduce the voltage developed across the RF ground. Some
examples of this technique are provided later. Whenever an inductor and capacitor are used in
combination, a resonant circuit is formed and the inclusion of a damping resistor is advisable.
The single-point star ground scheme is a variation of the single-point scheme that reduces
common-mode noise coupling from one piece of equipment to another by the use of isolated
interfaces, such as the opto-isolator shown, orsignal transformers, or differential-input receivers.
In a similar scheme, the interfaces are isolated and the ground is taken from equipment
to equipment as shown in Figure 8.9. This scheme may appear as a great waste of the circuitry
required for isolation. However, the signal ground comes as close as possible to the ideal refer-
ence ground, which it is often termed, for neither signal return currents nor power supply return
currents flow on the reference ground. Figure 8.10 shows a single-point ground for different
PCBs within an enclosure, typically with the use of a bus bar, or a chassis layer on a backplane
PCB, to connect the PCB grounds together and to the enclosure. Although at first glance this
may not seem to be a single-point ground, the impedance of the ground connection from PCB
to PCB and from the budbackplane to chassis can be kept very low, and so at lower frequencies
this is in effect a single-point ground. In very large systems, such as the space station, a single-
point ground scheme becomes unwieldy and a so-called layered single-point scheme is used in
which the chassis ground connection is made at a subsystem or logical EMC element (i.e., a
group of equipment pieces in fairly close proximity). The use of of the term single point for
this layered scheme is not strictly accurate, however, for the scheme is much different from the
multipoint ground.
The multipoint ground philosophy recognizes that the manufacturer of bought-out equip-
ment is obliged to connect safety ground to the chassis and that the signal and secondary power
ground is also often connected to the enclosure. In the multipoint scheme, the signal interfaces
are usually single ended, with the signal return connected to the enclosure in both pieces of
equipment. The scheme by its nature introduces ground loops between the safety grounds and
the signal returns. As discussed in Section 8.2, AC safety grounds connected when the power
cord is plugged into the receptacle are required by most electrical safety codes.
Many systems made up of computer equipment function correctly with multiple ground
loops. Exceptions occur when the neutral return current flows in the signal return, as discussed
in Section 8.2, or large common-mode noise appears between the safety grounds of equipment.
Large common-modevoltages areencountered when equipment pieces are located some distance
apart and connectedto different earth grounds, especially when sourcesof power-line noise, such
as welders, milling machines, elevators, and control and automationequipment, are connected to
one of the earth grounds. With the use of single-ended analog/instrumentation interfaces in
which the signal return is connected between the two earth grounds, the potential for EM1 is
high. The use of shielded cables on single-ended circuits or where the shield is the return path
for signal currents will not reduce the potential for EMI, because the problem is conducted
noise. Multipoint grounds between equipment should ideally be less than 0.1 h in length. If
longer, the resonance and antiresonance effects seen with electrically long conductorsin Chapter
5 may occur, with resultant high currents or very high impedance.
Decreasing the impedance of the ground connection between equipment pieces located
far apart is difficult due to the typically low-impedance source of the noise current and the
correspondingly large sizeof conductor required. The solution may be high common-mode noise
immunity differential-interface circuits, as described in Chapter 5.
The multipoint ground scheme illustrated in Figure 8.13 is the same as used in Figure 8.1
for ideal large-system grounding. This scheme reduces the common-mode noise voltage devel-
oped between the enclosures of the equipment but does not eliminate ground loops.The intercon-
nections shown between equipment enclosures represent single-ended signal grounds connected
to the enclosures at both ends.
Conventional wisdom dictates that multipoint grounding with very short length for the
ground conductors be used above 10 MHz, and multipoint grounding is common in equipment
containing RF circuits.
At the PCB level, multipoint grounding may not be required, and some advantages from
a single-point connection between the PCB ground plane and the enclosure exist. However,
single-point grounding is seldom used. More common is the connection of the PCB ground
plane of an RF circuit at more than one location around the edge of the PCB to an enclosure
provided to shield the circuit. Radio frequency engineers have followed this practice for years.
One possible reason for multipoint grounding at the PCB level is that the PCB ground plane
does not provide a sufficiently low impedance due tocrosshatching or interruption of the ground
plane by tracks. In this case the use of a solid ground planeformed by the enclosure may improve
the performance of an RF circuit or reduce the radiated emissions from the board.
When other circuits reference the enclosure as ground or when seams and gaps occur in
the enclosure, the goal should be to reduce the RF current flow on the inside of the enclosure
to the greatest extent. This can be achieved by reducing leakage currents from the circuit and
by reducing the radiated coupling to the enclosure. The leakage currents can be reduced by
grounding at a single point or several points in close proximity (at the Same time reducing the
capacitance between the enclosure and the RF ground). Leakage current and radiated emissions
can be reduced by good RF design, such as the use of transmission lines formed by the signal
and return tracks or by the signal tracks in close proximity to an adequate PCB ground plane.
When a signal track is in close proximity to a ground plane, the RF return current tends to
concentrate in the ground plane under the track, resulting in a minimum impedance in the return
path. Thus, good RF design practice tends to reduce RF leakage current in the enclosure, reduce
radiated emissions, and minimize common impedance coupling and conducted EM1 problems.
448 Chapter 8
Decreasing the capacitance between RF semiconductors and the enclosure to which they are
heatsunk can also reduce RF current flow in the enclosure.
Measurements on the shielding effectiveness of small enclosures surrounding RF circuits
have shown the importance of the grounding scheme, although the results have not always
been as predicted. For example, shielding effectiveness measurements were made on enclosures
containing a PCB on which several loads were mounted. An RF signal was connected to the
loads via a coaxial connector mounted through the enclosure. Either a single connection from
the PCB ground plane to the enclosure was made via the braid of the shielded cable inside
the enclosure or the ground plane was connected around the periphery to the enclosure. One
measurement was taken on an enclosure made up of an extruded section covered by a lid and
capped at the top and bottom by plates. The dimensions of the enclosure were 26.5 cm X 22.5
cm X 4 cm, and the enclosure contained seams but no apertures. The PCB was either mounted
in the center of the enclosure for the case when the ground plane was isolated or mounted close
to the solid base of the enclosure when the ground plane was connected around the periphery
to the enclosure. A comparison of the shielding effectiveness of the single-point connection and
the multipointconnection of the groundplanefollows with the singlepointgroundslightly
better at most frequencies.
Shielding effectiveness
Frequency Singlc-point Multipoint
[MHz1 ground [dB) ground [dB]
100 73.5 76.0
160 74.0 70.0
195 64.0 57.0
Another enclosure used to shield the same PCB had the dimensions 23.5 cm X 22.5 cm
X 1.8 cm. The enclosure was constructed of a solid base plate to which a cover was attached.
The defects in the enclosure were the seams plus 38 X 8 mm X 2.2 mm slots in the cover. In
this rneasurernent the ground plane was either connected around the periphery to the enclosure
or mounted on 1.8-mm-thick nylon washers by nylon screws. Thetotal capacitance between the
ground plane andthe enclosure with the PCB mounted on the insulating washers was measured at
125 pF. A secondary effect of mounting the PCB on the insulating washers was to move the
PCB closer to the cover. The shielding effectiveness of the enclosure with the PCB either single-
point or multipoint grounded follows:
Shielding cfrectiveness
Frequency Single-point Multipoint

[MHz1 ground [dB] ground [dB]
100 66 78
131 39 59
195 64 64
250 86 86
297 84 76
One potential reason for the degradation i n shielding effectiveness at some frequencies
with the single-point ground scheme is the potential for increased radiated coupling to the cover
as the PCB is moved in closer proximity, due to the 1.8-mm thickness of the nylon washers.
One lesson that can be learned from the shielding effectiveness measurements is that the
grounding scheme should be chosen on a case-by-case basis. Although multipoint grounding is
the method of choice for the interconnection of PCBs, modules, and equipment that contains
RF circuits, even at this level exceptions to the rule do exist.
Floating ground schemes are difficult to realize, test, and maintain. In practice, leakage
paths exist with megaohms of resistance and the floating ground floats to some undefined poten-
tial. The inclusion of a high-value resistor between the ground and chassis will reduce the static
potential of the ground and is recommended for static discharge protection. Connections of
signal interfaces and peripheral equipment is likely to invalidate the floating ground scheme
when signal-to-chassis connections are made i n the external equipment. Test devices must have
high-impedance differential inputs. The advantage of the floating ground is the very low value
of low-frequency currents that flow in the ground. Above some frequency, the ground becomes
a multipoint system due to parasitic capacitance. Shielding and grounding RF and digital circuits
are discussed in 5.3.3.5 and 5.3.3.6 respectively.
8.3.3 Single-Point Ground

The single-point ground scheme is often described as the ideal. How and where the single-point
ground is made are vitally important, and in some instances it is better to make more than one
connection even though this does technically violate the single-point philosophy.
When secondary power (e.g., +5 V, +/- 15 V) isolated from the input power return is
provided within equipment, the point of connection of the secondary power return to chassis is
considered the single-point ground for the equipment. When DC primary power is used directly
by equipment, the point after the power-line input filter might conveniently be considered the
single point for the connection of the different signal grounds within the equipment.
An alternative location for the single-point ground may be chosen, e.g., close to an RF
component that, by its construction, connects power return and signal return to the conductive
enclosure of the component, or at a signal interface where the signal return is connected to
chassis, or at an A/D converter where analog and digital grounds are connected together.
It is neither mandatory nor, often, beneficial to make the single-point ground at a power
supply within the equipment, although the advantage of this location is that common-mode
voltage generated by the supply is shorted by the ground connection. The disadvantage is that
common-mode voltages appearing on circuit boards and at the point of entry of interface signals
cannot be shorted out by connection of the return to chassis without violating the grounding
scheme. One solution when the supply return is isolated from the chassis is to reduce both
differential- and common-mode noise from the supply with an L- or T-type filter connected as
shown in Figure 8.14. The chassis ground may then be made at the interface circuit. In this
configuration, noise currents generated on circuit boards and flowing into the power supply on
the boards’ ground plane or signal return tracks are reduced by the series inductance of the L-
or T-type filter.
Using a nonisolated supply or adding a second chassis ground connection in Figure
8.14 at the supply return will result in the flow of noise currents in the enclosure. These noise
currents may be reduced by inclusion of an inductor in the return. When apertures are pre-
sent in the enclosure and the internal enclosure current is increased, increased aperture
coupling must be expected. When the shielding integrity of the enclosure is high, the increased
current flow in the enclosure may not significantly increase radiation from the enclosure.
450 Chapter 8
'l'.._.".....
Isolating
power supply
Figure 8.14 Reduction in power supply noise voltage by an LC filter, thus allowing a ground chassis
connection at the interface.
The signal grounds within a unit should be divided into the following, where applicable and
feasible:
1. Analoglvideo ground
2. Digital
ground
3. RF ground
4. Control signalground
These four grounds should be connected to the equipment single-point ground only, and shall
be isolated from each otherto the greatest extent possible, including capacitive coupling between
them.
It is easier to design the separation into the system and then interconnect, when necessary,
than to attempt to separate after the fact. For example,a PCB layout in which analog and digital
grounds are separated may very easily be connected together; in fact, the provision of terminal
posts for the purpose is recommended. However, separation of grounds after the PCB is made
may be out of the question. Where an AIDconverter or similar device requires an analogground
connection and a digital ground, the analog ground single-point connection shall be made at
the device in question. Even where device manufacturers supply separate digital and analog
ground pins, very often the grounds are either connected within the device or a very low maxi-
mum voltage difference between the grounds is recommended.
Common impedance coupling is a frequent source of noise problems in instrumentation,
analog, and video circuits. Figure 8.15 illustrates the mechanism of common impedance cou-
pling. The return current from the fiber-optic driver flows into the ground impedance of the U1
0 0
100 k f l
I I
driver
100 4- v3
I
/
Fiber optic interface
Figure 8.15 Commonimpedancecoupling.

analog circuit resulting in the noise voltages V? and V,. Typically the sources of ground current
are digital or RF circuits.
8.3.3.1 Floating the Analog Ground on the Digital Ground
One technique that has proven very effective in reducing the current flow in analog ground is
to float the analog groundon the digital. This scheme is shown in Figure 8.16.The noise currents
generated by the logic as it changes state flows back on the digital supply return, with little
current flow in the analog ground. The analog circuit supply in Figure 8.16 is an isolating DC-
to-DC converter, which is required to achieve maximum isolation between the analog supply
return and the chassis and minimum digital supply current in the analog ground. When a supply
is used in which the return is connected to the enclosure, the floating analog grounding scheme
is still partiallyeffective, due to some level of isolationprovidedby the impedance of the
inductor in the analog supply return, shown in Figure 8.16.
In the floating analog scheme, large common-mode voltage appears between the enclosure
and the analog ground, which oftencauses concern when measured on an oscilloscope. However,
on looking at the output bits of the A/D converter with a nonvarying input voltage, such as
zero volts, no change in the status of the bits is seen; thus a differential noise voltage lower
than the weighting of the least significant bit (LSB) is present. The location of the digital ground
to chassis ground is deliberately at the point where a digital interface signal leaves the board.
In a practical system, the chassis connection may be made at a connector when the interface is
external to the equipment. The reason for this choice of location is to reduce the common-mode
voltage on the interface signal and return conductors, thus reducing radiation from the cable.
If this is not a consideration and the major concern is to reduce noise at the input of the A/D,
then the chassis ground connection should be madeat the A/D converter. This is often difficult
unless the PCB is directly above chassis, in which case a metal standoff can be used to bring
the chassis upto the PCB at that point. Alternatively, if the motherboard/backplane hasa chassis
lsolatin llnte\rface
DC - D !
ground
Analog
I ,
.; I
-aClock
Figure 8.16 Floating the analog ground on the digital ground.

452 Chapter 8
connection, this should be brought through as many pins are available on the PCB edge connec-
tor, and the A/D should be located at the edge of the board close to the connector to maintain
a short connection length to chassis.
8.3.4 Modified Differential Op Amp Circuit

Figure 8.17a illustrates a common type of circuit used as an analog/video/RF amplifier. The
output voltage equals the signal voltage times R? divided by R , , plus the contribution of the
voltages developed across the ground impedances Z,, and Z,?.
By addition of a singleresistor, as shown in Figure 8.17b, thecircuit will reduce the
magnitude of the ground current and virtually eliminate the noise voltage generated by V,,,,,,.
The signal output voltage is the same as achieved with the circuit in Figure 8.17a for the same
differential input voltage, regardless of whether the noninverting input voltage is at the output
ground potential or at a positive or negative potential referenced to ground.
When R , = R? and R\ = R,, the circuit has a gain of unity. The input to R , is shown in
Figure 8.17b connected to a signal return, i n which case the circuit inverts the input signal.
Alternatively, the input may be true differential or the input to R , may be connected to a signal
return and R? used as the signal input in which case the circuit is noninverting.
This circuit is invaluablewhenrejection of common-mode inputvoltages is required,
hencethename mod#ed diflerentinl. When a higherisolation is requiredbetweenthe two
grounds, a true differential circuit, in which the input signals are applied typically to FET input,
voltage follower op amps followed by the differential amplifier, shown in Figure 8.17b, may
be used.
The limitations on rejection is the common-mode rejection ratio of the op amp and the
match in resistor values.
The modified differential circuit may be used as an instrumentation receiver or used to
separate analog and digital grounds on a PCB, in which case the input is referenced to analog
ground and the output voltage is referenced to digital ground, or to separate systedsubsystem
grounds.
Figure 8.17a Typical op amp gain stage or inverter.

Figure 8.17b Modified differential circuitwith common-mode noise rejection.
8.4 GUIDELINES FOR SIGNALGROUNDING

Grounds between equipment shall, where feasible, be DC or low-frequency isolated, nor-
mally at theinput (receiver) end of the interface. This can beachieved by capacitors,
transformers, high-input-impedance amplifiers, and opto-isolators.
High-power stages of a circuit shall be connected the closest to the single-point ground,
with the most sensitive circuit the furthest from the single point. This ensures that
power return currents donot flow in the ground connection or track used by sensitive
circuits and thus minimizes the risk of interference and LF frequency instability,
sometimes referred to as motorboating in audio circuits.
Always return decoupling capacitors to the appropriate ground. That is, if + 10 V is used
as the digital circuit supply, donot return a decoupling capacitor connected to + 10
V to analog or other ground.
Where possible, separate grounds. It is always possible to connect later.
Always build flexibility into the grounding scheme. Use 0-Q resistors or jumpers to con-
nect grounds, because thesemay be removed as desired. Place ground pads on PCBs
that can be connected via ground straps to ungrounded piggy back PCBs/memory
modules/PCMCIA cards, frames, conductive structures, etc. that are mounted on
the PCB.
Always use a solid low-impedance signal ground connection between circuits, backplanes,
and PCB, PCB-to-PCB,and differentgrounds located on the same PCB, when digital
or transientsignalinterfacesexistbetweenthesecircuits.Keepthesignalsand
ground/s as close together as possible, and in PCB layouts keep the ground directly
underthesignaltraceswithoutanyinterruption in theground plane,suchas
slots.
The grounding philosophy should be decided on a system-by-system basis. The manufac-
turer of bought-out equipment used in a system often connects digital and analoghide0 grounds
to chassis and also, for safety reasons, the AC safety ground to chassis. Thus a single-point
grounding scheme may be impractical. In other units/systems, multipoint grounding is the pre-
ferred method.
454 Chapter 8
The physical location and lengths of ground connections shall be included in mechanical/
layout diagrams.
Whenground connections are much longer than 1/10 of the wavelength of thenoise
frequency or the ground is in close proximity to chassis, the equivalent circuit of the ground
connection must be used in an EMI/EMC evaluation. Section 11.2.1 includes Case study 11.1,
which provides an example of modeling the ground structure.
Also see Section 5.3.3.6 on RF circuit grounding and Section 11.6 on PCB grounding
8.5POWERANDGROUNDINGDIAGRAMS
A power and grounding diagram should be constructed showing the connections of primary and
secondary returns, as well as the location of filters and the use of shielded or twisted shielded
wires within equipment, subsystems, or systems. The power and grounding diagram allows an
overview of the realization of the grounding philosophy and, whenproblems occur, acomparison
of the actual implementation to the desired scheme. Very often the two are different! A number
of examples of power and grounding for both a single-point ground system comprising a large
number of pieces of equipment as well as a single-point DC and multipoint RF system are
illustrated in the succeeding pages.
The following power and grounding diagramsare reproduced by kind permission of Cana-
dian Astronautics Ltd. and the Canadian Space Agency.
8.6GROUNDING FOR LIGHTNINGPROTECTION

8.6.1 Lightning Conductors
The purpose of a grounding scheme for lightning protection is to carry a direct lightning strike
to earthground with no, or at least minimal,damage to the equipment or structure to be protected.
For example, lightning protection may be required for antennas mounted on a mast, buildings,
or power/signal lines entering a building.
Buildings may be protected by a mesh of lightning conductors with short vertical rods
attached to the top of the building. The mesh is connected to earth ground by vertical conductors.
If the building framework issteel, then the steel columns may be used as thevertical conductors.
The purpose of lightning conductors is not to discharge a thunder cloud but to divert a lightning
strike from thestructure to be protected to thelightningprotectionscheme. The protection
scheme typically provides a higher conductivity to ground than the building, and the scheme
extends in height above the building. Thus the probability of a strike at the building location
may be higher than if the protection were not there. Therefore, install lightning protection only
if it is capable of handling a direct strike of at least 25,000 amps and preferably one of 300,000
amps. Not installing the protection is likely, at least, to reduce the probability of a strike.
The intent of the first pointed lightning protection rods was to dissipate the charge around
the structure so that electric fields associated with the charge would not cause electrical break-
down of the air. It was soon found out that the opposite occurred, and lighting strikes to these
pointed rods increased. The majority of lighting protection schemes are of this type. As the use
of electronics has increaseddramatically, the incidence of malfunction or destruction in sensitive
equipment dueto lightning has increased, and theidea of keeping thevery high currents induced
in a lightning strike away from the sensitive electronics is appealing. This should be possible
by the use of a dissipation array systems (DAS) or a charge transfer system (CTS). The theory
behind these systems is that they should cause a current to flow from the grounding system due
to the ionization of the air around the system. The more current that is flowing from the system
into the air and the longer the duration of this current flow, the higher the space charge. An
increased space charge will weaken the electric field and so the probability of an air breakdown
is reduced. Early analysisshowed the size of the canopy or umbrella or the quantity of sharpened
points would be impractically large. However, these systems have been designed and are in use.
Little information on their effectiveness is available, although in Ref. 4 the lightning occurrence
probability before and after installation of a DAS remained the same. This was attributed to the
fact that the DAS was not installed to the manufacturer's recommendation, caused by building
construction conditions in Japan. Another lightning grounding scheme, madeup of a gold-plated
ball mounted at the maximum height and connected to a coaxial lightning conductor, was com-
mercially available. This system was computationally modeled and a small physical scale model
of the transmission line was constructed and tested with a lighting generator. In neither the
computer model nor the scale model was any improvement seen over a solid ground wire.
Alternatively, a structure may be protected by erecting a mast, rods, or wire above the
structure at a sufficient height that the structure falls under an arc of protection, as shown in
Figure 8.18. Some lightning protection recommendations show a cone of protection in which
a line is drawn at an angle of 45" from the vertical to the ground. Any structure within the cone
is considered to be protected from a direct lightning stroke. In practice, lightning strikes have
occurred to antennas that are side mounted on a mast within the 45" cone of protection. The
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) recommends instead the arc of protection. Here
the assumption is made that a 150-foot-radius circle touches the top of the structure and the
ground at 360" points around the structure and that equipment within this volume is protected.
Other more conservative models for the arc of protection are used. A lightning strike Inay be
modeled as a constant-current source that must find a path either from a cloud to ground or from
ground to a cloud. In practice, a number of strikes occur oneright after another. A conductorthat
carries the strike current must do so without fusing. The majority of lightning strikes generate
currents below 75 kA, although strikes as high as 300 kA have been recorded (Ref. 2). The
minimum conductor size capable of conducting a 75-kA strike with a half-amplitude time of
100 without fusing is NO. 12 AWG. For a 3OO-kA, 100-pshalf-amplitude strike, the minimum
conductor size is No. 6 AWG.
Perhaps more important than the current-carrying capability of the conductor are the DC
resistance of the joints and its self-inductance. It is these parameters that determine the voltage
appearing across the conductor and across the joints. Sideflashes occur when the lightning con-
Figure 8.18 Arc of protection under masts and buildings.

456 Chapter 8
DIGITAL ANALOG
CIRCUITS
COHUONANAL0
DIGITAL GROU
POYER
0.03pF
CONTROL SIGNALS FROH PIC

To PC
I SHEET 2
SHEET 2
- ANALOG m .
LFROU PIC
SHEET 2
Scheme 1 Single-point DC, multipoint AC grounding scheme. Power and signal isolated from chassis
by at least 10 MR. Maximum capacitance or equivalent impedance to chassis is 0.5 pF. Single signal
ground connection from unit to unit. Single-point DC, multipoint AC grounding scheme. Power and signal
ground isolated from chassis by at least 10 MR. Maximum capacitance or equivalent impedance to chassis
is 0.5 pF. Single reference signal ground connection from equipment to equipment.
CONVERTER
1_ +350V
Scheme 1 Continued
ductor is in close proximity to the structure and the voltage differential is too high. When joint
resistance is high, arcing may occur across the joint, and local heating therefrom causes the
joint either to fuseapart or to weld together.The major cause of high joint resistance is corrosion.
To reduce corrosion, the use of dissimilar metals in the lightning conductor scheme should be
avoided, and after the joint is made it should be painted over. Copper and aluminum are the
preferred conductor materials, with galvanized steel athird choice. Conductors, otherthan those
buried in the ground or intended to be the first contact point with the air, should be protected,
for example,by PVC coating or paint. The inductanceof a wide, thin strip should be used where
feasible, because its inductance is lower than that of a round conductor when its cross sectional
area is larger, as described in Section 5.1.2. When the vertical conductors are a meter or more
apart, the total inductance from the top of the building to the ground is the inductances of the
vertical conductors in parallel. It is this total inductance that determines the voltage drop between
the air contact point and the ground. If we assume a single 100-foot-high grounding conductor
of 0.62-inch diameter, then the inductance of the conductor, from Eq. (4) of Section 5.1.2, is
46 pH.We also assume a lightning current waveform with a 2-ps rise time and a peak current
of 25 kA. The voltage developed between the top of the conductor and the ground is approxi-
mately 575 kV, from
di
v= L- (8.1)
dt
458 Chapter 8
CMTRM
I POWER MOC
4-
ssw
P.1.U
Scheme 2 Single-pointgroundingscheme.Signalgroundconnected to chassisatonepoint.Power

ground isolated from signal ground and chassis by at least 1 MQ. Equipment-to-equipment signal grounds
isolate single-point grounding scheme.
The total inductance of the schememay be reduced by adding more conductors in parallel.
However, when conductors are in close proximity and share the current, the total inductance is
not as low as when the conductors are far apart. For, in close proximity, the field from one
conductor interacts with the adjacent conductor and results in an increase in inductance. The
conductorsshould be spaced at least 1 nl apart to minimizeinductanceanda maximum of
10 m apart to maximize the protection of the building.
Right-angle bends increase the inductance of the conductor; therefore add a radius to any
bend. When the building has a metal-clad exterior or is of reinforced concrete or steel girder
I I V ] P
i
Scheme 2 Continued
construction, the inductanceof the down-conductors is reduced by proximity to the conductive

structure, as described in Section 5.1.2.
Further information on the inductance of antenna masts and the application of protection
devices is obtainable from Ref. 3.
The minimumseparation distance between any of the upper components of the protection
scheme and the building may be established from the potential difference between them. The
impulse breakdown of air is dependent on its ionization and on the geometry of the electrodes.
Figure 8.19 plots the minimum clearance for a given impulse voltage for any shape of electrode
but assumes nonionization of the air.The source of Figure 8.19 is the International Electrotechni-
460 Chapter 8
c
‘
C
-”--- I I I I l .
Scheme 2 Continued
cal Commission Document 28A, “Insulation Coordination of Low-Voltage Systems and Equip-
ment.” Bends should be made with as large a radius as possible, and an increased minimum
clearance should be used at the bend to reduce the probability of breakdown.
Large mechanical forces are generated on conductors that carry high currents; therefore
all conductors should be mechanically bonded together and anchored firmly to the structure,.
Figure 8.20 illustrates a typical grounding scheme for rooftop-mounted cellular or PCS
base station antennas. The antenna coaxial cable is brought into a metal cableway B, and at
Figure 8.19 Curve for determination of thc breakdown voltage in air as a function of spacing
this point the shield of the cable is bonded to the ground strap/braid/wire C. Also at this point,
a combined primary lightning surge arrestor and filter A is inserted in the coaxial cable. The
coaxial cable is then taken inside the cableway until the point of entry into the building D. The
cableway must be bonded by a bond strap on either side of the seams in the cableway. At least
two ground strapdbraid or wires are run alongside the cableway and taken down the outside
of the building to ground rods or, depending on the resistivity of the soil, a ground network,
D. If lightning were to strike any of the antennas, the current would flow on the antennacoaxial
cable until the junction with the ground wire. The current would then continue flowing on both
the ground wire and the outside of the cableway and via the ground straps on the outside of
the building into the soil. The voltage developed on the center conductor of the antenna cable
is shunted to the shield by the surge protector A, which if it also contains a filter will attenuate
the voltage further in amplitude to protect the cellular/PCS equipment. One major mistake that
is made is to bond the ground system to a metal vent pipe or the metal of heating/ventilation
equipment on the roof and to omit the external ground wires. Metal vent pipes are often con-
nected together inside the buildingby the use of rubber gaskets, and the lightning strike can then
flash over to sensitive equipment within the building and possibly starta fire. If the connection is
made to an AC safety ground that penetrates the building, the same flash-over or fusing can
occur, again with the possibility of fire. Therefore never bring a lightning protection ground
scheme inside a building. The external ground wire/braid can be covered with a plastic cover
that has a color similar to the building’s, e.g., white or brown, if the aesthetics of the grounding
scheme is a problem.
The IEC 1312- 1, May 1995, document “Protection Against Lightning Electromagnetic
Impulse” provides further information, as does MIL-HDBK-419A, Chapter3, and Reference 3.
462 Chapter 8
Antenna
A = P n t ~ l a r ylightning surge p r o t e a l o n and filter

B = Metal cableway bonded at seams
C = Ground strap. b r a d , o r \vire
D = Ground rod
Figure 8.20 Typical lightning protection scheme for building-mounted cellular phone/PCS base station
antennas.
8.6.2 Ground Potential

A potential gradient appears across the ground, with equipotential circles spreading out from
the point of contact. A lightning strike at an area of the earth’s surface that has a high resistivity
tends to chargethe area to a potential closer tothe cloud’s potential and a high potential gradient
exists proceeding away from the immediate area of the strike. The purpose of the lightning
protection scheme is to reduce the potential gradient between structures and equipment. A typical
ground scheme for buildings and an antenna installation is shown in the following case study.
8.6.3 Case Study 8.1: Grounding for Lightning Protection at a

Communication Site
The antenna structure shown in Figure 8.21 lies under the arc of protection of the lightning
conductor rod, which is constructed of 1.6-cm-diameter material with a length of 4.3 m. The
minimum distance between the rod and the antenna is 20 cm. Assuming the rod moves in a
high wind such that the minimum distance reduces to 15 cm, the impulse breakdown voltage,
from Figure 8.19, is 90 kV. Modeling the inductance of the rod and its resistance in parallel
with that of the support structure to which it is bonded and using a rise timeof 2 PS, the maximum
lightning strike current protected by the rod is 60 kA. Thus the antenna protection scheme is
adequate for approximately 80% of lightning strikes.
The lightning conductor is connected to a #2 AWG wire mesh that is also connected to
rebars in the concrete base of the antenna and to an adjacent metal fence.
An X-IT rod is used to provide a low-resistance ground connection. The X-IT rod is a
metal tube that contains a chemical that leaches out through apertures in the tube and permeates
the surrounding soil. The moisture in the air is used to form an electrode with the chemical,
which results in a low resistance. The use of a metal rod immersed in ground that has been
soaked in a sodium solution is an alternative way of achieving a low earth resistance. X-IT rods
are manufactured by Lyncole, Torrance, CA 90502.
The buildings at the site are clad with cold-rolled steel with a thickness of at least 1 mm.
The cladding is constructed of a number of sheets that are bonded together. The DC resistance
of the building from the center of the roof to the surrounding ground ring is approximately 5
mQ. The buildings are thus adequately protected from lightning strikes. The maximum touch
potential within the building during a 25-kA strike has been calculated at 125 V.
An approximately 25-m-long No. 2 AWG grounding wire connects the buildings to the
base of the antenna and is run in a benned PVC duct along with the antenna interconnection
cables.
Several ground conductors within cables and the shields of cables will share the current
Antenna
metal structure
;"""""c"""-
""" __"_ I
ii Grounding
\\ scheme
Figure 8.21 Antenna structure with lightningconductorrod.
464 Chapter 8
Electrical
panel
X - IT
rod
Electrical
panel
25 m
Figure 8.22 Communicationsitegroundingscheme.
with the No. 2 AWG grounding wire during a lightning strike. The No. 2 AWG grounding wire
ensures that the full lightning current does not flow in the interconnection cables.
During the fast initial transition of the lightning current, the inductance of the cables will
limit the current flow. When the earth resistance is 50 R or less, the division of the current
between the cables and of the ground between the antenna and the buildings becomes significant,
especially during the fast initial transition.
The shieldsof cables areconnected to the metal building at the entry point of the cables in
order to shunt shield currents to ground. Large ferrite baluns are used on cables after the shield
termination point in order to reduce remaining common-mode current flow. The differential-
mode voltage induced into the center conductors of cables is reduced by one or more of the
methods of transient suppression described i n Section 5.4. I .
A reduction in the induced current in interconnection cables would be achieved by running
the cables in a metal conduit, welded at the joints, instead of the PVC pipe. The No. 2 AWG
wire should remain outside of the metal conduit, orit may be eliminated, since the metal conduit
functions as the ground conductor.
At sites where the electromagnetic ambient was in the volts-per-meter region, the welded
metal conduit was required to eliminate EMI, and the improvement in lightning protection was
a secondary consideration.
The groundingsystematbuildings No. 1 and No. 2, as shown in Figure 8.22 can be
described as follows. Three lengths of No. 2 AWG bare copper wire positioned equidistant
beneath the two buildings, cad-welded to the ground ring system (which comprises NO. 2 AWG
wire around both buildings) and the center leg between the buildings. The wires are buried
beneath the earth to maximize the contact area with the earth. The two buildings are bonded
together via two No. 2 AWG wires of approximately 1.4-n~length and spaced 6 m apart. Four
X-IT rods are used to connect the ring to earth via low-resistance paths.
8.7 BONDING
8.7.1 General
Electriccrl botldirlg is a term used for the process of connecting metal structures together in
order to achieve a low-resistance contact. Bonding is used in lightning protection schemes to
ensure that lightning strike currents may be carried between structures, or structure and conduc-
tors, such as lightning arrestors and earth grounding rods. Other reasons for bonding are to
provide static protection and in the realization of a ground reference plane. Antenna components
also require low-impedance bonds, for currentsflow on the junctionsbetween these components.
Adequate bonding is vital in minimizing passive intermodulation in antennas. Each of these
bonds should be made so that the mechanical and electrical propertiesof the path aredetermined
by theconnectedmembersand not by theinterconnection junction. Further, the joint must
maintain its properties over an extended period of time, to prevent progressive degradation of
the degree of performance initially established by the interconnection. Bonding is concerned
withthosetechniquesandproceduresnecessary to achieve a mechanically strong, low-
impedance interconnection between metal objects and to prevent the path thus established from
subsequent deterioration through corrosion or mechanical looseness. The resistance of the bond
and surface area over which the contact must be made are dependent on the purpose for which
the bond is made.
8.7.2 MIL-6-5087 and MIL-STD-464

MIL-B-5087 has been cancelled, but it did define a number of different bonds and the require-
ments for each type, and these requirements have been used on military equipment that is still
in the field as well as a number of different space programs. Although MIL-B-5087 has been
cancelled and is now contained in MIL-STD-464, MIL-STD-464 still references the bonding
classes of MIL-B-5087.
These bond types from MIL-B-5087 are as follows:
Clrrss A for rrntetzr~rirzstcrllations-no bonding resistance specified, but a negligible im-

pedance over the operating frequency was required.
Class Cfor current return pnrh-impedance limited by maximum allowable voltage drop
as shown in Table 8.5.
Class H f i r sllock 11cr,1~1rd< 0.1 ohm dc.
Clclss L f o r lightning pratection-control internal vehicle voltages to 500 V.
Clcrss R f o r RF potetztid < 2.5 milliohms from electronic units to structure.
Class S for strrtic discharge < 1 ohm.
Table 8.5 Maximum AllowableVoltage

Drop for Class C Bonds
Maximum allowable voltage
Nominal drop equipment opcration
system
voltage Continuous Intermittent
28 1 2
1l5 4 8
200 7 14
466 Chapter 8
There were also less obvious requirements in MIL-B-5087, such as 2.5-milliohms require-
ment on connector shells. MIL-STD-464 points out that there is no scientific basis for the 2.5-
ndliohms requirement for Class R bonds. And although the equipment case-to-structure class
R requirement is not important in most instances, the 2.5 milliohms is still a good number for
several electrical bonds, such as terminating shields to connectors and bonding connector to
equipment case.It is also a good design value where a good bond is required for otherpurposes.
The other bonding values of MIL-B-5087, for shock protection, current return paths, and static
charge, are still valid today.
MIL-STD-464 states that for lightning protection, metallic structuralmembers (aluminum,
steel, titanium, and so forth) provide the best opportunity to achieve an electrical bond on the
order of 2.5 milliohms. A bond of this level will limit the induced voltage on system cabling
to 500 volts from lightning strike attachments (200 kA) to system structure.
Bonding resistance is specified and measured, not bonding impedance. The bonding resis-
tance is not necessarily an indicator of the impedance of the bond, which in EM1 reduction is
often of paramount importance. The impedance of ground planes and rectangular and circular
conductors, which may be used as bondingstraps or jumpers,are described inChapter 5 , Section
5.1. As discussed in Chapter 5 , stray capacitance, self-inductance, and conductor length result
in both series and parallel resonant circuits, and these must be accounted for when considering
the bond at RF frequencies.
A poor electrical bond when exposed to two or more high-power fields may result in
passive intermodulation and reradiate intermodulation products, as described in Chapter 10.3.
8.7.2.1 MIL-STD-464Methods of ElectricalBonding

An electrical bond may be made by welding, brazing, soldering, riveting, bolting, conductive
adhesive, or conductive grease or by springfinger stock material. The preferredmethod of
bonding is welding, followed by brazing and soldering. A bolt or rivet is used to connect two
conductive surfaces together with sufficient force to providea low-resistance bond. The thread
of a screw or bolt must not be relied upon to provide either a DC current or RF bond.
Conductive grease or spring finger stock tnaterial may be used to provide a bond between
moving surfaces, for example, conductivegrease between spring-loaded contacts, piano hinges,
or rotating shafts. When thecontact is not under pressure,the bond should,if possible, be backed
up by a flexible bonding strap. The bond achieved by a circular spring finger stock around a
shaft or conductive grease between the shaft and bearing walls will provide a lower impedance
than a bonding strap. When conventional bonding methods, such as bolts, rivets, and screws,
cannot be used, then the use of conductive adhesive may be allowed.
8.7.2.2 MIL-HDBK-419ABondingPractices
MIL-HDB-419A describes in brief the following grounding practices: Equipment emission and
susceptibility requirements for proper system operation should be accomplished with the most
cost-effective combination of interference reduction techniques. Bonding is an essential element
of the interference control effort.MIL-HDBK-419A presents design and constructionguidelines
to aid in the implementation of effective bonding of equipment circuits, equipment enclosures,
and cabling. These guidelines are not intended as step-by-step procedures for meeting EMC
specifications. Rather, they are aimed at focusing attention on those principles and techniques
that lead to increased compatibility between circuits, assemblies, and equipments.
a. Welded seams should be used wherever possible, because they are permanent, offer
a low-impedance bond, and achieve the highest degree of RF tightness.
-
(11 ACWPTABLE USE OF BONOING JUMPERS
UNACCEPTAELE
(h1 UNACCEPTAELE PRACTICES
Figure 8.23a Bonding jumper: acceptable and unacceptable uses.
b. Spot welds may be used where RF tightness is not necessary. Spot welding is less
desirable than continuous welding because of the tendency for buckling and the possi-
bility of corrosion between welds.
C. Soldering should not be used where high mechanical strength is required; the solder
should be supplemented with fasteners, such as screws or bolts.
d. Solder must not be used to form bonds that may be reasonably expected to cany
large currents, such as those produced by pawer-line faults or lightning currents.
e. Fasteners such as bolts, rivets, and screws should not be relied upon to provide the
primary current path through a joint.
f. Rivets should be usedprimarily to provide mechanical strength to soldered
bonds.
g. Sheet metal screws should be used onlyfor the fastening of dust covers on equipment
SURFACE.)
Figure 8.23b Bonding of subassemblies to equipment chassis.

Chapter 8
Figure 8 . 2 3 ~ Bonding of equipment to mounting surface.
or for the attachment of covers, to discourage unauthorized access by untrained

personnel.
h. Bonds that cannot be made through direct metal-to-metal contact must use auxiliary
straps or jumpers. The following precautions should be observed when employing
bonding straps or jumpers (see Figure 8.23a and b).
(1). Jumpers should be bonded directly to the basic structure rather than through
an adjacent part, as shown in figure 8.23a.
(2). Jumpers should not be installed two or more in series.
(3). Jumpers should be as short as possible.
Figure 8.234 Typical method of bonding equipment flanges to frame or rack.

ERY. /
R E A R OF
FLECTRONICS
EQUIPMENT
Figure 8.23e Bonding of rack-mountedequipmentemployingdagger pins.
(4). Jumpers should not be fastened with self-tapping screws.

(5). Jumpers should be installed so that vibration or motion will not affect the im-
pedance of the bonding path.
(6). Jumpers should be made of tinned copper, cadmium-plated phosphor bronze,
aluminum, or cadmium-plated steel.
(7). Mating metals shouldbeselected to offer maximumgalvaniccompatability
(see Section 8.8.2).
1. Where electrical continuity across the shock mounts is necessary, bonding jumpers
should be installed across each shock mount. Jumpers for this application should
have a maximum thickness of 0.06 cm (0.025 in.) so that the damping efficiency of
the mount is not impaired. In severe shock and vibration environments, solid straps
may be corrugated or flexible, coarse wire braid may be used.
j. Where RF tightness is required and welded joints cannot be used, the bond surfaces
must be machined smooth to establish a high degree of surface contact throughout
the joint area. Fasteners must be positioned to maintain uniform pressure throughout
the bond area.
k. Chassis-mounted subassemblies should utilize the full mounting area for the bond,
as illustrated in Figures 8.23b and 8 . 2 3 ~ Separate
. jumpers should not be used for
this purpose.
1. Equipment attached to frames or racks by means of flange-mounted quick-disconnect
fasteners must be bondedabout the entireflange periphery, as shownin Figure 8.23d.
Both the flange surface and the mating rack surface must be cleaned over the entire
contact area.
m. Rack-mounted packages employing one or more dagger pins should be bonded as
shown in Figure 8.23e.
n. The recommended practices for effective bonding of equipment racks are shown in
Figure 8.23f.Bondingbetweenthe equipmentchassisand therack is achieved
470 Chapter 8
.GROUNDING
/-STUD
WELDED
TO
CABINET
/
/’HORIZONTA
SLIDE
CADMIUM
PLATED
FRONT PANEL^
MOUNTING
SURFACE
Figure 8.23f Recommended practices foreffectivebonding in cabinets.
through contact between theequipment front panel and the rack front brackets. These
brackets are bonded to the horizontal slide, whichin turn is welded to the rack frame.
The ground stud at the top of the rack is used to connect the rack structure to the
facility ground system.
0. Where hinges are used, establish an alternate electrical path through the use of thin,
flexible straps across the hinges, as shown in Figure 8.238.
p. Standard MS-type connectors and coaxial connectors must be bonded to their respec-
tive panels over the entire mating surfaces, as illustrated in Figure 8.23h. Panel sur-
faces must be cleaned to the base metal for no less than 0.32 cm (1/8 in.) beyond
the periphery of the mating connector.
q. In ideal situations, cable shields should be bonded to the connector shell completely
around the periphery of the shield with either compression or, preferably, soldered
bonds.
r. When an RF-tight joint is required at seams, access covers, removable partitions, or
other shield discontinuities, conductive gaskets should be used. They may also be
used to improve the bondbetweenirregular or roughbondingsurfaces. Gaskets
should be sufficiently resilient to allow for frequent opening and closing of the joint
Figure 8.239 Method of bonding across hinges.
and yet be stiff enough to penetrate any nonconductive films on surfaces.

S. Gaskets should be firmly affixed to one of the bond members with screws or conduc-
tive cement or by any other means that does not interfere with their operation. The
gaskets may be placed in a milled slot to prevent lateral movement.
t. All bonds that are not in readily accessible areas must be protected from corrosion
and mechanical deterioration. Corrosion protection should be provided by ensuring
galvanic compatibility of metals and by sealing the bonded joint against moisture.
>
Figure 8.23h Bonding of connector to mounting surface.

472 Chapter 8
poo n
Figure 8.24 Finishing over dissimilar metals.
~~
SUB-NOTE l(9) Installation

Bonding of Equipment of Bonding Strips on Shock
Installed on Structure Mounts
ITEW TO BE BONDED
/”-/ lHRWCH WOUWTINC
FEET
STRUCTURE
LOCI
WASHER
(REF)
CLEAN IOUWTllC STRUCTURE TO
BASE METAL 1-112 WIDTH OF
BDIIDIRC STRIP.CLEAN Bomo1wa
kEllNlSH AREA STRIP IN CDIITACT WITH MOUNT-
AFTER INSTL I-1R Ill6 STRUCTURE.
AREA CLEAWfD
CLEAN PORTION OF
FfET IN CONTLCT WITW REFINISH AFTER INSTALLATION
MDUllTlN6 STRUCTURE. 1-114 AREA CLEANED
CONTACT WITH nounmc

BASE.
NOTE! ON ITENS TWAT MVE THE BOLTS SPACED YORE THAI 6 C
lI WES NOTE : II8TALL B O l D l N C STRIPUNDER SHOCK YOUlT PAD
APART, IT IS ONLY WECESSARV D CLEAN THE AREA 2INCHO IN SUCH A IAllNER THAT THE STRIP D O E S NOT
ON EACH SIDE OF THE ATTACH BOLTS OR SCREWS. ALTER SHOCK IOUWT FUNCTION.
Figure 8.25a Methods of electrical bonding.

SUB-NOTE l(6) Typical

Method of Bonding Precip- Method of Bonding with
itation Static Discharger Dagger Pins
Assembly to Exterior of
CLLAB AIRCIA11 STRUCTURE

1-114 AREA ff NOUNTllE USE.
CLEAR 8ASL Of D16CIIARCfR In
CONTACT VITN AIRCRAIT
l
Method of Bonding Between
Attaching Flange of Elec-
tronic Packane and Rack
Method of Bonding Electronic
Package to Rack Through
Front Attachments
L
c
Figure 8.25b Methods of electrical bonding.
8.7.3 Corrosion, Dissimilar Metals, and Oxidization

When the contact is between dissimilar metals in the presenceof moisture, corrosioncan occur.
The further the metalsare apart in theelectrochemicalseries, the greater the electrolytic reaction
(corrosion). One method that may be used to reduce the reaction is to insert a metal that is
intermediate in the electrochemical series between the two dissimilar metals to be joined. The
intermediate metal may be a surface coating or plating, or itmay be a thin piece of metal, such
as a washer. In the contact of dissimilar metals, one metal acts as a cathode and the other as
the anode. Because a cathode is the source of electron flow, the smaller the cathode relative to
474 Chapter 8
SUB-NOTE l(14) Connection Jumpers 1

BOLT SIZE: 1
BONDING - NO. 6 6 NO 8 SCREW WHERE EDGE
- DISTANCE WILL NOT PETMIT NO.,lO
3 I6.INCH O I A MIN WHERE POS-
SIBLE
1M)-AMP RETIIRN-114-INCHDIA.MIN.
20DAMP RETURN-3/8-INCH DIA. MIN.
NOTE: Electrlcol bonding to mognmrwm structure
0. BOLTED TO A L U M I N U M OR MAGNESIUM
ALLOY
STRUCTURE
<
BOLT SIZES:
BONDING - NO. 6 6 NO. 8 SCREW WHERE EDGE
DISTANCE WILL NOT PERMIT NO. 10
SCREW
- 3 16 . INCH DIA. Mlil WHERE
POSSIBLE
IW-AMP CURRENT RETURN-I/CINCH DIA.MIN
20C-AMP CURRENTRETURN-3/8-INCHDIA.MIN. L
b. BOLTED TO ALLOY STEEL, PLATED STEEL

OR TITANIUM
2. Uam bolted connmctions where lumpmr

oa used for current return
3. Ensur. that rivmt aaz. I s equal lo the
equovolent bolt s ~ z e
c. RIVETED TO ALUMINUM OR MAGNESIUM

ALLOY
Figure 8 . 2 5 ~ Methods of electrical bonding.
the anode the lower the electron flow and the lower the corrosion. The most effective methods
of minimizing electrolytic corrosion are either to use similar metals or to reduce the moisture
between dissimilar metals.
Moisture may be excluded by finishing the surfaces after the joint has been made, typic
by paint or by plating or caulking. Figure 8.24 shows that it is better to apply the finish over
both of the surfaces to be joined. Where this is not possible, finishing the cathodic metal is
better than finishing the anodic metal only.
Metals such as aluminum and steel will oxidize and build up a high-resistance coating.

Method of Bonding Tubing
Across Clamps
IUB-NOTE l(1) Clamp

-
Connection Jumper
to Tube
T SUB-NOTE l(3) Preparation

of Bonding Connection in
Bolted Structural Joints
BOLT OR SCREW WLSHER ( NATERIAL: IS
\ (REf.1 APPLICABLE TO STRUClURE Il
ADD I F NECESSARY
STEEL
LOCWASIIER
I S W E R ( IATERIAL: AS NU1 ( REI.)

APPLICLBLE TO STRUCTURI )
THIS WMWER Io1 REPD.
UNDER PLATE RUT.
Figure 8.25d Methods of electrical bonding.
The exclusion of air by passivationof the two surfaces to be joined will inhibit theoxide buildup.
First the surfaces must be cleaned and degreased, and in some cases it is advisable to etch the
surface. After cleaning, the surfaces may be coated withconductive
a passivation, such as oaktite
#36, alodine #1000, iridite #14, or indite #18P. A chromate finish may be used but does not
provide as low aresistance as the preceding finishes.Zinc, tin, or gold plating may also be used to
achieve a high levelof passivation. Anodizingis usually nonconductive and should beavoided.
Cleaning or etching the surfaces and finishing with paintafter joining, although notas effective
as passivation, will minimize the oxidization at the joint.
Some methods of bonding, reproduced from the Air Force Systems Command Design
Handbook DH 1-4 Electromagnetic Compatibility, are shown in Figures 8.25a, b, c, d.
8.7.4 Bonding Test Methods

The use of a two-terminalresistance meter to measure the resistance of a joint will leadto wide
fluctuations in the reading, ranging from an open circuit to a fairly low resistance, depending
on the pressure used to contact the probes to the joint to be measured. The problem with the
476 Chapter 8
1 mVlo 10 mV Range
Current
Limited Supply
=2 A
Structun
Figure 8.26 Four-terminal bonding resistance test method.
two-terminal method is that the current is injected into the surface of the material by the same
probe as used to measure the voltage, and in reality it is the probe-to-metal contact impedances
of the two probes that are measured. The four-terminal technique injects the current by two
terminals and measures the voltage by use of another two terminals, and the measurement is
much less sensitive to contact pressure. The resistance is found from Ohm’slaw by the measure-
ment of the current and the voltage. One method of applying the current and voltage terminals
is to solder leads to conductive adhesive copper tape and to apply the tape to the two surfaces.
The current terminals should be placed some distance from the joint to be measured, whereas
the voltage terminals should be placed close to the joint. The voltage terminals must be placed
in the direct path between the two current terminals to minimize measurement errors. The four-
terminal measurement technique may be used to make comparativemeasurements of the surface
resistance of metals and finishes. Here the width of the current and voltage contacts should be
constant from measurement to measurement and may be most readily obtainedby use of conduc-
tiveadhesive copper tape of a fixed widthfor all four terminalsand from measurement to
measurement. The four-terminal test method is illustrated in Figure 8.26.
REFERENCES
FAA/Georgia Tech. Workshop on the grounding of electronic systems. March 1974. Distributed by
National Information Service U.S. Department of Commerce.
AFSC Design Handbook Electromagnetic Compatibility. DH- 1-4. Department of the Air Force, Wright
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433, 1971.
Lightning Protection and Grounding Solutions for Communication Sites. Polyphaser Corporation, P.O.
Box 9000, Minden, NY 89423-9000 (775) 782-251 I.
Nobuo Kuwabara, Tetsuya Tominaga, Masaru Kanazawa, Shoich Kuramoto. Probability Occurrence
of Estimated Lightning Surge Current at Lightning Rod Before and After Installing Dissipation Array
System (DAS). NTT Multimedia Networks Laboratories 3-9-1 1 Midori-cho, Musashino-shi, Tokyo
180-8585, Japan, 1998, IEEE.
EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements,
and Test Methods
9.1 INTRODUCTION
EM1 lneasurements may be divided into those imposed by EM1 requirements, which also impose
a test method, and measurements useful in finding the source of EM1 problems. These problems
include lack of self-compatibility or interference with other systems. Equipment nmufacturers
may not possess specialized EM1 test equipment and therefore wish to make measurements with
standard electronic test equipment, such as the oscilloscope. This chapter deals with the use of
standard and specialized test equipment and perhaps most importantly with common sources
of error in their use. It has been said that one measurement is worth a hundred predictions;
however, EM1 measurements may significantly affect the parameter measured, resulting in error.
The location of antennas may affect the calibration curve, for example, errors greater than 30
dB are common in undamped shielded-room measurements of radiated emissions. A measure-
ment with an oscilloscope may corrupt the measured signal as a result of either the additional
ground connection or by radiated pickup on the oscilloscope test leads. Thus great care has to
be exercised in the selection and applicationof the measurement technique, otherwise the predic-
tion may bemoreaccurate than themeasurement. A designshould not bebasedsolely on
measurements of performance, such as filter attenuation and shielding effectiveness; instead,
the measurement should be used to validate the design. When large discrepancies exist between
theory and measurement, both should be examined for error. It is incorrect to assume that mea-
surement data is intrinsically more accurate than predicted values.The measured parameter may
not be the intended; for example, small loop antennas may intercept the radial magnetic field
and not the intended horizontal when the loop orientation is incorrect. The incorrect test equip-
ment may beused for the measurements,leading to error. For example, a manufacturer of
equipment that failed a commercial radiated emission test was using an AM radio with a rod
antenna to measure a relative reduction in field after EM1 fixes were implemented. The criterion
used was the very subjective one of reduction in audio noise. A potential source of error was
the radio’s automatic gain control (AGC), which may have a 20-dB dynamic range. Thus a
reduction of 20 dB or greater in field strength may be achieved with no perceptible change i n
measured noise level. Had the AGC voltage been measured by a DVM or small panel meter,
a more accurate measurement might have been achieved. However, even this technique has the
limitation that the AGC is operative only over a limited range of signal strength.
This chapterdescribes the useof commonly available or easily manufactured and relatively
inexpensive equipment that may be used for simple diagnostic measurements as well as the use
of specialized equipment.
477
478 Chapter 9
9.2 TEST EQUIPMENT

9.2.1 Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is one of the most common pieces of test equipment found in electronic labora-
tories. The oscilloscope has both a number of major limitations when used for EM1 tests and
a number of advantages. A major limitation is that the majority of EM1 test requirements place
limits specified in the frequency domain. Thus any oscilloscope measurement of a complex
waveform must be converted into the frequency domain in order to compare measurements with
limits. For measurements of single frequencies with low harmonic distortion, the oscilloscope
may be useful, assuming its sensitivity is adequate. When a number of frequencies are present,
measurements of a low-amplitude high frequency superimposed on a high-amplitude low fre-
quency may be impossible. In this case a frequency-domain measurement taken by using a
spectrum analyzer is the preferred method. When measurements of transient noise in the time
domain are required, an oscilloscope is the correct instrument to use. Another limitation is the
conversion of common-mode noise into differential across the oscilloscope’s high-impedance
single-ended input. A simple test for the presence of comnion-mode noise is to connect the
probe ground clip to the signal ground and at the same ground point the probe tip. Although
the input to the oscilloscope is thereby shorted out, any common-mode current flow on the
shield and center conductor develops a differential voltage across the input impedance of the
scope, and the magnitude of the common-mode contribution to the measured noise may be
judged. A voltage is developed across the impedance of the shield due to a shield current flow,
and it is this voltage that appears across the input of the oscilloscope. In this test some of the
voltage measured may result from radiated pickup by the loop formed between the probe and
the ground wire. The spectrum analyzer also has a single-ended input, but the 50-75 R input
impedance develops a lower differential voltage from a common-mode current flow than the
l-lO-MQ impedance of the oscilloscope, or the voltage drop across the impedance of the shield
is reduced because the input impedance is across the shield impedance. One disadvantage the
spectrum analyzer has is that the low input impedance may load the signal, especially when the
source impedance is high; also, the input is DC coupled, and a decoupling capacitor must be
used when measuring signalshoise existing on high DC voltages. Oscilloscope and spectrum
analyzer single-ended inputs connect the signal return to the enclosure of the oscilloscope or
spectrum analyzer and thus to the AC safety ground. This additional ground connection may
drastically alter measured noise levels and susceptibility characteristics of the equipment. The
single-ended input and chassis ground connection characteristic of the oscilloscope may be use-
ful when these are required to simulate the input of a piece of equipment with the same character-
istics. Thus the single-ended output signal of equipment under test may be correctly terminated
by the use of an oscilloscope. One additional effect is that the inductance of the probe ground
wire and the input capacitance of the probe form a resonant circuit that changes the wave shape
or amplitude of a measured signal or noise. The resonant circuit may cause ringing on a transient,
which may be incorrectly attributed to a circuit under test resonance. The LC circuit forms a
low-pass filter and may attenuate the amplitude of high-frequency signals. The inductance of
the ground wire should be reduced to a minimum by the use of as short a connection as feasible
and by locating it close to the probe. Alternatively, a field effect transistor (FET) input probe
with a low input capacitance may be used. When the oscilloscope single-ended input characteris-
tics are undesirable, the use of a differential input is a solution. Differential plug-ins for oscillo-
scopes do not necessarily provide the highest level of conimon-mode noise rejection because
of a poor balance between the two inputs caused in part by the use of separate test leads. A
higher level of comnion-mode noise rejection is achieved by the use of a differential scope
probe, in which the differential input is located at the probe tip. This type of probe has the
EM1 Measurements,
Testing
Requirements,
Control
and 479
advantage of lower pickup on the test lead from the radiated ambient and lower loading and
resonance effects. When a differential input is unavailable, the two channels, A and B, of some
oscilloscopes may be used in an A - B mode or an inverted A-plus-B mode, which effectively
measures differential voltage when the input to one channel is connected to the voltage and the
second to the return.When the groundclips areconnected together at the probe but not connected
to either the ground or the enclosure of the equipment under test, the ground loop problem
inherent in single-ended inputs is eliminated. The common-modevoltage is not totally removed
from the measurement using this technique, due to the poor balance between the two inputs.
The level of common-mode contribution to the measurement may be checked by connecting
the tips of both channel A and channel B probes to the signal ground. Some compensation for
imbalance may be achieved by adjusting one or both of the compensation trimmer capacitors
in the probes for minimum measured level. Radiated pickup on the test probes may be reduced
by twisting the probe leads together, which reduces the pickup loop area and tends to cancel
the field-induced currents. Another method of differentiating between common-mode and differ-
ential-mode noise sources, and of isolating the oscilloscope ground from the signal ground, is
to measure the noise current by use of a current probe. In some instances, especially when the
circuit impedances are low, the level of noise voltage is low, and it is the noise currents that
result in radiation and should be measured (this is often true for current flow in chassis ground).
The oscilloscope may be used in relative measurements of electric field by attaching a length
of wire to the probe tip. When an oscilloscope has a 50-Q terminated input or when a 5042
external termination is used, the small calibrated loop and other antennas described in Chapter
2, Section 2.6 may be used. Antenna or current probe output levels are typically too low for
use with an oscilloscope, even on the most sensitive range, and the use of a preamplifier is
almost mandatory. Another limitation of the oscilloscope, in addition to the loss of frequency
component information, is the limited upper-frequency response of the average analog oscillo-
scope.
In the CS01 and CS06 series injection test on ACpower lines, theoscilloscope may
have 120-220-V common-mode voltage applied. Even with the use of the X 10 probe, many
oscilloscopesprovide erroneous measurementswith this level of C/M voltage. The modern
digital scope seems to be more susceptible than the older analog. One potential solution is to
place the injection in the neutral line, which should have a much lower C/M voltage referenced
to chassislsafety ground.
9.2.2 SpectrumAnalyzer
One of the most useful measuring instrumentsfor diagnostic tests, and one that is gaining accep-
tance for use in EM1 testing requirements and for certification, is the spectrum analyzer. An
EM1 receiver and spectrum analyzer are similar in their basic functions. However, a number of
important differences exist; these are expanded on further in this chapter. One major difference
that makes the spectrum analyzer superior for diagnostic measurements is the CRT display.
Some EM1 receivers have the capability of connection to an oscilloscope or monitor that is used
to display amplitude versus frequency, instead of the usual oscilloscope display of amplitude
versus time. However, the display capability is often far inferior to that of the spectrum analyzer.
Another feature of the spectrum analyzer that is different from the EM1 receiver is its capability
of displaying emissions in a short-duration sweeptime (i.e., short-duration changes in amplitude
are more easily discernible). To enable a fast sweep rate, the IF filter components must be
capable of fast charge and discharge, which results in a filter with a Gaussianshape. Thereceiver
that typically does not allow a fast sweep rate has a rectangular-shaped filter. The advantage
of the rectangular filter is greater selectivity due to the very much reduced bandwidth below
480 Chapter 9
the 3-dB down point. For example, in comparing the 3-60-dB down bandwidths of the EM1
receiver and spectrum analyzer, the ratio in the EM1 receiver is typically 1:2, whereas for the
spectrum analyzer it is 1: 14. Thus, assuming a 100-Hz 3-dB bandwidth, the 60-dB bandwidth
for the receiver is typically 200 Hz, and for the spectrum analyzer it is 1.4 kHz.
A limit on sweeptime does exist, and where it is set too short most spectrum analyzers
display an out-of-calibration condition. The spectrum analyzercan suffer from compression and
overload, justas described in the section on the preamplifier, and the same methods can be used
for detection and correction. The spectrum analyzer and EM1 receiver have a built-in variable-
input attenuator that may be used to check for compression as follows: By searching over the
frequency range of the spectrum analyzer to find the maximum input level and adjusting the
input attenuator so that the displayed amplitude is at maximum, or lower, input compression
andoverloadcan be avoided. If on adjusting the inputattenuator the displayedmagnitude
changes, the spectrum analyzer is compressing. Thisis because the spectrum analyzer automati-
cally adjusts the displayed level regardlessof the attenuator setting. In compression the effective
gain of the front end changes and so the displayed level does not remain constant. Hewlett-
Packard publishes a useful booklet entitled “EM1 Measurement Solutions Using the Spectrum
Analyzer Receiver,” and some of the figures and following information are adapted from that
source by kind permissior, of Hewlett-Packard. A block diagram of the spectrum analyzer is
shown in Figure 9.1.
SPECTRUM ANALYZER
BLOCK DIAGRAM
EnveloDe
Mixer IF Section Detector
Atten 9 ~~
Video
BW Level Bandwidth
7
Local
Scan Oscillator
Display
CF
span
Sweeptime
Figure 9.1 Spectrum analyzcr block diagram. (Rcproduced with kind permission from Hewlett-
Packard.)
EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements, and Testing 481
The spectrumanalyzer is a swept tuned super-heterodyne receiver with an extremely wide

input frequency range (typically I O kHz to 1.3 GHz, but as wide as 100 Hz to 22 GHz). The
incoming signal mixes with the local oscillator; when the mixed product equals the IF, the signal
passes through to a peak detector. Some spectrum analyzers allow switching in a quasi-peak
detector, whereas other spectrumanalyzers allow the connection of an external quasi-peak detec-
tor. The frontpanel of the spectrum analyzer contains controlsfor the frequencyspan,
sweeptime, resolution, and video bandwidths and reference levels. Additional functionson most
spectrum analyzers include a marker that may be used to read off the frequency and amplitude
of a selected component. The accuracy of the displayed frequency is a function of the resolution
bandwidth and the frequency span. A typical specification for frequency readout accuracy is
t 3 % of span and of resolution bandwidth. Therefore a frequency measured with a 2-GHz span
may be displayed with up to 260-MHz error. For maximum accuracy, the minimum span and
resolution bandwidth should be used. On some spectrum analyzers a counter is incorporated
with the marker function, with which counter accuracy frequency measurements may be made.
Maximum or peak hold and storage of one or more sweeps are also useful functions that enable
capturing short-duration emissions and comparing before and after emission profiles. The resolu-
tion bandwidth control on the spectrum analyzer has a number of uses, one of which is in
reducing the noise floor of the spectrum analyzer. The narrower the resolution bandwidth, the
lower the noise level and the better the displayed signal-to-noise ratio.
Assume that broadband coherent noise anda single-frequency narrowband source areboth
present and are measured with the spectrum analyzer. As the resolution bandwidth is widened,
more of the spectral lines generated by the broadband source, which are close together in fre-
quency, will lie within the envelope of the resolution bandwidth, and the displayed signal level
will increase. The narrowband signal level, assuming it is not swamped by the broadband signal,
will not increasewith an increase in bandwidth,foronly one frequency is measured in the
envelope of the bandwidth.
The resolution bandwidth, sometimes referred to as the IF bandwidth, also determines
selectivity and sweeptime. Because the spectrum analyzer traces out its own IF filter shape as
it tunes past the signal, the spectral emission lines are not displayed as infinitely narrow lines.
Thus if the resolution bandwidth is changed, the width of the display changes. This is important
in differentiating between adjacent signals (selectivity). Hewlett-Packard specifies a 3-dB band-
width (i.e., the width over which the amplitude is no more than 3 dB down on the maximum
amplitude). If two adjacent signals are closer together than the 3-dB bandwidth, they cannot be
differentiated in the display. In contrast, if the signals are further apart than the 3-dB bandwidth,
they may be differentiated.
One of the definitions of narrowband (NB) or broadband (BB) impulsive noise refers to
the resolution bandwidth of the mcasuring instrument. When separate narrowband and broad-
band limits are specified, it is important that typical bandwidths for narrowband and broadband
measurements be established and agreed upon by the procuring agency before commencement
of tests. In some casesthe agency that imposes EM1 measurements will also define the measure-
ment bandwidths. Where this is not true, upcoming Tables 9.20 and 9.21 provides typical NB
and BB measurementbandwidths. As illustrated in thischapter,whetherimpulsivenoise is
displayed as narrowband or broadband depends on the resolution bandwidth. It is important to
differentiate between the two types of noise for a number of reasons. The FCC allows a 13-dB
relaxation in the conducted emission limit if the noise is determined to be broadband, and the
VDE, early versions of MIL-STD-461, and DO-l60 requirements specify different emission
levels for broadband and narrowband noise. In diagnostic measurements, tracing the source of
emissions may be facilitated by determination of the emission type. For example, a single high-
intensity emission may exist in the multiple spectral emission lines from a broadband source.
482 Chapter 9
If the single high-intensity emission is determined to be narrowband, then the source is not the
broadband source, .although this may excite the narrowband signal. The source is instead an
oscillation, which may then be traced to a power supply, circuit instability, or a resonant circuit.
Signals are characterized as narrowband with respect to the measuring instrument's bandwidth
when there is only one spectral component of the signal contained within the filter bandpass.
Each spectral component of a signal is individually resolved and displayed in the frequency
domain. This means that the frequency of the emission may be read directly off of the X coordi-
nate of the spectrum analyzer display. Changingthe frequency span of the display changes the
spacing of the spectral emission lines. For example, for a frequency span of 20-200 MHz and
10 divisions, the frequency per division of display is 18 MHz. Thus two emissions 18 MHz
apart will be spaced one division apart. Changing the frequency span to 20-1 10 MHz increases
the spacing to two divisions. Changing the spectrum analyzer sweeptime will not change the
spacing when the display is in the frequency domain. The spectral emissions lines may be either
narrowband signals (i.e., sinewave sources) or impulsivenoise, which is displayedasnar-
rowband signals and which may be classified as narrowband when the spectrum analyzer band-
width is set to a narrowband value. For impulsive noise sources displayed in the frequency
domain, the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) may be determined by measuring the frequency
spacing between the individual spectral lines. In our example, the PRF is 18 MHz. Figure 9.2
illustrates the narrowband display and the associated narrowband characteristics.
NARROWBAND SIGNALS
ARE DISPLAYED AS FREQUENCY
DOMAIN SPECTRAL LINES
I-" -- -~
RESOLUTEN "
1 SPECTRAL EANDw"H
l!
I LINES
NARROWBAND CHARACTERISTICS:
LINESPACING CHANGES WITH
FREQUENCYSPAN
LINE SPACING INDEPENDENT OF
SWEEP TIME
PRFEQUALSSPECTRAL LINE SPACING
(USE FREQUENCY SPAN CONTROL)
EM1 Measurements,
Testing
Requirements,
Control
and 483
If we now assume an impulsive noise source at a much lower repetition rate than 18 MHz,
for example,50 kHz, and the resolution bandwidthis increased to include more than one spectral
line, then individual spectral lines are no longer resolved and the signals are added under the
resolution bandwidth curve. The impulsive noise occurs in the time domain at a specific repeti-
tion rate, unlike a continuous wave. Thus impulsive noise sources, when more than one spectral
emission line is covered by the resolution bandwidth, are displayed in the time domain. The
amplitude of the display is now equal to the envelope of the (sin x)/x spectrum.
A scanning analyzerwill therefore display a pulse every1 /PRF seconds, with an amplitude
proportional to the spectrum envelope amplitudeat the frequency to which the analyzer is tuned,
and the signalwill be displayedasabroadband signal. Due to the time-domaindisplay of
broadband noise, changing the frequency span does not alter the spacing between the pulses as
was true of the narrowband display. Instead the spacing between the pulsesis changed by chang-
ing the sweeptime. A typical characteristic of a broadband display is that the signals appear to
“walk” across the CRT, because the analyzer sweeptime is generally not locked to the PRF
of the signal. The PRF found is by taking the reciprocalof the sweeptime between the individual
pulses. Thus for a sweeptime of 0.2 ms and a one-division spacing between the pulses, the
sweeptime between pulses is 0.2 ms/lO = 20 ps and the PRF is 1/20 ps = 50 kHz. Note that, as
described in Section 3.1.1, the PRF of a pulse withmark/space ratio of unity is often mistakenly
calculated at half the actual PRF.This is because the pulses areat zero amplitude at the sidelobes.
Figure 9.3 illustrates an impulsive signal, displayed as a broadband time-domain signal, and its
associated broadband characteristics.
Differentiationbetweennarrowbandandbroadbandsignals may also beachieved by
changing the video bandwidth, which may produce an averaging of the high-frequency compo-
nent at the output of the envelope detector. The averaging occurs because the video bandwidth
filter is low pass and reduces the amplitude of the high-frequency components. The conditions
under which this is achieved are as follows: (1) when the video filter bandwidth is narrower
than the resolution filter bandwidth; (2) when the video bandwidth is less than the lowest PRF;
(3) the frequency sweep must be slow enough to allow the filters to charge completely; and (4)
the spectrum analyzermust be in the linear amplitude display mode. Average detection reduces
the displayed amplitude of broadband signals but has no effect on the amplitude values of nar-
rowband signals. One further test used to differentiate between narrowband and broadband sig-
nals is the tuning test. In the tuning test the spectrum analyzer is tuned one impulse bandwidth
(in the case of VDE requirements) or two impulse bandwidths (in the case of the MIL-STD-
462) on either side of the center frequency of the emission under investigation. The impulse
bandwidth is defined as the 6-dB filter bandwidth, whereas some spectrumanalyzer manufactur-
ers, such as Hewlett-Packard, quote a 3-dB resolution bandwidth. A change in peak response
of 3 dB or less indicates a broadband emission, while a change of greater than 3 dB indicates
a narrowband emission. Table 9.1 illustrates the four methods used to differentiate between
narrowband and broadband sources. That four methods exist indicates that the differentiation
is not easy and that often more than one method must be tried before a conclusion can be made.
If the results are inconclusive or contradictory, the tuning test is the preferred method used in
arbitration. In some cases thedecisionmust be made by the EMC engineeringauthority in
charge of tests and equipment compliance or by the agency imposing the EMC requirements.
An illustration of the effect of resolution bandwidth on displayed amplitude is shown in
Figure 9.4 for an impulsive signal with a l-kHz PRF and a 260-kHz mainlobe width. At nar-
rowband settings, the individual spectral lines are captured in the resolution bandwidth, resulting
in a narrowband display. As the receiver bandwidth is increased, more of the spectral lines are
captured, the amplitude increases, and the display is broadband. Finally, as the bandwidth is
484 Chapter 9
WIDENING THE RBW

MAY CREATE A
BROADBAND DISPLAY
DO." "",
,, *. ,...., .I.. L
. .-. r." _..
.,
Figure 9.3 Broadband display. (Rcproduced with kind pcriiiission from Hewlett-Packard.)
further increased, the full signal spectrum is captured by the resolution bandwidth, and any
further increase does not result i n an increase in amplitude, resulting in a quasi-narrowband
display.
Some of the criticisms of the spectrum analyzer are its wide input frequency range, which
leaves it prone to compression and overload, and its lack of sensitivity, which is to a large extent
answered by the use of a preselector and amplifier. The Hewlett-Packard 85685A preselector
has a separate 20-Hz to 50-MHz input and a 20-MHz to 2-GHz input. It contains protection
against high-voltage transients at the low-frequency input, and the preselector filters include a
number of low-pass and tuned bandpass filters. Both high- and low-frequency paths contain
preamps with 20-dB gain, which improves the noise figure. The preselector also contains a
comb generator that inay be used to amplitude-calibrate the system to meet the -2-dB CISPR
specification. An additional advantage of the RF preselector is in measuring broadband noise
that covers a very wide frequency range, for due to the very wide frequency range of the spec-
trum analyzer input, a high spectral density inay be applied to the mixer. even though the resolu-
tion bandwidth filter reduces the spectral density applied to the peak detector. Thus the dynamic
range available, limited by the maximum mixer input level, may not be adequate. By liiiiiting
the bandwidth applied to the mixer with the preselector filter, the dynamic range of the instru-
ment may be greatly increased.
BROADBAND SIGNALS
ARE DISPLAYED AS TIME
DOMAIN PULSE RESPONSES
LLNIIII i" owe

R I I).
**I
1e .be, IS" tee w4. YIP
SPA.#
.?a -.-*".
20- e
BROADBAND CHARACTERISTICS:
0 PULSE SPACING INDEPENDENT OF
FREQUENCY SPAN
0 PULSE SPACING CHANGES WITH
SWEEP TIME
0 PERIOD 0 EQUALS SPACING OF
PULSE RESPONSES (USE SWEEP
TIME CONTROL)
PRF = 1/T
Table 9.1 Methods for NB and BB analysis.

(Reproduced with kind permission from Hewlett-
Packard.)
METHODS NB BB CRT RESPONSE

I
:",",:"'\~ AMP1 > 308 AMP. < 308

Wti hqw
.-_ . . __
PRF T E S l VO SPACING ASPACNC
SWEEPTIME
I*rytww hU4p
-
... . ._
PEAK VS AVC DET hO ANPL
VIDEO 8 W AMP1
-- -
486 Chapter 9
MEASURED SIGNAL
AMPLITUDE DEPENDS ON
RECEIVER BANDWIDTH
0 8 SIGNnL
STRENGTH
OR. v M",
Figure 9.4 Narrowband and broadband display of impulsive noise with amplitude versus bandwidth.
(Reproduced with kind permission from Hewlett-Packard.)
For European Union (EU), European Norm (EN), VDE, Industry Canada, and FCC com-
mercial certification tests, the quasi-peak detector is specified; however, if the EUT passes the
requirement using a peak detecting instrument, then the results are acceptable, for, compared
to quasi-peak, a peak measurement is worst case. The quasi-peak detector was instituted to
attempt to account for the annoyance factor of noise. The annoyance factor of low-repetition-
rate noise is considered lower than that of high-repetition noise, and due to the charge and
discharge time constant built into the quasi-peak detector, its response is less to low-repetition-
rate noise sources. In practice, above a 10-kHz repetition rate, the quasi-peak and peak responses
are very close; and this becomes increasingly true as the repetition rate increases above 10 kHz.
As the quasi-peak detector incorporates both acharge and discharge time constant, an additional
effect is to average out the peak amplitude measured in successive slow scans of a signal that
changes amplitudeaftereach scan. This type of variation is verytypical of multiplenoise
sources, which can change from being in phase, and therefore additive, to out of phase, and
therefore subtractive, with time. This averaging effect often results in a lower measurement
using the quasi-peak detector compared to the peak detector, which has a very much faster
charge time.
One important factor in the choice of spectrum analyzer, preamplifier, and EM1 receivers
are low production of intermodulation, spurious, and harmonic responses. Additional factors in
the choice of the spectrum analyzer and EM1 receiver are: flat +2-dB gain vs. frequency; ade-
quate frequency accuracy and stability; wide dynamic range; high sensitivity and low noise floor
(EM1 receivers have often been quoted as exhibiting lower noise and higher sensitivity than the
spectrum analyzer, but this is no longer true of the more expensive analyzer); outputs for IF,
video display, plotter, LO (local oscillator), and audio; acceptance by governing agencies (some
do not accept a spectrum analyzer); computer control capability. The spectrum analyzer uses a
Gaussian shaped resolution bandwidth filter and the receiver uses an impulse bandwidth. In the
measurement of broadband noise a correction factor of approximately 4dB has to be made to
the spectrum analyzer measurementwhen compared to the receiver, whereasno correction factor
is required for narrowband noise.
9.2.3 Preamplifiers
Preamplifiers are available with gains of 20-26 dB (numeric 10-20) and a typical noise figure
of 0.08 pV when measured on a spectrum analyzer with a 10-kHz bandwidth. Thus it is possible
to amplify a 1-pV signal level to between 10 and 20 pV, dependingon the gain of the preampli-
fier, and to differentiate between the signal and noise, depending on the resolution bandwidth.
A typical broadband preamplifier will have a 10-kHz to 1-GHz frequency range with a
flatness of 1 dB. The maximum output voltage from a typical preamplifier is 0 dBm (i.e., 225
mV). If the input voltage to the preamplifier is greater than 12 mV, assuming a gain of 26 dB,
then compression occurs (i.e., the output of the preamplifier does not increase beyond 225 mV).
The problem is that the gain of the preamplifier effectively reduces at all frequencies when
compression is present.
As an example, assumea measurement is made with a preamplifier connected to the input
of a spectrum analyzer and a signal is displayed at 10 MHz ona frequency span of 1-500 MHz.
Assume the input level to the preamplifier at 10 MHz is 50 pV, at the same time a frequency
of 10 kHz and a magnitude of l V are inputto the preamplifier but not displayed on the spectrum
analyzer. The 1-V level at 10 kHz causes compression in the preamplifier, and the output at 10
MHz is displayed as 200 pV instead of the correct 1000 pV.
One technique that can be used to detect compression, if the input signal of interest is
above the noise floor of the spectrum analyzer, is to bypass the preamplifier (i.e., plug the input
signal directly into the spectrum analyzer), and the displayed signal should reduce by the gain
of the preamplifier, which in the example is 26 dB. When the input signal level is too low, a
3-12-dB attenuator may be connected to the input of the preamplifier, after which,in the absence
of compression, the signal should be reduced by the appropriate level (3-12 dB). Theprobability
of compression can also be determined by setting the frequency span of the spectrum analyzer
to the frequency range of the preamplifier and noting high-level (i.e., close to 0 dBm) signals
at any frequency. The solution to the compressionproblem is to includeafilter,preferably
tunable, at the input of the preamplifier, which attenuates the unwanted frequency but not the
frequency of interest. Alternatively the 3-12 dB alternator may be adequate.
A second result of overload caused by an input signal that is too high is clipping and
distortion at the output of the preamplifier. In the frequency domain the distortion results in an
output that exhibits coherently related spectral emissions covering a wide range of frequencies,
whereas the input signal may be a single frequency. I n some instances overload can cause the
preamplifier to oscillate. Constant attentionto signs of, and testing for, compression and overload
in preamplifiers, spectrum analyzers, and receivers must be made to ensure that equipment does
not either pass EM1 requirements due to compression or fail due to spurious response caused
by overload. Preamplifiers are also available that cover the 1-18-GHz frequency range at gains
of 9-40 dB. It is important to choose an amplifier with a noise figure referenced to the input
at least 3 dB lower than the lowest signal to be amplified. Generally the narrower the frequency
range of the amplifier, the lower the noise figure. Often the noise floor is specified in dB instead
488 Chapter 9
of (dByV or pV)/bandwidth orn V / d E . The noise specified in dB is the noise figure described,
with a typical test method, in Section 5.3.3. Often the noise figure is referenced to the noise
generated by the preamplifier input termination resistor.
Low-noise preamplifiers are especially useful in making broadband measurements at low
levels with a spectrum analyzer, for the preamplifier can drastically increase the signal-to-noise
ratio obtainable with the spectrum analyzer alone.
9.2.4 EM1 Receivers

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the EM1 receiver, sometimes referred to as an
EM1 meter, compared to the spectrum analyzer are discussed next.
All the advantages of the preselector are built into the EM1 receiver, without the need for
an add-on unit with its additional cost and space requirements. In EM1 receivers, fundamental
mixing is always used,whereas in some spectrum analyzersacombination of fundamental
mixing and harmonic mixing is used. Fundamental mixing means that the local oscillator, which
is used in a super-heterodyne receiver to down-convert the input signal to the IF, covers the
entire input frequency range. Fundamental mixing results in the lowest conversion loss and the
lowest noise figure or highest sensitivity. Harmonic mixing, on the other hand, results in lower
sensitivity. In measuring impulsive noise, the charge time of the detector is important, for to
capture the peak amplitude the charge time should be less than l/( 10 X IF BW). EM1 receiver
manufacturers claim that the receiver has a faster charge time than the spectrum analyzer. This
may not be an intrinsic function of the receiver, and in choosing between the receiver and
analyzer a comparison of the charge times should be made. Spectrum analyzers provide a nar-
rowband continuous wave (CW) calibration signal, whereasmostreceiverscontainimpulse
generators in addition to a CW source. Many receivers contain AM and FM detection, as do
some spectrum analyzers. AM or FM detection is extremely useful in determining the source
of a signal, especially in an ambient site survey, and also in determining the susceptibility of
the system exposed to the signal. For example, a system may well be more susceptible to an
audio frequency AM compared to a CW unmodulated signal. For completeness, phase demodu-
lation should be, but seldom is, provided. In most radiated susceptibility measurements made
in a shielded room, the measuring instrument monitoring the susceptibility test level is located
outside of the shielded room and is thus not exposed to the test level. For the rare instances where
the monitoring equipment is located inside the shielded room, the typically superior shielding of
the EM1 receiver will be an advantage and will reduce the spurious response of the instrument
to the field in which it is immersed. Likewise, where diagnostic measurements are made of
radiated or conducted emissions from an EUT with the measuring instrument located in the
shielded room, the lower level of radiated emissions typical of an EM1 receiver may be an
advantage. As with all emission tests, the ambient inside the room, which includes radiation
from the measuring instrument, with the EUT powered down should be monitored. One impor-
tant feature of the spectrum analyzer or receiver is the capability of programming the instrument,
which is of benefit in automating measurements. A typical program will allow entry of the
calibration curves of antennas and probes, from which the true noise levels may be calculated
and displayed against the specification limits.
The modern receiver combines all the advantages of the spectrum analyzer and the EM1
receiver. For example, the Rohde and Schwarze ESMI receiver has a 20-Hz to 26.5-GHz fre-
quency range, extendable to 110 GHz with external mixers.
It has a spectrum analyzer display and selectable spectrum analyzer (overview mode) 3-
dB resolution bandwidth or an EM1 receiver 6-dB resolution bandwidth. Correction factors can
be entered into a transducer table to compensate for antenna factors and current probe transfer
impedance. The ESMI includes an built-in selectable preamplifier with a gain of 10 dB from
100 Hz to 26.5 GHz. The 16 R F preselector filters are fixed bandpass from DC -9 kHz, 9-
150 kHz, 150 kHz to 2 MHz, 2-10 MHz, 10-30 MHz, 30-50 MHz, 50-80 MHz, 80-100
MHz, I 10- 140 MHz, 140-260 MHz, 260-450 MHz, 450-700 MHz, 700- 1000 MHz, 1- 1.9
GHz, 1.9-5 GHz, and 4.9-26.5 GHz. The filter is a YIG type. AM or FM demodulation is
provided, and the instrument can be controlled via a RS-232-C, IEEE 488, or parallel
(Centronics) interface. Rohde and Schwarze also supply an EM1 measurement software package
to control the receiver.
9.2.5 Signal Generator and Power Amplifiers

The best type of signal source in a radiated or conducted susceptibility test is the analog sweep
generator or a frequency synthesizer that can sweep continuously over the frequency range of
interest. The disadvantage of the analog type of generator is that typically the sweep must be
made manually. A frequency synthesizer-based generator, on the other hand, may usually be
programmed via pushbuttons on the front panel or via a computer, using a computer interface
such as the GPIB bus. The more modern frequency synthesizer sweep generator is similar to
an analog generator and sweeps continuously, whereas the older or simpler types sweep by
stepping the frequency. The susceptibility of an EUT often occurs at a single frequency or a
limited number of frequencies. This selectivity is commonly a result of increased current flow
in circuits or cables at resonance. Depending on the Q of the resonant circuit, the susceptibility
may be seen only at a single frequency, with a sharply decreased response either side of that
frequency. Use of a generator that must be stepped in frequency, despite a small step size,
increases the possibility that a resonant frequency at which susceptibility occurs may be missed.
A potential disadvantage of the frequency synthesizer generator is the typically high level of
harmonics generated compared to an analog generator. Power amplifiers are required to generate
the specified level of E field in a radiated susceptibility test and the specified voltage at the
input of the EUT in a conducted susceptibility test. Some examples of the frequency range and
typical output powers of amplifiers are provided in Table 9.2. An amplifier is available from
Dressler that is rated at 75 W from 9 kHz to 250 MHz, and this is capable, with the majority
of antennas and injection probes, of generating the EN 50081-2 C/M RF test levcl and the RF
electromagnetic field of EN 50081-2 and EN 50082-1 up to 250 MHz.
The power required to generate a specified E field from an antenna is a function of the
gain of the antenna and the distance between the antenna and the EUT. MIL-STD 462 and DO-
160 specify a distance of 1 m. An equation that provides the minimum power required for a
specified E field is:
p = - E'4xr2
Z,,G
where
r = distance [m]
Z,, = wave impedance at the distance r [Q]
G = gain of the antenna
Some of the important factors in the choice of a power amplifier are unconditional stability
from an open-circuit to a short-circuit load and any value of inductive or capacitive load. When
a power amplifier exhibits a high gain (40 dB or greater), great care must be taken in routing
and shielding of the input and output cables. If these cables are too close together or not ade-
490 Chapter 9
Table 9.2 Typical Power Amplifiers
Frequency range Power output Manufacturer/s

10 Hz-20 kHz 1200w Techtroti
DC- 1000 MHz 50W Amplifier Research
10 kHz-100 MHz 1250W Amplifier Research
10 kHz-75 MHz I oow-2ooow IF1
9 ~ H z - 2 2 0 MHz 75W Dressler
10 kHz-220 MHz 200w Amplifier Research
10 MHz-1200 MHz low LCF
100 MHz- I000 MHz 500/ 1OOOW Amplifier Research
200 MHz-1000 MHz IOW-400W IF1
10 kHz-1000 MHz low-IOOW I F1
1 MHz-100 MHz 5OOOW-15OOOW IF1
0.8 G H z - ~ GHZ 50W ITS Electronics Inc.
1-4.2 GHz 1ow Amplifier Research
1-2 GHz 200w Amplifier Research
8- 18 GHz 200w Amplifier Research
1-2 GHz 20w CPl (formerly Varian)
2-4 GHz 20w CPI
4-8 GHz 20w CPI
8-18 GHz 20w CPI
quately shielded, positive feedback may occur, with a potential for the generation of full output
voltage across the load. When the load is an antenna, hazardous levels of E field may be gener-
ated, even though the input from the signal generator is set to a very low level or even discon-
nected. Routing the input cable too close to the antenna is a common source of positive feedback.
In radiated susceptibility tests, locate the power amplifier outside the shielded room and use a
short cable to connect the signal generator to the amplifier. A good power amplifier generates
low levels of harmonics, spurious responses, and low levels of broadband noise. A front panel
meter that indicates power output is a useful function, especially in avoiding input overload and
in monitoring instability. Instability and positive feedback can destroy the power amplifier. But
even more important, it can destroy the EUT due to the potentially high level of E field. When
monitoring the output power of an amplifier by use of a power meter, EM1 receiver, or spectrum
analyzer, use a power attenuator at the input of the measuring instrument capable of dissipating
the full output power of the amplifier or a bidirectional coupler. When using an attenuator, the
level of attenuation depends on the input power rating of the measuring instrument. For example,
a typical spectrum analyzer 5042 input is rated at 1 W. Consider that the output level of a 400-
W power amplifier must be adjusted to a specified level, which is monitored on a spectrum
analyzer. The maximum input level to the spectrum analyzer is 1 W, and the power amplifier
may generate up to 25% more power than the rated value of 400 W (i.e., 500 W). The level
of attenuation required is given by 10 log (P,,,/P<,,,,) = 10 log 500/1 = 27 dB. The voltage
attenuation required is given using V = 1/= as follows:
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Control
and Testing 491
The power and voltage attenuation are the same, because the attenuator input impedance
and the spectrum analyzer input impedance are the same, 50 Q. Thus, in our example a 26-dB
attenuator, which is a common value, rated at 500 W would be used between the output of the
power amplifier and the input of the spectrum analyzer. To be ultrasafe, an additional 3-dB
attenuator may be added to ensure achieving at least 27 dB of attenuation.
9.2.6 Current Probes

Current probes used in EMC measurements are somewhatdifferent from the current probe used
with oscilloscopes. The major difference is that EMC-type probes usually have a larger-diameter
opening, thus allowing measurements on larger-diameter cables. They donot measure DC cur-
rents but frequencies as low as 20 Hz and as high as l GHz. Current probes can accurately
measure microamp levels of AC current in the presence of up to 200 A of DC current. When
the current probe frequency response lies much above 60 Hz, the probe is capableof measuring
low levels of AC current at high frequency in the presence of high levels of 60-Hz AC current.
No single current probe can measure over the 20-Hz to 1-GHz range of frequencies; instead,
a number of probes must be used. Two probes are the minimum required to cover this wide
frequency range, with one probe typically covering a 20-Hz to 200-MHz frequency range and
a second probe covering the range of 20 MHz to 1 GHz. The current probe does not contact
the conductors over which it is placed; instead, a voltage is generated by the magnetic field
surrounding the cable by transformer action. The current probe when placed over a cable that
contains a signal line and return or many signal lines and returns measures the common-mode
current but not the differential-mode currents. As we have seen, the major contributor to cable
radiated emissions is the common-modecurrent flowing on cables or cable shields. The calibra-
tion of the probe is typically of transfer impedance, which is the voltage developed across a
50-Q load divided by the current flow measured by the probe.
For example, when the transfer impedance (Z,) at a specific frequency is specified as 0
dB Q (i.e., 0 dB above 1 Q), the transfer impedance is 1 Q. An example of the use of Z, follows:
If the current measured is 1 pA, then the voltage developed across the 5 0 4 load is
V = IZ, = 1 pA X 1 Q = 1 pV
Such a low level of voltage is likely to be in the noise floor of the spectrum analyzer, and thus
a preamplifier must be used. This type of current probe, regardless of whether it is used with
an oscilloscope or a spectrum analyzer, is designed to be loaded with 50 Q.
When the transfer impedance is provided in dBQ, this is subtracted from the measurement
in dBpV to obtain the current in dBpA. For example, if the transfer impedance is -20dBQ
and the measured levelis 25dBpV,then the currentis 45dBpA (25dBpV- -20dB = 45dBpA).
If the transfer impedance is 5dBR and the measurement is 25dBpV,then the current is 20dBpA.
Although the current probe is typically shielded, it does respond to incident E fields. Thus
any measurement using the current probe shouldcommence with a measurement of the ambient
(i.e., with the current probe lying close to the cable to be measured but not placed around it).
When the coaxial cable connectingthe probe to the measuring equipment is acting as an antenna
and responding to radiated fields, the use of baluns on the cable may reduce the level of pickup.
Another technique often effective in reducing pickup on the cable is to add an additional over-
braid and thus increase the shielding effectiveness of the cable.
Some manufacturers provide a calibration in terms of the transducer factor k, which is
equivalent to l/Z,. The transducer factor in dB has to be added to the measured level in dBpV
to obtain the current in dBpA.
492 Chapter
9.2.7MagneticFieldAntennas
The construction of these antennas is described in Section 2.6 and their use in Section 9.3.2.
The construction of a 13.3-cm shielded loop antenna is described in MIL-STD-462 for REO1
measurements 30 Hz to 30 kHz and in ML-STD-462D:1993 for RE101 measurements from
30 Hz to 100 kHz. Magnetic field antennas are used in a similar manner to the current probe
with a preamplifier and spectrum analyzer. They are shielded or balanced to provide attenuation
of the E-field-inducedvoltage, but the level of attenuation is limited. The magnetic field antenna
may be used inclose proximity to a shielded enclosure or cables, and the purpose is to “sniff”
around apertures and seams for leakage, indicating a faulty joint or increased joint transfer
impedance. The H field antenna is more sensitive to the level of electromagnetic ambient than
is the current probe and should be used in as low an ambient as feasible.
9.2.8BroadbandAntennas
Broadband antennas used in EMI measurements differ from broadcast antennas in a number of
aspects. High directivity in a broadcast antenna is often a desirable parameter, whereas in EM1
measurement antennas with too high adirectivity are a disadvantage. In radiatedemission mea-
surements the sources of emissions may be 2 m or more apart, which necessitates movement
of the antenna and subsequentmultiple scans when the antenna directivity is too high. Likewise,
in radiated susceptibility tests the antenna should generate as uniform an E field over the EUT
and interconnecting cables as possible with the antenna located as close as 1 m from the EUT.
The antennas are designed to cover as wide a frequency range as possible in order to reduce
Model 3 3 M B Rod Antenna

Figure 9.5a EMCO Model3301B active rod Efield antenna (shown without counterpoise). (Reproduced
with kind permission from the Electro-Mechanics Co. Ltd.)
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Testing
Control
and 493
the number of antennas required to cover the typical ICkHz-18-GHz frequency span used in
E field susceptibility tests. EM1 measurement antennas are designed to both radiate and receive,
with the exception of active antennas, which are designed to receive only. Thus, calibration
curves of both the gain and the antenna factor ( A F ) of the antenna are provided by the manufac-
turer, to enable the calculation of the power level requiredto generate the specified E field and
to convert the measured antenna output voltage to an E field. The gain and the antenna factor
are either calculated for far-field conditions, measured on an open-field test site, free space
antenna range and measuredat distances of 1 m, 3 m, or 10 m from the source. Low-frequency,
10-kHz-30-MHz antennas are often calculated for far-field conditions, thus, when used at a
distance of 1 m from a source, the AF may be very much different from the calculated value.
The AF is also very sensitive to the incident wave impedance. Using antennas in a shielded
room can drasticallyalter the calibration, due to loading effects caused by proximity to the floor
and ceiling of the roomas well as the EUT. In addition, room resonances and reflections change
the apparent gain and AF of antennas, as discussed in Section 9.5 on shielded rooms. Another
factor is the variable input impedance of the antenna with changing frequency. EM1 measure-
ment antennas are specified witha nominal inputimpedance of 50 Q, whereas the actual imped-
ance of the antenna may be much different, resulting in a high voltage-standing-wave ratio
x v)
N
v.
Figure 9.5b Combined log periodic and biconical antenna, 20-1300 MHz, with typical antenna factor
vs. frequency. (Reproduced with kind permission from EMC Consulting Inc.)
494 Chapter 9
AntennaFactor
Antenna
Factors Model 3106
FREWCNCV. MHz
Antenna
Factors
Model 3115
2 k 8 8 l0 l2 14 16 18 M
FREOUENCV, Qnz
Modal 3115 Double-Ridged Wmgulde Horn Antenna

Antenna
Factors
Model
3116
81
I 1 I I
FREOVCNCY. MHz Model 3116 Double-Rldgsd Wawgufds Horn Antenna
Figure 9% Antenna factor vs. frequency curvefor three models of double-ridged guide antennas. (Re-
produced with kind permission from the Electro-Mechanics Co. Ltd.)
EM1 Measurements,
495
Requirements,
Testing
Control
and
Model 3104C Biconical Antenna
VSWR Model 3104C FactorsAntenna Model 3104C

91 n
31 20
7:l
l8
61
18
61
&l
12
31
l0
21
1:1
20 40 M) M) 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 20 40 M) 80 100 120 140 160 1w 200 220
mwENcv. MM FREQUENCY, M
Figure 9.5d Antenna factor vs. frequency for a20-2OO"Hz biconical antenna. (Reproducedwith kind
permission from the Electro-Mechanics Co. Ltd.)
(VSWR). A high VSWR affects the power amplifierdriving the antenna in ways that are unique
to the amplifier in use. When the antenna factor calibration is based on measured data, the
antenna impedance is accounted for in the calibration, assuming the curve is not idealized (that
is, when the sharp dips and peaks commonly seen in an antenna calibration are not smoothed
out). Some figures andcurves of antenna factor and gainfor typical EMI measurementantennas
are shown in Figures 9Sa, b, c, and d.
9.3 DIAGNOSTICMEASUREMENTS
Diagnostic measurements are used to locate the source of emissions and the area of susceptibil-
ity. In addition, measurements on circuits and equipment may be used in an EMC prediction
to provide the magnitude of fields, voltages,
or currents on which an analysis is based. Measure-
ments on internal wiring, PCBs, enclosures, and cables may be used in an equipment-level,
subsystems-label, or system-level EMC prediction.
496 Chapter 9
9.3.1 Radiated Measurement

The most useful antennas for diagnostic measurements are physically snlall and preferablydirec-
tional. The small antenna is able to pinpoint the source of radiation to a cable, aperture, or seam
in an enclosure and even down to a track or IC on a PCB, when the antenna is sufficiently
small. Measurements that are close to the source, and are therefore predominantly near-field,
may be made with the small antenna. The advantage of near-field measurements are that the
measurements are often less affected by the electromagnetic ambient; however, even near-field
measurements may not adequatelydiscriminateagainsttheambient.For example, assuming
equipment must meet the low-level emission requirements of MIL-STD-461, or similar, and
the near-field measurements must be made in an unshielded room, it is conmon for currents
induced on cables and equipment by the electromagnetic ambient and conducted on the power
cord to the equipment enclosure and cables to result in radiation levels that exceed and mask
the equipment emissions. It is therefore imperative, when measurements must be made outside
of a shielded room, to compare the levels with the equipment powered down to those with the
equipment powered up. It may be necessary either to move the equipment to a quieter location,
to lower the ambient by switching off other equipment, or to surround the equipment with
absorber foam (useful above 200 MHz), to obtain EUT emissions above ambient measurements.
9.3.2 Magnetic Field Measurements

Emission specifications typically place limits on the E field; however, because an H field is
always present when the fields are time varying, H field measurements are indicators of the
potential E field magnitude. The advantage of H field measurements, compared to E field mea-
surements, are lower sensitivity to reflections and room resonances and lower sensitivity of the
probe to metallic structure proximity effects.
Figure 9.6 illustrates the typical fields around a cable connected to a piece of equipment.
The cable is located above a ground plane on a nonconductive table, which is a typical commer-
cial test configuration.If we assume acommon-mode current flow on the cable,then the resultant
fields are a longitudinal E field and a circumferential H field. Additional fields are present due
to displacement current flow.
SH I ELDEO
SOURCE
ENCLOSURE
PERIPHERAL
DEV I CE
i
GROUND
D I POLE
CONNECTION
ANTENNA
GROUND
Figure 9.6 Typical fields around a cablc connected to a piece of equipment placed on a nonconductive
table.
EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements, andTesting 497
0Sources
Electrlc current element Current loop

(H) (H)
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////~
,
0 Images
Figure 9.7a Orientation and relative phase of thc electric current element and current loop magnetic
field sources and images in a perfectly conducting ground plane.
Displacement current may flow between the cable and the floor, as well as the ceiling
when measurements are made in a shielded room. The additional fields are then an electric field
tangential to the cable and a magnetic field in the same plane as the cable. Numerous measure-
ments have shown that it is the longitudinal E field and the circumferential H field that typically
predominate. However, this is not always the case, and when making H field measurements,
with the types of loop antenna described in Chapter 2 , the loop should be oriented both horizon-
tally and vertically, referenced to the cable under test. Note that the orientation of the plane of
the loop must be 90" to the field to be measured. The circumferential H field above a perfectly
conducting ground plane results i n an image (reflection) in the ground plane that is out of phase
with the source, whereas the image due to the horizontal (displacement current) field is in phase
with the source. Figure 9.721 illustrates both the source and the image for the electric current
elenlent and the current loop. At distances from the source less than half a wavelength, the
source- and image-contributed fields add vectorially, this addition is illustrated in Figure 9.7b.
- Measurina Dolnt
///////////////////A
/
Figure 9.7b Direct path, reflected path. and image for a horizontal electric current element.
498 Chapter 9
The total magnetic field is the sum of the source and image generated fields. The H field from
a cable is approximately that of the electric current element (Eq. 2.10), for a loop it is given
by Eq. (2.24) When dD is the direct path length and d R is the indirect path, the total field is
given by H(r = d D ) + mH ( r = dR), where r is the distance used in Eq. (2.10) or Eq. (2.24),
m = IfI 1, depending on the orientation of the electric current element or loop. For example, a
horizontally oriented cable (which may be modeled as an electric current element) generates
an image out of phase with the source and m = - 1. For the displacement-current-generated
+
field, the source and image are in phase and m = 1. In contrast, when an electric current
element is vertical above a groundplane (the monopole antenna is a good example), the magnetic
field is circumferential and the E field starts on the rod of the monopole and finishes on the
ground plane. Thus the image is in phase with the source.The relative magnitudes of the vertical
(displacement) E field and horizontal (electric current element) E fields may be measured with
a small antenna, typically a bowtie from 20 to 250 MHz or a tunable monopole from 250 MHz
to 1 GHz. From a measurement of the polarization of the predominant E field, the predominant
H field is known. For example, when an antenna is oriented to intercept a horizontally polarized
E field and measures a higher level than when vertically polarized, the E field is horizontal, the
H field is circumferential, and the image subtracts. When thedirect path lengthdD or the indirect
path length dR is greater than half a wavelength, the relative phase of the two fields may be
calculated, with the resultant total field the vector sum of these. For example, when the direct
path length is different from the reflected path length by exactly half a wavelength, the direct
and reflected fields at the measuring point are in phase for the horizontal current element, and
out of phase for the vertical current element. This attribute is used in an antenna in which a
small fixed frequency dipole is located horizontally 1/4 wavelength above a metal reflector.
This ensures that the source and image fields in front of the dipole are in phase.
Another measurement technique useful in evaluating the E or H field radiated by a cable
is to measure the current flow on the cable by use of a current probe and to use the measured
current in Eq. (2.10) to obtain the field from a cable far removed from a ground plane or Eq.
(7.28) for a cable above a ground plane. For greatest accuracy, the “typical” calibration curve
provided by most probe manufacturers should be replaced by a calibration of the probe, using
a setup representative of the cable under tests. At high frequencies, where the cable length may
be greater than half a wavelength, the probe should be moved up and down the cable until a
maximum reading is obtained. A source of inaccuracy that must be accepted is the loading effect
of the current probe on the cable, which is likely to increase the cable current flow. Figure 9.8
illustrates the use of the current probe in evaluating the radiated emissions from an interface
or power cable. A typical test method for use with the current probe is as follows.
Current Probe Test Method
Step l : The spectrum analyzer frequency sweep should be set to the frequency range of
the probe in use, initially with a 100-kHz resolution bandwidth.
Step 2 : A measurement of the ambient with the EUT switched off and the current probe
placed on the nonconductive work surface should be made and a record taken
using either a plotter or an oscilloscope camera.
Step 3: With the EUT switched on and the current probe placed over the cable, monitor
the emissions displayed on the spectrum analyzer and move the current probe on
the cable in order to maximize the amplitude displayed.
Step 4: Ensure that no compression has occurred in either the preamplifieror the spectrum
analyzer, as described in Section 9.2.3.
Srep 5: Where the amplitude displayed on the spectrum analyzer is in dBm, convert to
voltage: V = I ’ ~ o *~ I HX ~10-3~ ~ * SO.
~ ~ ~ ~
EQUIPMENTUNDERTEST
(EUTI CURRENT PROBE PREAMP
SPECTRUM
ANALYZER
F f8ER- 'ONDUCT I VE
OPT I C
TAMLETOF'
CABLE
4
AC POWER
OR CONDUCTIVE
INTERFACECABLE
U
1
Figure 9.8 Test setup for measurement of cable current flow.
U J
Step 6: Read the maximum amplitude displayed on the spectrum analyzer and note the
frequency. From the current probe transfer impedance calibration curve, read the
transfer impedance at the frequency of the emission under investigation and con-
vert from voltage to current using
Stel, 7: Convert the measured current to an E field at the specification distance using Eq.
(2.10) or Eqs. (7.26, 7.28 and 7.30).
The magnitude of the H field from a cable above a ground plane is obtained by use of
Eq. (7.28), from which the E field magnitude may be obtained by multiplying by the wave
impedance. Compare the magnitude of the E field to the E field limit. The transfer impedance
will be low at some frequencies, which means the current amplitude displayed at those frequen-
cies will also be low. It is therefore important that any peak emissions at frequencies where Z ,
is low also be converted to current measurements, from which the E field is calculated and
compared to the limit.
Repeat steps 1-7 using theremainingcurrent probe/s required to coverthe 14-kHz-
l-GHz frequency range for equipment that must meet the MIL-STD requirements or the 30-
MHz-l-GHz range for FCC requirements.
Using a combination of current probe measurements and small magnetic field and electric
field antennas to conductmeasurements in a shielded room, acorrelation of. on average, 6
dB and, worst-case, 13 dB to the measurements obtained on one specific open-field test site
measurements has been achieved. However, a number of different measurements are required
to identify room resonances and reflection, these are described in detail later in this chapter.
Choice of the optimal measuring distance and correct orientationof the antenna is of paramount
importance in achieving maximum accuracy. In the near field, the predicted reduction in the H
field from a loop antenna is a function of l/r3, whereas the H field reduction for an electric
current element (cable) is a function of l/r'. From measurements made using a transnlitting
500 Chapter 9
Table 9.3 Reduction in Measured MagneticField Compared to Predicted.
0.1-0.2 m 0.2-0.3 m 0.3-0.5 m
Freq. h1271 Meas. Pred. Meas. Pred. Mcas. Pred.

[MHz] L 1111 [dB1 [dB1 [dB1 [dB1 [dB1 [dB1
20 2.380 18 18 7 10.5
100 0.470 15 18 4 10.5 5.3 13
220 0.217 9 18 0 3.5
loop and a receiving loop in a shielded room it has been found that the near-/far-field interface
does not occur abruptly at h/27~,rather, the l/r' law changes gradually through l / r ? to l / r in
the far field.
Table 9.3 illustrates the reduction in measured magnetic field compared to the predicted,
based on a l / r ' reduction in the near field. The calculation used in obtaining the reduction is
given in the following example: The initial measuring distance is 0.2 m and the loop is moved
to 0.3 m; the reduction in dB is given by
1 1
20 log 7 = 20 log = 10.5 dB
(r,/r:) (0.2 1d0.3 m)'
When near-field measurements are confined to finding a source of emission (e.g., cable
or enclosure) orto measuring the effectiveness of EM1 fixes, relative measurementsare adequate.
Often it is required to know how close the emissions from a piece of equipment are to the
commercial specification limits, without removing it to an open-field test site or without remov-
ing a piece of equipment to a shielded room for MIL-STD-462-type measurements. Using small
E and H field antennas we may measure the fields directly, or with the current probe we can
measure current and predict the fields from equipment enclosures and cables. When H field
measurements are made in the near field, we may extrapolate out to 1 -m, 3-m, or 150-m dis-
tances, whichever the specificationlimit requires. The distance from emission source to measure-
ment is measured and the near-/far-field interface distance (FFID) is calculated. From a cable
the reduction in H field is assunled to be a function of l / r ' , and for magnetic field coupling
due to current flow on the inside of the enclosure it is l / r 3 out to the FFID distance. For wire
sources inside the enclosure, when the circuit impedance is less than 377 Q, the source is pre-
dominantly magnetic and 1 /I-'should be used. For wires connected to circuits with impedances
higher than 377 Q, the I/r' law should be used. When the specification distance is in the near
field, the E field can be obtained from the magnitudeof the H field calculated at the specification
distance (SD) times the wave impedance. When SD is in the far field, to obtain the reduction
from the FFID to the specification distance, use Eq. (9.1). When the measuring distance (MD)
is greater than h/2n, replace FFID in Eq. (9.1) with MD to obtain the reduction in H field in dB.
1
20 log
FFID/SD
The specification distance E field in dBpV/m from the FFID magnetic field is
E [dBpV/m] = [dBpA/m] - SD reduction [dB] + 51.5 dB

or numerically
FFID
E [yV/m] = HPF,,)
[uA/m] X __ [reduction numeric] X 377
SD
In practice one or more emissions at the same frequencycan emanate from different
sources (e.g., more than one cable and aperture and seams in the enclosure). The far field is
therefore a composite of these separate sources. The composite H field, H,, may be calculated
from
H, = dH; + Hi f H < (9.3)
where H , , H:, and H 3 are separate sources.
In practice, if the measurements are conducted over a long time period, the sources can
add algebraically. In comparisons between measured far E fields and E fields obtained from
near H field measurements, the prediction magnitude is usually lower than the measured. This
may be the result of not adding the separate sources of fields, or it may be due to the use of
the l / r 3 law out to the far-field interface distance, whereas the I l r ? law should be modified
close to the far-field interface distance. Conversely, near E field measurements tend to be high
when extrapolated out to a far-field distance andcompared tofar-field measurements. The major
reason for this is thought to be the room resonance and reflections inherent in a shielded-room
measurement, described in Section9.5.1. In addition,theelectriccurrentelementmodel is
strictly true only for distances of greater than half a wavelength from a ground conductor. Also
these reductions are strictly valid for point sources.
In making H field measurements on equipment that must meet the low-level MIL-STD-
461 specification limits, a preamplifier and a spectrum analyzer are invariably required. The
sensitivity of an oscilloscope is typically not adequate except for measurement 0.5-0.2 m from
a source on equipment required to meet the relatively high commercial specification limits.
9.3.3ConductedMeasurements
In this section we use the tenn conducted ~nensuretnenfsto cover the direct measurement of
voltage or current or the indirect measurement of current using the current probe. This type of
measurement is useful in locating the source of an emissionataspecificfrequencyand in
ensuring that a circuit or supply is not oscillating. To infer that a high magnitude of measured
voltage or current will necessarily result in a high level of radiation is not necessarily true, due to
the importance of the circuit geometry in determining radiation levels. Nevertheless, conducted
measurements, typically using the oscilloscope, are extremelyuseful in determining the presence
of differential- and common-mode noise. When the equivalent circuit of a coupling path can
be determined and the applied voltage or current is measured, the EM1 voltage at the receptor
may be calculated and the need for modifications to the coupling path can be determined.
9.3.4 Susceptibility/lmmunity Tests

Diagnostic susceptibility/immunity testing is useful when a piece of equipment has failed a
radiated susceptibility/immunity test requirement and the susceptible cable or enclosure side
has to be found. Another use is when searching for an intermittent conducted susceptibility
problem. If spikes or a sinewave are injected onto a power or signal interface, which is a likely
candidate for examination, and the occurrence of the intermittent fault increases, the chances
are that the source of the noise has been found. The injection of an additional noise level is
best accomplished by use of an injection transformer wound on a ferrite toroid core. By placing
502 Chapter 9
only a few turns on its secondary, the additional low impedance in series with the power or
signal line is less likely to affect the circuit under test. The primary should typically have more
windings than the secondary and enough to represent a sufficiently high source impedance to
the signal generator or power amplifier. Although injectingan additional noise level is indicative
of susceptibility, it is no guarantee that the problem has been found. The next step is to measure
the noise level and to note the frequencies at which susceptibility occurs. A filter may then be
designed to achieve at least 20 dB of attenuation at the susceptibility frequencies, unless these
are close to the signal frequencics. If, by the insertion of the filter, the intermittent fault disap-
pears, then the susceptible circuit has been located. If the filter degrades a signal or cannot be
permanently incorporated into the equipment, then the source of noise must be found. Clues as
to the source are contained in the susceptibility test level and frequencies. In addition, the level
and type of noise, differential or common mode, present without the additional injected noise
helps in locating the source. If the noise is common mode, an RF capacitor between signal or
power ground and chassis may suffice. Alternatively, on signal interfaces an isolation trans-
former with electrostatic shield between the primary and secondary or an optoisolation circuit
may be used to reduce the common mode coupled into the receiver circuit. When the noise is
differential, the noise is injected into the signal or power line at some stage, and the location
and source must be found.
As described i n detail in Chapters 4 and 5, the noise may be injected via radiated coupling,
crosstalk, common ground coupling, or a noisy source signal. Radiated susceptibility may be
determined by using a loop to generate a magnetic field. The loop is driven by either a source
of wide-frequency-range noise, such as a squarewave, or a sweep generator that sweeps the
frequency over the range at which susceptibility was either demonstrated or suspected. Above
approximately 20 MHz. a simple one-turn loop or the balanced loop antenna described in Chap-
ter 2 , Section 2.6 may be used to generate the field. At low frequency, a multiturn loop should
be used to ensure that an adequately high impedance is presented to the signal source. Some
power amplifiers are specified as capable of driving a short circuit: however, based on the high
mortality of power amplifiers, an impedance of at least a few ohms at the lowest frequency is
recommended. Certification radiated susceptibility tests are typically E field, although in the
MIL-STD461 RS04 test an H field is used. Typically it does not matter whether the current
flow on a cable or enclosure is caused by an H field or an E field source during a susceptibility
test. If equipment is suspected of susceptibility to specifically a low-frequency E field, then a
small wand, monopole, or bowtie antenna may be used; however, it is very difficult to generate
adequate E fields with these antennas. Above approximately 250 MHz, small directional anten-
nas, such as the conical log spiral or conical spiral, may be used to radiate a specific location
and thus determine the susceptible cable or equipment. The antenna is used in close proximity
and pointed at the location under investigation.
9.4 COMMERCIAL EM1 REQUIREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT

Commercial requirements are typically confined to limits on conducted and radiated emissions.
However, with the advent of the European Union (EU) EMC Directive, mandatory and routine
immunity (susceptibility) test requirements were imposed for the first time on commercial equip-
ment. The EMC requirements encompass equipmentfrom RF arcwelders to electricdrills,
household equipment, and digital devices. The definition of cligifcd devices is often very broad.
For example, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defines a digital device as any
equipment containing a clock at a frequency above 9 kHz using digital techniques. Thus a pinball
machine or similar device may qualify. The prime purpose of the FCC requirements contained
i n subpart B of part 15 of its rules is to reduce emissions to levels that do not interface with
nearby radio and TV reception. I n a great many countries, people own a radio or TV or both,
and it is to reduce complaints from owners that the majority of commercial EM1 requirements
are imposed. In this section, only requirements and test methods imposed on digital devices are
considered.
9.4.1 FCC Rules on Emissions from Digital Devices

Compliance with the FCC requirements is a prerequisite for legal importation and marketing
of such apparatus in the United States. The technical requirements for limiting unwanted RF
emissions from unintentional radiators, such as computers, videocassette recorders, and micro-
wave ovens, and intentional radiators are contained in Part 15 of the FCC Rules (47 CFR Part
15). The rules for Industrial, Scientific, and Medical Equipment are contained in Part 18 (47
CFR Part 18).
Specific devices are exempt; these include: transportation vehicle, hydro power, digital
device used exclusively as industrial, commercial, or medical test equipment or included in an
appliance (microwave oven, dishwasher,clothes dryer, air conditioner (central or window),etc.),
digital devices that have a power consumption not exceeding 6 nW, joystick/mouse, devices
that use or generate a clock below 1.705 MHz and are not connected to AC power.
Devices that are connected only part of the time via a battery charger or that obtain AC
power through another device are not exempt from conducted emission measurement. If one
device is connected to the public utility AC power and supplies DC power to a second device
(or a number of devices), then a conducted emission measurement is made on the AC power-
line side, and the composite emissions from all devices, which include those on the DC power
lines that are reflected or conducted through the ACto DCpower supply, must meet the emission
limits. Thus a wall-socket-mounted AC-DC power supply may have an FCC sticker that says
that it meets the FCC requirements, and yet that power supply must be retested with a load
device for conducted emissions.
As yet the FCC has not set immunity requirements, although section 302 of the Communi-
cations Act of 1934, as amended, gives the FCC authority to regulate the immunity of home
entertainment products. The FCC also hasthe authority to regulate any device that in its opera-
tion is capable of causing harmful interference to radio communications, i.e., a broad power of
regulation.
The FCC places different requirements on digital devices, depending on their intended
use. Devices marketed for use in a commercial, industrial, or business environment, exclusive
of a device marketed for use in the home or by the general public, are classified as Class A.
Devices marketed for use in a residential environment, notwithstanding use in a commercial,
business, or industrial environment, are classified as Class B. The rationale is that commercial
equipment is typically located further away from TV receivers than domestic equipment,which
may be used in the next room.
Examples of Class B devices include, but are not limited to, personal computers, calcula-
tors, and similar electronic devices that are marketed for use by the general public. The FCC
may also classify a device that repeatedly causes harmful interference as a Class B device.
Class A emission limits are higher (less stringent) than Class B limits, which are lower
(more stringent).
Tables 9.4a and b provide the radiated and conducted requirements for Class B equipment
and Tables 9.5a and b for Class A equipment.
For an intentional radiator, the spectrum shall be investigated from the lowest radio fre-
quency generated within the device, without going below 9 kHz, up to:
1. If the intentional radiator operates below 10 GHz, to the tenth harmonic or up to 40

GHz
504 Chapter 9
Table9.4a FCC Class B

(Residential) Radiated Emission
Limits
Field
Frequency Distance strength
[MHz] [m1 [pV/ml
30-88
100 3
88-216
150 3
16-960
2200 3
500 960
Above 3
Bandwldth of measuringInstrumentisnot
less than 100 kHz.
Table9.4b FCC Class B

(Residential) Conducted Emission
Limits
Frequency Maximum RF
[MHz1 line voltage [pV]
0.45-30
Bandwidth of measuringinstrumentisnot
lcss than 9 kHz.
CISPR q u a - p e a k function IS used for both
conducted and radiated measurements.
FCC allows a 13-dBrelaxationwhenthe
conducted cmission is determined as BB.
Table 9.5a FCC Class A (Commercial) Radiated

Emission Limits
Frequency Distance Field strength

[MHz1 [m1 [CIV/mI
30-88 90
16 88-2 l50
2 16-960 10 210
Above 960 10 300
Bandwidth of measuring instrument is not less than 1 0 0 kHz.
If the intentional radiator operates at or above 10 GHz and below 30 GHz, to the fifth
harmonic or to 100 GHz, whichever is lower
If the intentional radiator operates at or above 30 GHz, to the fifth harmonic of the
highest fundamental or to 200 GHz, whichever is lower
If the intentional radiator contains a digital device, to the upper frequency limit for
the intentional radiator or up to the highest frequency applicable to the digital device,
whichever is the higher frequency
Table 9.5b FCCClass A

(Commercial) Conducted Emission
Limits
Maximum
Frequency RF
“zl
~ ~ ~~
line voltage [pV]
0.45- 1.705 1000
1.705-30 3000
Bandwidth of measuring instrument is not
less than 9 kHz.
CISPR quasl-peak function IS used for both
conducted and radiated measurements.
FCC allowsa13-dBrelaxationwhenthe
conducted emisslon is determined as BB.
For an unintentional radiator, including a digital device, the lowest frequency measured
shall not be below the lowest frequency for which a radiated emission limit is specified. The
upper frequency limit to be measured, above 1 GHz, is:
Highest frequency
generated or used Upper frequency of measurement
(MHz) range (MHz)
1.705-108 IO00
108-500 2000
500-1000 5000
Above 1000 5th harmonic of the highest fre-
quency or 40 GHz, whichever
is lower
On any frequency or frequencies above 1000 MHz, the radiated limits are based on the
use of an average detector function (see 47 CFR for further infomlation on peak detector mea-
surements). Unlessotherwisespecified,measurements above 1000 MHz shall be performed
using a minimum resolution bandwidth of 1 MHz. Conducted AC power-line emission measure-
ments are always performed using a CISPR quasi-peak detector.
Any equipment that comes under the definition of digital devices and that is used in the
United States musthave a representative sample tested.Mostdigital devices aresubject to
verification by the manufacturer, which is an equipment authorization process whereby the man-
ufacturer, after testing forcompliance, provides infomlation tothe user and labels the equipment
withthestatementrequired by 47 CFR 15.19.47. CFR 2.901 provides more informktion on
this verification program. The FCC declaration of conformity (DOC) is a procedure where the
responsible party makes measurements or takes other necessary steps to ensure that the equip-
ment complies with the appropriate limits. The submittal of units or data is not required by the
FCC. The DOC attaches to all items identical to that tested. If a product must be tested and
authorized under a DOC, a compliance information statement shall be supplied with the product
at the time of marketing or importation. The party responsible for a DOC must be located within
the United States.
506 Chapter 9
The description of verification does not differ in any substantive way from the declaration
of conformity, but verification can be performed by a responsible party outside of the United
States.
The single difference in the description is the replacement of “other” with “the” in the
following: “makes measurements or takes the necessarysteps to insure that the equipment
complies.”Verification shows that the device or producthasbeen shown to be capable of
compliance. A record of the measurement data and detailsof an appropriate test sitethat demon-
strates compliance with the applicable regulations (ANSI C63.4), original design drawings, and
description of equipment test, etc., must be made. These records shall be retained for two years
after manufacture of the equipment has been permanently discontinued.
The FCC has the right to review the records and to request a sample of the equipment.
Notification is an equipment authorization issued by FCC. The applicant must make mea-
surements and report that such measurements have been made, but neither a unit nor the data
needs to be submitted to the FCC. Notification attaches to all items identical to that tested.
Identicnl means identical within the variation that can be expected to arise as a result of
quantity production techniques.
Obviously any changes in software or hardware means the equipment is not identical.
However, although it can affect emissions, a change in manufacturer of an IC with the same
part number is allowed.
Type acceptance is a route not available for unintentional radiators but is confined to a
station authorization. Type acceptance also applies only to units that are identical.
The routes to compliance for manufacturers outside of the United States are verification
for Class A digital devices, peripherals, and external switching-power supplies and equipment,
andthe same is true for almostany Class Bswitching-powersupplies,digital devices, and
peripherals. However, if the equipment falls under the category of CB receiver, TV interface
device, scanning receiver, superhet receiver,then the more onerousroute of certification applies.
Certification is a bilateral equipment authorization required by the FCC for those pieces
of equipment deemed to have a significant potentialfor causing radio interference (e.g., personal
computers). The manufacturer must test its equipment for compliance and send a copy of the
report of measurements, application fee, description equipment, photographs, etc., to the FCC
for review and approval. The equipment must also be labeled. The FCC review process takes
on average 30 days. The administrative rules are contained in 47 CFR 2.901.
The FCC label should state: “This device complies with part 15 of the FCC rules. Opera-
tion is subject to the following two conditions: (1) This device may not cause harmful interfer-
ence and (2) this device must accept any interference received, including interference that may
cause undesired operation.”
If the Class A limits have been met, then the statement that the equipment has met the
“Class A requirements of the FCC Part 15” should be included in the operating manual.
The definition of digirul device is: an unintentional radiator that generates and uses timing
signals and pulses in excess of 9,000 pulses (cycles) per second and uses digital techniques.
This includes computers, data processing equipment, and other types of information technology
equipment.
On 17 September 1993, the FCC modified Part 15 by allowing manufacturers of digital
devices the option of using either CISPR Publication 22 or the technical standards in Part 15
to demonstrate compliance with Part 15. The EU has incorporated CISPR 22 as a normalized
standard (EN 55022). There are several important caveats to this option: A slight difference in
the limits exists between CISPR 22 (1993) and the Part 15 limits. Manufacturers must choose
between CISPR 22 (1993)and Part 15, but cannot use a combination of both standards. Manufac-
turers who use CISPR 22 must use the measurement procedure C63.4, which in effect gives
more detail than CISPR 22. CISPR 22 is in the process of change, and the reference to C63.4
may not be necessary in the future. The tests for line-conducted measurements only should show
compliance with the US.voltages of 1 I O V/60 cycles. Fordigital devices with oscillators above
108 MHz, measurements must also be made on frequencies above 1000 MHz using an instru-
ment with a peak and average detector. Both the FCC and CISPR limits below 1000 MHz are
based on quasi-peak measurements. FCC measurements above 1000 MHz are based on the use
of an average detector with a peak limitation of 20 dB above the average value. Measurements
above 1000 MHz are required under 47 CFR 15.33.
CISPR 22 statesthat if the field strength at I O m cannot be made because of high ambient
noise levels or for other reasons, measurements may be made at a closer distance, e.g., 3 meters.
An inverse proportionality factor of 20 dB per decade should be used to normalize the measured
value to the specified distance for determining compliance. However, care should be taken i n
measurement of large test units at 3 meters and at frequencies near 30 MHz due to the problem
of measuring close to the near field. A comparison between the Part 15 radiated and conducted
emissionlimits and the CISPR 22/EN55022 limits (as well as other ENlimits) is made in
upcoming Tables 9.7, 9.8, and 9.9. The CISPR 22 Class A and Class B limits are identical to
the EN 55022 Class A and Class B limits shown in the tables.
Any modification, however minor, to a circuit or software can change the emission profile.
For example, a change in software, device function, or grounding shieldtermination or the
addition of a signal interface can significantly change emissions. It is therefore recommended
that the equipment be retested after any modification. The equipment verification in accordance
with FCC CFR 47 applies to identical equipment. However, the FCC, in Public Notice 7, 1982,
cautioned that
The manufacturer is cautioned that many changes which on their face seem to be insignificant
are. in fact, very significant. A change in the layout o f a circuit board 01‘ the addition. removal
or rerouting of a wire, or even a change in logic, will almost surely change the emission
characteristics (both conducted and radiated) of the device. This is particularly truc with a
device housed in a nonmetallic cnclosurc. Whether this change in characteristics is enough
to throw the product out of compliance can hest be determined by retesting.
It is clear that retesting is the preferred route, but it is not mandatory, and the notice does
not stipulate that this testing needs to be at verification level with plots, etc. Therefore, when
the testing of every minor modification to a wide range of products becomes onerous and costly,
the modifications may be reviewed by an EM1 expert, or “quick look” testing can be performed.
This “quick look” test forradiated emissions on an OATS andconductedemissions in a
shielded room can be made without plots of the emissions and, depending on equipment com-
plexity and functional operating modes, will typically take no longer than three hours, with the
data presented in tabular form only.
The FCC routinely retests equipment to ensure continuing compliance and is empowered
to fine or to seize equipment that is noncompliant. Lack of conformity in equipment is brought
to the notice of the FCC through complaints of EMI, referral of competitors, monitoring of
trade shows and literature, or the FCC’s sampling program. Every fall the FCC investigators
go to the COMDEX computer show and assess fines totaling $400.000 or more on hundreds
of manufacturers that run afoul of the FCC marketing rules.
First the FCC can issue a “Marketing Citation,” a letter informing the company that it
has apparently violated FCC rules and perhaps requesting that a product sample be sent to the
FCC laboratories. If the violations continue, or the equipment is found by the FCC to be in
technical violation of the rules, a Notice of Apparent Liability will be issued. It can assess a
fine of up to $10,000 for eachoccurrence and upto $75,000 per violator for multiple occurrences.
508 Chapter 9
Historically, at this point Canadian manufacturers have usually opted to recall all devices that
are available from their distributors in the United States, and apply EM1 fixes.
Many compliance engineers in companies in Canada require their equipment to be 6 dB
below the FCC limits, although this is not an FCC requirement, and furthermore require testing
of samples in a production run to reduce the risk that any of the exported equipment will fail
a retest.
If the “administrative” sanctions are ignored, then the FCC can take “judicial” measures,
which are imposed only after the commission becomes convinced that the cited party will not
cooperate. The penalty is: “any person who willfully or knowingly does . . . any act, manner,
or a thing in the relevant sections (501, 502) of the Communications Act . . . shall, upon convic-
tion thereof, be punished for such offense, by a fine of not more than $100,000 or by imprison-
ment for a term not exceeding one year.” An even stronger deterrent for manufacturers outside
of the United States is an order to stop the importing of the culprit equipment. But how this is
covered by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is not known.
The test methods for verification are contained in ANSI C63.4-1992, although the FCC
has accepted some alternative test methods, described later. The commission encoulnges the
use of the ANSI C63.4procedure for all testing. Any party using other procedures should ensure
that such procedures can be relied on to produce measurement results compatible with the FCC
measurement procedures. The description of the measurement procedure used in testing the
equipment for compliance anda list of the test equipment actually employed shall be made part
of an application for certification or included with the data required to be retained by the party
responsible for devices authorized by a DOC, notification, or verification. The use of an FCC-
recognized test facility is not a requirement, although one may assume that test data from a
recognized facility is more readily acceptable to the FCC. The FCC has allowed the radiated
emission measurement data using a GTEM cell that has been correlated, usually by use of a
computer program,to an open area test site (OATS). However, the measurement from an OATS
shall take precedence, and this is the method the FCC uses. ANSI C63.4 allows the use of a
3-m or 10-m site in an anechoic chamber, but this site must meet a more stringent normalized
site attenuation (NSA) test than applicable to an OATS. Weather-proof OATS in which either
the EUT or the measurement antenna and the EUT are contained in a totally nonconductive
enclosure are accepted by the FCC at present, although this may change, because they have a
concern about dirt buildup on the outside of the enclosure.
ANSI C63.4 replaces MP4. Section 11 of ANSI C63.4 provides specific information on
the measurement of information technology equipment (ITE) and includes information on the
operating conditions of hosts, peripherals, and visual display units. Additional information on
the placement of tabletop systems, hosts, monitors and keyboards, external peripherals, interface
cables, floor-standing equipment, combination tabletop and floor-standing equipment, conducted
emission measurements, and radiated emission measurements is provided.
ANSI C63.4 specifies the use of a tunable dipole, or a dipole tuned only above 80 MHz
and set to the 80-MHz tuned length when used between 30 and 80 MHz. Alternatively, broad-
band antennas may be used when correlatable to a dipole with an acceptable degree of accuracy.
In practice, to achieve reasonable accuracy the antenna may have to be calibrated against a
calibrated dipole using, typically, the three-antenna calibration method. ANSI C63.4 requires
that all antennas be individually calibrated to NIST or an equivalent standards reference organi-
zation. Antennas calibrated to the methods of ANSI C 6 3 5 1 9 8 8 meet the traceability require-
ments. ANSI C63.5 describes two fundamental approachesto antenna calibration, both assuming
a perfect reference. One approach assumes a perfect antenna whose characteristics are known
to a high degree of accuracy by virtue of its standard construction. The “Roberts” tuned dipole
antenna is the reference antenna; if the construction drawings are followed carefully, the antenna
factor will match the predicted values to within 1 dB. A four-antenna set can be built to cover
the 30-1000-MHz frequency range. The antenna factor of any other antenna may be derived
by substitution with the reference antenna. In the substitution calibration, the separation distance
between the transmitting antenna and the reference antenna or the antenna being calibrated is
10 m. The transmitting antenna can be any antenna, and it should be at least 2 111 above the
ground. The reference antenna is used as the receiving antenna, which is adjusted in height to
be anywhere from 2.5 to 4 m above the ground. The height should be chosen to avoid a null
by finding a location where the received signal is either maximum or is varying slowly. After
the signal strength is noted with the reference antenna, it is replaced with the antenna being
calibrated, located at exactly the same height and position as the reference dipole. (Scanning
the receiving antennas in height while recording the maximum received signals will facilitate
the measurements, especially at higher frequencies, where nmny peaks and nulls of the field
are present). The AF of the unknown antenna can be modified by the presence of the ground,
and this is minimized by the 2.5-4-111 height chosen. But this is not a free-space calibration,
nor does it compensate for the presence of the ground. The second approach assuInes a perfect,
or at least a nearly ideal, “standard site.” The standard site will typically be located in a large,
open field far from reflecting objects such as trees, buildings, overhead wiring, bumps, or hills
and will almostcertainlycontain an “oversize” groundplane. It would seem that an NSA
calibration using identical antennas on a “standard site” is all that is required to obtain their
AF. However, ANSI C63.5 restricts the use of NSA measurements on an open-area test site
that is also used for the calibration of the antennas. The argument is that site imperfections may
have been erroneously assigned to the antenna factors. C63.5 allows an exception for a large
open-area test site, i.e., the near-perfect site described earlier, but the antennas n m t be calibrated
using horizontal polarizations on a propagation path independent of the path used for EMI, and
the NSA, measurements. An alternative is to make two NSA measurements on two independent
sites or on two independent paths on a large site, for example, two independent 10-m paths on
a 30-m test site. The standard site method described in C63.5 requires three site attenuation
measurements if three different antennas areused. These measurements are made,with the same
distance between antennas, with the height of the fixed antenna the same and with the scan
height of the second antenna the same for all three measurements.
ANSI C63.5 contains tables of the predicted maximum received ground wavefield strength
for the source antenna heights of 1 m and 2 m.
The three different antennas are calibrated in pairs, e.g., 1 and 2, 1 and 3, and 2 and 3.
Three equations that contain the measured site attenuations, the frequency and the maxi-
mumpredictedgroundwave field, from the tables,aresolvedsinlultaneously to obtain the
antenna factors.
If two identical antennas are to be calibrated, then a single measurenlent is required and
a single equation. If any one or two of the antennas are tuned dipoles and the NSA nleasurenlent
is made at 3 m, then a correction, contained in ANSI C63.5, for one or both dipoles must be
made.
When broadband antennas, such as the log periodic, are calibratedclose to a ground plane,
the presence of the ground plane can significantlychange the current distribution on the antenna
and its input impedance, which results in a very different antenna factor compared to a close-
to-free-space calibration. Another way of explaining this effect is that the image of the antenna
in the ground plane interferes with the antenna above the ground plane. This effect becomes
especially noticeable when the antenna isa wavelength or multiple wavelengths fro111 the ground
plane. Thus, with an antenna 1 m above the ground plane, the antenna factor is substantially
different from the free-space value at 300 MHz, although the effect is noticeable over the 200-
400-MHz frequency range. In the standard site antenna factor. the search antenna height covers
510 Chapter 9
the 1-4-m range, so these proximity effects are accounted for in the calibration. A typical “close
to free space” calibration, made at a 3-m separation, is achieved when both antennas are at a
height of 4 m over a poorly conducting surface, i.e., no ground plane and the surface between
the two antennas is covered in large blocks of foam absorber material or ferrite tiles.
The antenna calibration should be performed at the distance to be used; i.e., if the measure-
ment distance is 3 m, then a calibration at 3 m is required and if measurements are also made
at 10 m, then a IO-m calibration shall be used. The calibration should be made in accordance
with ANSI-C63.5. If this is not the case, difficulty may be experienced in measuring the required
open-area normalized site attenuation (NSA). The antennas used for measurements from 1 to 40
GHz should be calibrated and linearly polarized, such as: double-ridged guide horns, rectangular
waveguide horns, pyramidal horns, optimum-gain horns, and standard-gain horns, although the
use of a log-periodic dipole array is also allowed. The beam of the antenna must be large enough
to encompass the EUT, or provision shall be made for scanning the EUT. The largest aperture
dimension of a horn antenna ( D ) should be small enough so the measurement distance in meters
is equal to or smaller than D2/2h. Standard-gain horn antennas need not be calibrated beyond
whatever is provided by the manufacturer, unless they are damaged ordeterioration is suspected.
Standard-gain horn antennas have gains fixed by their dimensions and dimensional tolerances.
Because they are invariably used in the far field and have a 50-R impedance, the simple relation-
ship provided by Eq. (2.53) may be used to calculate the antenna factor from the gain.
Moving the measurement antenna over the surfaces of the four sides of the EUT or down
the length of an interface cable or another method of scanning of the EUT is required when
the EUT is larger than the beam width of the measuring antenna. It is preferred that 1 -40-GHz
measurements be performed on an open-area test site or in an absorber-lined room. However,
measurements may also be performed where there is adequate clearance, considering the radia-
tion pattern of the EUT, to ensure that reflections from any other objects in the vicinity do not
affect the measurements. A conducting ground plane is not required, but one may be used for
measurements over 1 GHz.
One of the many reasons for noncompliance in a retest of an EUT may be the use of a
broadbandantenna in the original test, whichexhibitshighvoltage-standing-waveratios
(VSWRs) at low frequency and resultant large peaks and troughs in the calibration curve. Thus
an appreciable discrepancy may exist between a measurement made with a dipole antenna and
with a broadband antenna. The commonly achievable average VSWR for a 20- 1200-MHz very
broadband antenna is 2: 1, excluding the effect of the proximity of a ground plane to the antenna.
However. at low frequency the VSWR may be as high as 30 at 20 MHz. Radiated emission
measurement distances under the FCC rules are 3 m for Class B equipment and 30 111for Class
A equipment. ANSI C63.4 allows measurements at 3 m, 10 m, or 30 m. Tests shall be made
with the antenna positioned in both the horizontal and vertical planes of polarization. The mea-
surement antenna shall be varied in height above the conducting ground plane to obtain the
maximum signal strength. For vertical polarizations, the minimum height shall be increased so
that the lowest point of the antenna is at least 25 cm above the ground plane.
Tests shall be made in an open, flat area characteristic of cleared, level terrain. Such open-
area test sites (OATS) shall be void of buildings, electric lines, fences, trees, underground cables,
pipelines, etc. except as required to perform the tests. A suggested layout for the OATS is in
the form of an ellipse with a major diameter of 2 F and a minor diameter of d?F, where F is
the measurement distances of either 3 m, 10 m, or 30 m .
ANSI C63.4 requires that the OATS used for radiated emission measurements be validated
by making horizontal and vertical NSA measurements. Antenna spacings used for making site
attenuation measurements shall be the same as the spacings used for the EUT compliance tests
at frequencies from 30 MHz to 1000 MHz. The measured NSA data shall be compared to that
calculated for an ideal site and the measured NSA shall be within 2 4 dB of the theoretical
NSA. This 54-dB tolerance includes instrumentation calibration errors, measurement technique
errors, and errors due to site anomalies. C63.4 provides suggestions for actions to be taken if
a site fails to meet requirements. The most common error is to make the attenuation without
at least the minimum specified ground plane. Even damp soil with a high humus content is
highly unlikely to meet requirements. Even with a conductive ground plane, such as hardware
cloth, the areaof the ground plane must be sufficiently large, with maximum dimension apertures
of 3 cm and with the sections of the plane properly bonded together. Another source of error
is in the calibration of the antenna factor of the transmitting and receiving antennas.It is possible
to use the free-space “two identical antenna” calibrationmethod or the“three-antenna
method,” in which two antennas are identical and the third is the unknown, but the preferred
method is the ANSI-C63.5 standard site method. If the free-space AF calibration of a broadband
antenna is used in the NSA calibration, then the proximity of the fixed-height antenna to the
ground plane will almost certainly mean that the required NSA is not achievable at certain
frequencies. One step that may help is to change from the l-m fixed height to 1.5 m, or vice
versa.
ANSI C63.4 says that measurements can be made at a location other than an open-area
test site, such as a weather-protected site, an absorber-lined room, a dedicated laboratory, or a
factory site, provided the alternative site meets the site attenuation requirements over the volume
occupied by the EUT and the minimum conducting ground plane requirements are met.
As of publication of C63.4-1992, weather-protected sites are exempt from the multiple
NSA measurements required of alternative test sites. In addition, the use of a GTEM cell with
a factor programmed into the calibration of the GTEM to achieve correlation with the open-
area site attenuation requirementsis described in Section 9.5.2.2. For alternative test sites, C63.4
states that a single-point measurementof the NSA measurement is insufficient to pick up possible
reflections from the construction and/or RF-absorbing material comprising the walls and ceiling
of the facility. For these sites, a “test volume” is defined, and the transmit antenna may have
to be placed at various points, up to 20, within the test volume. The points and test method are
described in detail in C63.4. The smaller the test volume, the lower the number of calibration
points. For example, for a volume no larger than 1 m in depth by 1.5 m in width by 1.5 m in
height, a minimum of eight measurement positions may be required.
Weather-protected open-area test sites have been constructed from fiberglass girders and
panels, with nylon or fiberglass nuts and boltsto secure the structure. An alternative is a pressur-
ized rubber tent, plastic radome, or cloth tent with fiberglass poles placed over the turntable on
which the EUT is located. With the antenna remaining outside the weatherproof structure, the
height of the structure may be limited, typically to the height of the maximum EUT plus the
0.8-m table height. All of these sites can meet the NSA requirements, at least when first con-
structed and before potential degradation by conductive contaminants.
For a company that owns a totally wooden structure with a tiled roof made of asphalt or
wood shingle or ceramic, but not steel or aluminum, a proposal has been made that enables the
use of this type of building as a low-cost, covered open-area test site.
First a temporary, or permanent, open-field test site area is constructed, using the antenna,
antenna mast, and turntable intended for use in the weatherproof building. This site must have
a ground plane, typically constructed from hardware cloth, and this may also be subsequently
used in the weatherproof building. A typical area for this open-field site is a car park, a field,
or a backyard. The open-field test site area must be on even ground, with obstacles such as
bushes or trees, and building outside of the “obstruction-free area for site with a turntable”
shown in Figure 5 of ANSI C63.4. A NSA measurement is made on this open-area site that
must conform to the ANSI C63.4 requirements. A broadband swept-frequency noise Source
512 Chapter 9
(typicallybattery powered) that covers the full 30-1000-MHzfrequencyrangewithout any

gaps, contained in a conductive shielded enclosure, is constructed. Horizontal and verticalcables
are attached to thebroadbandsignaloutputlevel,andthese cables cover the proposed test
volume. The vertical cables are draped over the back of the table, with a configuration similar
to that in Figure 9.7. The radiated emissions from this dummy EUT may be used to obtain a
correlation between the two test sites. Alternatively, the emission test setup used for correlation
of the GTEM to an open-area test site may be used. First the noise source is measured on the
open-area test site with the antenna moved from 1 to 4 m both horizontally and vertically and
the turntable rotated. The same measurement is made on the covered site, with the EUT and
cables placed in exactly the same positions (to achieve this, the cables and source can be taped
down to a wooden plane or table). By comparing the two sets of emission measurements, a
correlation between the open-area site and the less-than-ideal weatherproof site can be obtained,
and from this a correctiontablecan be generated,without the need for the covered site to
meet the NSA requirements. However, the covered site should be constructed of nonconductive
materials and contain minimum conductive sources of reflections, such as AC power wiring,
and contain at least the minimum-dimension ground plane. Although this proposed test site
could theoretically achieve as good a correlation as that between a GTEM and an open-area
test site. the FCC will not consider this proposition. Although it is only possible to guess at the
reason why this approach is unacceptable, it may be that some modification in the proposed
test site, e.g., addition of conductive objects, is more likely to occur than any modification in
the GTEM cell. Another possible objection is that the volume of the EUT and the orientation
of the cables may affect the calibration,becausereflections from the test area will change.
However, a similar error may occur in the way in which the GTEM is excited by the EUT in
the standard three orthogonal calibration technique, described in Section 9.5.2.2. Although this
type of facility is not acceptable for certification/verification testing, it may be used for compara-
tive measurements when making modifications to a product to reduce radiated emissions.
The minimum ground plane dimensions for AC power conductive measurements are at
least 2 m X 2 m in size extending at least 0.5 m beyond the vertical projection of the EUT. If
the EUT normally does not make contact with the groundplane, the groundplaneshall be
covered with insulating materials between 3 and 12 nm thick.
A conducting ground plane is required at radiated emission sites that shall extend at least
1 m beyond the periphery of the EUT and the largest measuring antenna, and cover the entire
area between the EUT and the antenna. It shall be made of metal, with no holes or gaps, with
the largest dimension greater than 3 cm. A larger ground plane may be required for certain test
sites and especially if the NSA requirements are not met.
The ambient radio noise and signals, both conducted and radiated, are required to be at
least 6 dB below the allowable limit. I n a true open-area test site this is invariably not possible
due to a multiplicity of RF, VHF, and UHF transmitters and broadband noise sources. Use of
an absorber-lined room or a GTEM cell are two of the measurement techniques that will meet
the 6-dB requirement. The alternative recommendations, such as measurements at a closer dis-
tance and using a narrower measurement bandwidth for narrowband and signals masked by
broadband noise, typically meet with limited success. The recommendation that measurements
of critical frequency bands be made during hours when broadcast stations are off the air and
at times when the ambient contribution from industrial equipment is reduced to less than the
6-dB level is rarely followed. In one case where this recommendation was followed, a relatively
low-level ambient existed at a location at least S5 km from a large town or city and with low
TV and radio signal strength. The measured signals from these sources were still well above
the limit, even at a measuring distance of 3 111. In addition, a broadband ambient noise source
was measured during the workday, and it was still present at 1 o’clock, 3 o’clock, and 6 o’clock
in the morning! The noise source was a large fan used to dry silage on a farm that was in
operation day and night for months. The realistic technique for minimizing the effect of the
ambient on the EUT emissions is to go to a low-frequencyspanandreducedmeasurement
bandwidth to differentiate between the ambient and the EUT emissions. This technique usually
requires switching on and off the EUT to determine its contribution to the measured emissions.
The frequency of peak emissions detected in the prescan will help infinding the EUT emissions.
Because EUT emissions arenotoriouslyunstable in frequency, one alternativetechnique to
identify EUT emissions is to use a small antenna, such as the 20-1000-MHz bowtie, located
close (typically 20 cm) to the EUT and cables. The measurements made with this antenna will
typically lift EUT emissions well out of the ambient noise and allow identification of the emis-
sion in measurements at 3 m.
If an anechoic chamber or semianechoic chamber is available, then a prescan of the radi-
ated emissions can be made, with the antenna typically at a distance of 1 m from the EUT. The
prescan is used to identify radiated emissions from the EUT measured on the OATS. If any of
the radiated emissions are masked by the ambient, an emission close in frequency but out of the
ambient should be measured. This measurement on the OATS at 3 m or 10 m can be compared to
the prescan measurement of the two frequencies. For example, if an emission at 102 MHz is 6
dB below the limit and a second emission at 102.5 MHz is masked by an FM radio station,
then a comparison of these two emissions measured in the anechoic chamber should be made.
If the emission at 102.5-MHz is 6 dB below the emission at 102 MHz, then the probability that
the 102.5-MHz emission when measured on the OATS will also be at least 6 dB below the
limit is high.
Testing at a manufacturer’s location or at a user installation is permitted if the equipment
cannot be set up on an open-area test site or alternative test site. In this case both the equipment
and its location are considered the EUT. Theradiated emission and conducted emission measure-
ments are considered unique to the installation site. However, if three or more representative
locations have been tested, the results may be considered representative of all sites with similar
EUTs. The voltage probe, and not the LISN, shall be used for the conducted emission measure-
ments, and the conducting ground plane shall not be installed for user’sinstallation testing unless
one or both are to be a permanent part of the installation.
The table height on which non-floor-standing equipment is placed must be 0.8 m for both
AC line-conducted measurements and radiated emissions. Figures 9.9a and 9.9b show the test
configurations for tabletop ITE equipment. Equipment that can be used as either tabletop or
floor-standing equipment shall be tested only in a tabletop configuration. For conducted measure-
ments in a shielded room, tabletop devices shall be placed on a platform of nominal size, l nl
X 1.5 m , raised 80 cm above the ground plane. The vertical conducting surface of the shielded
room shall be located 40 cm to the rear of the EUT. Floor-standing devices shall be placed
either directly on the conducting ground plane or on insulating material if the equipment is
typically isolated. All other surfaces of tabletop or floor-standing equipment shall be at least
80 cm from any other grounded conducting surface, including the case or casesof one or more
LISNs.
Excess interface cable length will be draped overthe back edge of the tabletop for tabletop
equipment. If any draped cable extends closer than 40 cm to the conducting ground plane, the
excess shall be bundled in the center in a serpentine fashion using 30-40-cm lengths to maintain
the 40-cm height. If the cables cannot be bundled due to bulk, length, or stiffness, they shall
be draped over the back edge of the tabletop unbundled, but in such a way that all portions of
the interface cable remain at least 40 cm fromthe horizontal conducting ground plane, as shown
in Figures 9.9a and 9.9b.
The system shall be arranged in one typical equipment configuration for the test. In making
514 Chapter 9
10
J
) CONDUCTING
GROUND
PLANE
EXTENDS AT LEAST0.5 m
BEYOND EUT SYSTEM FOOTPRINT
BONDED TO GROUND PLANE ’

1. Interconnecting cables that hang closer than 40 cm l o the ground plane shall be folded back and forth
forming a bundle 30 to 40 cm long, hanging approximately in the middle between ground plane and table.
2. U 0 cables that are connected to a peripheral shall be bundled in center. The end of the cable may be
terminated if required using correct terminating impedance. The total length shall not exceed 1 m.
3. EUT connected to one LISN. Unused LlSN connectors shall be terminated in 50 Cl. LlSN can beplaced
on top of. or immediately beneath. ground plane.
3.1 All other equipment powered from second LISN.
3.2 Multiple outlet strip can be used for multiple power cords of non-EUT equipment.
3.3 LISN at least BO cm lrom nearest partof EUT chassis.
4. Cables of hand-operated devices, such as keyboards, mouses, etc., have to be placed as close as
possible to the host.
5. Non-EUT components being tested.
6. Rear of EUT. including peripherals, shall be all aligned and (lush with rear of tabletop.
7. Rear of tabletop shall be 40 cm removed from a vertical conductlng plane that SI bonded to the lloor
ground plane (see 5.2).
Figure 9.9a Test configuration for tabletop equipment conducted emissions (01992 IEEE).
any tests involving several pieces of tabletop equipment interconnected by cables or wires, it
is essential to recognize that the measured levels may be critically dependent on the exact place-
ment of the cables or wires. Thus preliminary tests shall be carried out while varying cable
positions in order to determine the configuration for maximum or near-maximum emission.
During manipulation, cables shall not be placed under or on top of the system test components
unless such placement is required by the inherent equipment design. This preliminary test, often
referred to as a “prescan,” is a firm requirement and is often conducted in a shielded room.
The cableconfiguration used during the test is crucial. In the past, the FCC spent approximately
half an hour positioning the cable for maximum emissions in the preliminary prescan test, with
the antenna positioned close to the equipment. The cables were then taped in position and the
equipment taken to the open-field test site for a certification-type test. The prescan is used to
determine the emission characteristics of the EUT, and the frequency of peak emissions is noted
CONDUCTING GROUND
PLANE EXTENDS D 5 m
BEYOND EUT SYSTEM
FOOTPRINT
LEGEND;
1, Interconnecting cables that hang closer than 40 cm lo the ground plane shall be lolded back and forth
lormmg a bundle30 lo 40 cm long, hanging approxlmately In the middle between ground plane and table.
2. 110 cables that are connected to a perlpheral shall be bundled in center. The end 01 the cable may be
terminated il required using correct termmating impedance. The total length shall not exceed 1 m.
3. I1 LlSNs are kept in the test setup lor radiated emissions. it is preferred that they be installed under the
ground plane with the receptacle llush with the ground plane.
4 . Cables 01 hand-operated devlces. such as keyboards, mouses, etc., have lo be placed as close as
possible to the controller.
5. Non-EUT components 01 €UT system being tested.
6. The rear of all components 01 the system under test shall be located llush with the rear of the table.
7. No vertical conducting wall used.
8 . Power cords drape lo the lloor and are routed over lo receptacle.
Figure 9.9b Test configuration for tabletop equipment radiated emissions (01992 IEEE).
and is used to help differentiate between the EUT and ambient emissions when measurement
are made on the open these are conducted on an open area when these are made on the open-
area test site. Cables are not normally manipulated for floor-standing equipment. Instead, the
cables should be laid out as shown in Figures 9.11 and 9.12.
Each EUT current-carrying power lead, except the safety ground, shall be individually
connected through a line impedance stabilization network (LISN) to the input power source.
See section 7.2.1 of ANSI C63.4-1992 for more information on the use of the LISN. The LISN
uses a combination of inductors and capacitors to present a standard power-line impedance to
the EUT. ANSI C63.4-1992 describes two LISNs,both of which will achieve the characteristic
impedance of Figure 9.13. One is usable from 10 kHz to 150 kHz, although this may be extended
to 30 MHz; the second is usable from 0.15 MHz to 30 MHz. It is the second LISN that is most
516 Chapter 9
VERTICAL CONDUCTING SURFACE

PERIPHERAL POWER (FOR CONDUCTED ONLY)
NON-CONDUCTING TABLE
80 cm ABOVE GROUND PLANE
(FLUSH WITH FRONT

OF TABLE TOP)
-L 1.5 METERS
t LlSNs may have to be positioned lo the side of the table to meet the criterlon
that the LISN receptacle must be 80 cm away from the rear of the EUT.
Figure 9.10 Test configuration for tabletop equipment-top view (01992 IEEE).
commonly used for testing to FCC requirements. The voltage measurement instrument(spectrum
analyzerheceiver) with a 50-input termination, is connected to a port of one of the two LISNs
to measure the noise voltage developed by the EUT across the impedance of the LEN. The
"measuring instrument port" of the second LISN must be terminated in 50 R. The LISN serves
a secondary function of isolating supply-generated noise from the test equipment. Often the
LISN is not adequate and an additional power-line filter inserted between the power source and
the LISN is required. As with all EM1 measurements, a background measurement with the EUT
powered down should be conducted prior to conducted emission tests. The use of a calibrated
and correctly terminated current probe that fits around each of the current-carrying conductors,
separately, may be used when permitted. A LISN should be inserted between the EUT conduc-
tors and the mains (power) outlet. The probe is placed between the EUT and the LISN as near
the LISN as possible. If an appropriate LISN satisfying the current requirements of the EUT is
not commercially available, the LISN may be eliminated and the current probe placed between
the EUT and the mains outlet. Although the current probe measurement without LISN will not
achieve good repeatability, the lack of a suitable LISN is one good reason to use the current
probe technique. ANSI C63.4-1992, in Appendix F, describes two techniques for calibrating
the LISN. One requires a signal generator and receiver/spectrum analyzer and the second a
network analyzer. Neither methodchecks the LISN impedance underAC power load conditions.
The measurement of the impedance of the LISN with the maximum AC line current flow-
ing through the LISN may be made at a number of frequencies by use of an impedance meter.
The technique involves shorting the two phases of the LISN together (load side) and supplying
the input via a variable low-voltage AC supply (e.g., a variac and isolating step-down trans-
LEGEND:
1. Excess ID cables shall be bundled in center. If bundling is not possible. the cables shall be arranged in
serpentine fashion. Bundling shall not exceed 40 cm in length.
2. Excess power cords shall be bundled in the center or shortened to appropriate length.
3. V 0 cables that are not connected to a peripheral shall be bundled in the center. The end of the cable
may be terminated if required using correct terminating impedance. If bundling is not possible, the cable
shall be arranged in serpentine fashion.
4. EUT and all cables shall be insulated from ground plane by 3 to 12 mm 01 insulating material.
5 . EUT connected to one LISN. LISN can beplaced on top of, or immediately beneath, ground plane.
5.1 All other equipment powered from second LEN.
Figure 9.1 1 Test configuration for floor-standing equipment conducted emissions (01992 IEEE).
former). The impedance meter may be connected between the case of the LISN and the shorted
outputs of the LISN. It would be wise to test for the presence of a common-mode supply fre-
quency voltage, which may damage the impedance meter before making the connection.
A modified conducted emission test setup that may be utilized at a user’s installation using
the voltage probe is shown in Figure 9.14. A voltage probe may also be used where the use of
a LISN is impossible due to high current requirements of the EUT. In the test setup with the
voltage probe, both the EUT and the installation environment are tested. The problem with the
test method is that AC power-line conducted noise from locations outside of the jurisdiction of
the user are also measured. The addition of a large ferrite balun with 2-10 turns on all the
518 Chapter 9
Figure 9.12 Test configuration for floor-standing equipment radiated emissions (01992 IEEE).
power conductors, including safety ground, can help reduce the ambient noise. An alternative
test method that is not approved by the FCC but that has a number of advantages over Figure
9.14 is shown in Figure 9.15. One advantage of the test circuit compared to the LISN is that
it may be easily constructed. The inductor may be wound on a metal oxide or ferrite toroid,
and the IO-pF capacitor should, where feasible, be an RF feedthrough type. By the choice of
a large enough metal oxide toroid, a current capacity of up to 200 amps may be achieved. The
second advantage of the proposed setup is that the current probe measurement is isolated from
power-line-generated noise by the series inductor. The test circuit can provide an impedance
within the tolerance limits of Figure 9.13. Although the proposed setup is useful in diagnostic
and precertification measurements, only an FCC-type LISN or the line probe, at the user’s site,
is likely to be accepted by the FCC for certification purposes.
60
53
DESIGN CHARACTERISTIC TOLERANCE P +30%

-20%
40 -
0
W
0
3
w
__-
30
-
20
I(
0 01 0. I 1.0 I0 100
FREPUENCY M HZ
TO 50 a RADIO-
NOISE METER
To
EUT h
z
I
-0.1fAF
LI
T '.O pF
OR 50n
T ER M INAT 10N Rl
roo0 0
'IN SOME LISNs, A SERIES RESISTANCE IS INCLUDED IN SERlES WITH CAPACITOR C2,
E.G., CISPR PUBLICATION 16 (1987) [6].
Figure 9.13 FCC LISN schematic and impedance versus frequency characteristics (01992 IEEE).
520 Chapter 9
- voltage Supply
Radio-
....................................................
] noise
meter
Figure 9.14 Line probe for use at a user’s installation.
Measurements of radio noise power using the absorbing clamp are allowed only for re-
stricted frequency ranges and if specified in the individual equipment requirements and are not
allowed for measurements to FCC requirements.
ANSI C63.4 mentions the use of an artificial hand if the EUT is nornlally operated in the
hand, although this is understood not to be a requirement for FCC testing. The test site location
should be in as quiet an electromagnetic environment as feasible. For example, locating a test
site close to an airport may be convenient for transportation of equipment, but it is invariably
a noisy environment.
No matter how apparently minor,changes in an equipment’s software program or configu-
ration can make large changes in the emission profile, both radiated
and conducted. For example,
a piece of equipment appeared to change overnight from within FCC radiated emission limits
to outside. The reason was that prior to testing on the second day the designer had slipped in
a new PROM with the updated version of software. The new software initialized interfaces in
parallel instead of sequentially and increased emissions during the power-up sequence. Other
50 !J
Current probe EUT

AC Line
10 ,uF
Figure 9.15 Proposed conducted emission setup for field and diagnostic measurements.
Causes of increased emissions have been traced to a change in the manufacturer of ICs and in
a signal interface transformer that was changed from a shielded to an unshielded type.
9.4.1 .l Radiated emission test set-up and open area test site case study
A small piece of electronic equipment had been tested for radiated emissions on numerous
occasions for themanufacturer, throughout thedevelopment of the product andon to the produc-
tion version, and these tests were performed by at least three test personnel. The requirements
were the FCC Part 15 and the EN55022 Class B. The software run by the manufacturer was
considered “worst case” as it exercised the display, LED, audio, signal interface, and memory.
The EUT was powered by a battery and a single cable which contained power and a serial
signal interface was taken down to the battery located on the OATS ground plane and then
brought back to the table top. The EUT was tested both with the battery-terminal connected
and disconnected from the ground plane. The cable orientation was as close to that shown in
9(c) of ANSI C63.4 with the power/signal cable brought back up to the nonconductive table
top and then looped back down again in a serpentine fashion, with the loopsat least 40cm above
the ground plane. ANSI C63.4 mentions that In order to replicate emission measurements, it
is important to carefully arrange, not only the system components, but also system cables, wires
and m power cord. ANSI C63.4 also discusses cable orientation as follows: It is essential to
recognize that the measured levels may becritically dependent upon the exact placement of the
cables and wiring. Thus preliminary tests may be carried out while varying cable positions in
order to determine the maximum or near maximumemission level. In the test site under discus-
sion the tests were made using a turntable and the radiated emissions have been found to vary
dramatically depending on the rotation of the table. After a maximum emission has been found
the cables arethen separated or movedwithin the confinesof the recommended ANSIconfigura-
tion. Again this manipulation of cables has been performed by at least three different personnel!
This reorientation is also only made at one (worst case frequency) whereas different cable orien-
tations will maximize the emissions at other frequencies. This approach is taken to limit the
amount of time required for a test,but by limiting the basic cable orientation to the ANSI C63.4
recommendation the absolute worst case emissions may not be found.
The test site, which we shall designate A, was a 3m open area test site (OATS) which
had been tested in accordance with ANSI C63.4 for normalized site attenuation (NSA). The
NSA test had been conducted in 1997 and the measured site attenuation was within +/-4dB
of the theoretical NSA provided in ANSI C63.4 with a safety margin i.e. the measured NSA
was lower than the +/-4dB tolerance. In all of these tests on site A the equipment under test
(EUT) met all of the radiated emission measurements with a safety margin of at least 8.8dB,
below either the FCC or EN55022 limit.
In near field measurements, close to the EUT and the cable, on all of the different EUTs
tested, the measured levels were also consistent with a low level emitter. The same type of
product, but not the identical unit with the same serial number, was then tested in a 3m semi-
anechoic chamber test site (test site C), which reported emissions up to 3.65dB above the limit
i.e., 12.46dB higher than the3m OATSmeasurements. At exactly the same frequency the differ-
ence in measurements could have been as high as 25dB !
At first different software and different cables were used in the test on site C. However,
even when the EUT was retested with the same software and cable the EUT was above the
limit. The EUT was then tested on a 10m OATS (test site B) and also in a GTEM (test site D).
The measurements made on a 3m OATS and a 10m OATS often do not correlate to the far
field inverse linear distance extrapolation factor of 20 log 10m/3m = 10.5dB. It is common
that in moving the EUT location from 3m to 10m that the reduction at some frequency/ies is
less than 10.5dB. Thus an EUT may be just within specification when measured at 3m and Out
522 Chapter 9
of specification at 10m. However, this does not account for the 14dB difference measured be-
tween sites A and B. The correlation between a GTEM and an OATS has a typical mean value
of 6dB with 1 1-15dB differences in individual measurements. Unfortunately OATS to OATS
correlation can be similarly poor. In the GTEM measurements the test engineer made the cable
“dormant” by the addition of three ferrites, and so if cables were the main source of emissions
the GTEM measurements should have been the lowest. Also the test on site C was repeated
using a short cable and with the battery placed on the top of the turntable with the same high
levels of emissions and this again led us to believe that cables were not a factor. A comparison
of the measurements made on the four test sites and compared to the limit is shown in Table
9.6. Thus -8.8dB means that the emission is 8.8dB below the spec and +5.4dB is above. A
dash at any location in Table 9.6 means that on the specific test site that the emission was low
and in some case negligible!
These test results did not look good for test site A and so extensive measurements were
made on the site and test equipment. One possibility was that an EM1 receiver was used on
sites B and C and a spectrum analyzer (S/A) was used on site A. A variationin the measurement
of broadband noise can be expected due to the different shape of the impulse bandwidth used
in the receiver and the resolution bandwidth used in the S/A. The analyzer typically requires
a 4dB correction for broadband noise. However, the measurements using the S/A did not vary
significantly with change in RBW, as the emission was predominantly narrowband. Also, in the
final measurements made on site E (a 3m OATS almost identical to A) a receiver was used and
a good correlation was seen between sites A and E. not consistent with a 4dB systemic error.
The test site A measurements were made using two different spectrum analyzers which
were calibrated and were checked against a calibrated signal source. Quasi-peak andpeak mea-
surements were the same and so the quasi-peak detectors were not a problem. Cable attenuation
and preamplifier gain were checked and were OK. Before using the test site a “sanity check”
is made of the antenna, cables, and preamplifier using the ambient from a number of FM radio
stations (about the only advantage of the OATS, apart from accuracy) and the levels during all
tests on the EUT were within 1dB of the values measured when the site was first constructed.
The only remaining possibility is the antenna calibration and the NSA characteristics of
Table 9.6 Worst Case Radiated Emission Measurements Compared to the Limit for the EUT When
Measurcd on Four Different Test Sites (-dB is Below the Limit, +dB is Above the Limit)
Site C
Sitc A Site B 3m Anechoic Site D
.f(MW 3m OATS 10m OATS chamber GTEM
197.66 -7.7 - - -
204.2 - C2.6 - -
206.7 - - - -3.8
208 - 0 - -5.9
212 - +4.6 +3.2 -
220 +3.2 -8.8 +4.4 -
228 - +5.4 +l65 -
- -6 -
235.88 -20.8
- - 1.3 - -
244.3
- - -
249.5 - 18.8
- -2.1 - -
252
279.06 - 16.3 - - 12.9 -
368 - -7.6 - -
EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements,and Testing 523
Table 9.7 Delta NSA Using Two

Log Periodic Biconical Antennas
f (MHz) ANSA (dB)

200 0.82
250 1.68
300 2.1
the site. A log periodic/biconical antenna and a Roberts dipole were both used during measure-
ments on the EUT and it seems inconceivable that both would be equally Out of specification.
Nevertheless two of the log periodic biconical antennas were tested on a free space range and
the coupling between the antennas was exactly as predicted, based on the input signal level,
their gain, and antenna factor. Also as expected, the free space measurement failed the NSA
requirements with a difference of 5.7dB, due to the absence of the ground plane.
The equation for A N is:
Ant = VDlrccl - Vs,,, - AFT - AF, (all terms in dB)
where V,,, is the direct measurement via the cables, V,,,, is the radiated measurement, using
the transmit and receive antennas and the same cables, AFT is the transmit antenna factor and
AF, is the receive antenna factor.
As the direct measurement is made with a calibrated output signal generator this measure-
ment also tests that the spectrum analyzer ismeasuring accurately the amplitude of the frequen-
cies of interest, with the expected cable attenuation. N.B. During radiated measurements the
same spectrum analyzer reference level is used as for direct.
The radiated measurement uses the calibratedantenna factors, which are critical in meeting
the NSA requirements, and so if we assume a very good OATS performance the NSA measure-
ment is also a way of reconfirming the accuracy of the antenna calibration. This was further
tested by replacing the biconical/log periodic receive antennas with two reference dipoles and
repeating the NSA measurement.
The differencebetween measured and theoreticalNSA overthe frequency rangeof interest
using two log periodic biconical antennas is shownin Table 9.7 and using two dipoles in Table
9.8. These measurements show that the site is at a worst case within 2.ldB of the predicted and
at the critical frequency of the EUT (220MHz) is within approximately IdB of the value for
NSA, interpolated between 200 and 250MHz.
Even though site A met all of the requirements it was decided to test the EUT yet again
on a 3m test site (E). These measurements showed the EUT passed the requirements, but by
only 1.6dB, unlike the 8.8dB foundon site A. However, onedifference in thecable configuration
used on test site E was that the cable was taken down from the center of theturntable. and not
Table 9.8 Delta NSA Using Two

Dipole Antennas
f (MHz) ANSA (dB)

200 0.3 1
250 1.69
300 1.9
524 Chapter 9
Table 9.9 Comparison of Radiated Emissions Measured on Test Site A and Test Site E with the
Same EUT, Software, and Cable Orientation
Level Limit
.fWW Test facility and antenna NdB)
(dBpVlm)
(dBvVlm)
212 Site E loglbicon 31.4 40 -8.6
212 Site A loglbicon 31.6 40 - 8.4
220 Site A dipole 31.2 40 -8.8
220 Site E dipole 35 40 -5
228 Site A loglbicon 35.7 40 -4.3
228 E Site dipole 38.4 40 -1.6
236 Site A log/bicon 36.2 47.5 -11.3
236 loglbicon
Site E 47.5 37.1 - 10.4
the edge, and then brought back from the battery and coiled in the center of the turntable in a
large loop.
The exact same cable configuration was tested at site A and the difference in emission
measurements between site A and E was a worst case 3.8dB which is an acceptable difference
based on antenna factor calibration errors, NSA errors, measuring instrument errors, and the
difference in receiver to S/A bandwidth shape. This final test did show that cable orientation
does play a role in the level of emissions, by as much as 2.9dB in this particular instance.
In the tests conducted by test site B and C which showed the highest levels of emissions,
the length of cable after the battery was coiled on the ground plane. This cable orientation seems
far away fromthe spirit of the ANSI recommended layout and may explain the large difference
in measurements, although apparently the measurements were the same with the short cable
and the battery placed up on the top of the turntable.
Table 9.9 shows the emissions in dBpV/m compared to the EN55022 Class B limit.
9.4.2 CanadianRequirements
Industry Canada places requirements regulating the sale, offering for sale, and use of digital
apparatus in Canada. Therequirements place limits onthe permissible levelof interference from
digital apparatus manufactured in Canada or imported into Canada after January 31, 1989. The
latest requirements, applicable after November 22, 1997, are contained in ICES-003, Issue 3.
The requirements do nor apply to digital apparatus used:
a. In atransportationvehicle
b. As an electronic control, either by a public utility or in an industrial plant
c. In a power system, either by a public utility or in an industrial plant
d. As test equipment, including an oscilloscope and a frequency counter, in an industrial,
commercial, or medical environment
e. As a medical computing device, under the direction of a licensed health care prac-
titioner
f. I n machinery,apparatus, orequipment
I. The primary function of which is toapply energy to a process or material through
the action of an electric motor or a resistive heating element
11. That draws a steady-state current that does not exceed:
A. In the case of an electric motor, 20 A rms
B. In the case of an electric heating element, used either alone or in conjunc-
tion with an electric motor, 50 A rms
111. That operates from an alternating current voltage supply that does not exceed
150 V rms
IV. Wherethemachinery,apparatus,orequipmentis a portable tool and has an
input power that does not exceed 2 kW
g. In centralofficetelephone equipment operated by atelecommunications common
carrier in a central office
h. In a device having a power consumption not exceeding 6 nW
i. In a device in which both the highest frequency generated and the highest frequency
used are less than 1.705 MHz and that neither operates from nor contains provision
for operation while directly or indirectly connected to the AC power lines
j. Solely for demonstration and exhibition purposes as a prototype unit
The requirements do not apply to units or models of digital apparatus forwhich the manu-
facturer, importer, or owner has been granted a special permission by the Minister.
The Minister may grant a special pennission where:
a. The manufacturer, importer, or owner has presented a written application giving:

1. The reasons for therequest
TI. An analysisbased on soundengineeringprinciples showing that theunit or
model of digital apparatus will not pose a significant risk to radiocommunica-
tions
111. A guarantee of compliance with all the conditions the Minister may set in the
special permission
b. The Minister is satisfied that the unit or model will not pose a significant risk to radio
communication
The special permission is valid only if:
a. The unit bears a label stating that it is operating under special permission and setting
out the conditions of that special permission and setting out the conditions of that
special permission.
b. The unit complies with all conditions set out in the special permission.
The Minister may revoke or amend the special permission at any time without notice.
Digital rrypamtus is defined as electronic apparatus that generates and uses timing sig-
nals at a rate in excess of 10,000 pulses per second and that utilizes radio frequency energy
for thepurpose of performingfunctionsincluding computations,operations, transforma-
tions, recording, filing, sorting, storage, retrieval, and transfer, but does not include ISM equip-
ment.
“Class A digital apparatus” means a model of digital apparatus for which, by virtue of
its characteristics, it is highly unlikely that any units will be used in a residential environment,
which includes a home business.
“Class B digital apparatus” means any digital apparatus that cannot qualify as Class A
digital apparatus.
A representative type of model of each digital apparatus shall be tested in accordance
with C 108.8-M1983, “Electromagnetic Emissions from Data Processing Equipment and Elec-
tronic Office Machines,” or alternatively CANKSA-CISPR 22-96, “Limits and Methods of
Measurement of Radio Disturbance Characteristics of Information Technology Equipment” (the
latter is an adoption without modification of CISPR 22:1993, second edition).
526 Chapter 9
The procedural requirements are:
A written notice indicating compliance must accompany each unit of digital apparatus to
the end user. A suggested text is:
This Class A digital apparatus complies with all the requirements of the Canadian
Interference Causing Equipment regulations.
Cet appereil numtirique de le classe A respecte tmtes les exigences du Regle-
ment sur le mattiriel broulleur du Canada.
The notice shall be in the form of a label that is affixed to the device. Where, because of
insufficient space or other restrictions, it is not feasible to affix a label to the appara-
tus, the notice may be in the form of a statement included in the user’s manual.
Any suitably equipped laboratory or organizationcanperform the tests. There are no
restrictions as long as the specified test methodology is followed. It is the responsi-
bility of the manufacturer or the importer to ensure the validity of the test results.
The field intensity of radiated emissions may be measured at a distance other than that
described in the table of limits but not less than 3 m. The measurement result shall
be extrapolated to the prescribed distance as described in C108.8 orCSA-CISPR 22.
The description of the measurement site for both conducted and radiated emission mea-
surements are the same in ANSI C63.4: 1992as published in C108.8-Ml983. Although no open-
field site calibration test is required by Industry Canada.
The conducted emission equipment limits set out in C108.8 are identical to the FCC re-
quirements, and so are the radiated emission limits up to 1 GHz. The ICES-003 requirements
limit radiated emission measurements to 1 GHz, whereas the FCC requires measurements above
1 GHz asrequiredunder 47 CFR 15.33. Some of the minordifferencesbetween MP4 and
C108.8 have been removed in the adoption by the FCC of ANSI C63.4:1992. Both ANSI C63.4
and the C108.8 test method have the table heightset at 0.8 m for conducted and radiated measure-
ments. C108.8 allows the use of a dipole tuned to 80 MHz but used below 80 MHz with appro-
priate correction factors, which is especially useful for measurements made with vertical polar-
ization. The FCC had discussed rejecting this technique on the grounds that the antenna factor
and gain are meaningless under these conditions; however, this technique is allowed in ANSI
C63.4. ANSI C63.4 and C108.8 allow measurement closer to the EUT than the specified dis-
tance, but not less than 3 m, when the ambient exceeds the limit. A correction factor is then
added to the limit to account for the close in measurement. This provision may well be of
assistance when the 30-m distance specified for Class A limits apply. In common with the FCC
requirements, the preferred measurement instrument is a CISPR (Comiti International Special
Des Perturbations Radioilectriques) type. However, both the FCC and Industry Canada allow
the use of a spectrum analyzer with the quasi-peak detector. Conducted narrowband emission
limits are the same as the FCC limits, and the LISN is the same. Where the FCC allows a 13-
dB relaxation for broadband noise, (2108.8 publishes narrowband limits (and broadband limits
that are 13 dB higher). ANSI C63.4 conductedemission test setup complies with that of C108.8
and requires that test site ambient noise level should be at least 6 dB below the FCC limits.
C108.8 statesthat the ambient noise level shall preferably be at least 6 dB below the limit. If the
ambient noise levelis higher, it must be shown that it does not interfere with the measurements of
the source emissions from the EUT. C108.8 also states that the ambient level should not exceed
the Class A radiated emission limits. But if the ambient field is higher than the limit, then a
“close in” measurement technique is described.
The author has retested equipment with FCC stickers indicating compliance and found
emissions above the limits. The FCC routinely retests equipment and finds certified equipment
above limits, and thus it is questionable how effective regulations are unless some policing by
the regulating body is undertaken. The unofficial position of Industry Canada is “that computers
do not result in EMI,” and that may be the reason Industry Canada does not plan to indepen-
dently retest equipment to ensure continuing compliance on production units.
However, should the operation of equipment result in interference, the radio investigator
may elect to investigate whether the equipment meets the appropriate limits. The Department
of Industry Radiocommunication Act provides for penalties upon summary conviction not to
exceed a fine of $5,000 or one year imprisonment or both, in the case of an individual, or not
exceeding $25,000 in the case of a corporation.
9.4.3 German Regulations

The EMC standards cover numbers 0838 to 0879 in the DIN-VDE series.
The standards committees of the VDE responsible for these standards were involved in
the CISPR committees and in the EMC committee of the IEC, and so there is no significant
discrepancies between the CISPR and IEC publications and the VDE specifications. Many Euro-
pean standards are included as harmonized national standards in the VDE series. The following
is a condensed list of both European harmonized and national standards reproduced from Ref. 1.
VDE No. EN No. Description

VDE 0838 EN 60555 Disturbances in supply systems caused by house-
Parts 1-3 hold appliances and similar electrical
equipment
VDE 0839 EN 50081 EMC: Generic emission and immunity standards
and
EN 50082
EN 50 160 Characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution systems
VDE 0843 Parts of IEC-801 EMC for industrial process measurement and con-
trol equipment (immunity)
VDE 0845 - Protection of information technology equipment
against lighting, electrostatic discharges, and
overvoltages
VDE 0846 - Measurement apparatus for the judgment of
EMC. Deals mainly with instruments for mea-
suring the effect of disturbances on the mains
and for immunity tests
VDE 0847 EN 61000-4 series Mainly contains measurement methods for immu-
nity testing
VDE 0848 - Hazards by electromagnetic fields. Methods for
measurement and calculation
VDE 0855 - Antenna and cable-distribution systems for televi-
sion and sound broadcast signals
VDE 0870 - Electromagnetic influence; definitions
VDE 0871 CISPR23 German translation of CISPR 23. ISM equipment
is now covered by VDE 0875 Part I 1 (EN
5501 1) and Information processing equipment
is covered by VDE 0878 Part 3 (EN 55022)
VDE 0872 EN 55013 EMC of sound and television broadcast receivers
(and video recorders) emissions
EN 55020 Immunity
520 Chapter 9
VDE No. EN No. Description

VDE 0873 CISPR 18 Measures
against
radio
interference from electri-
cal utility plants and electric traction systems;
radio interference from systems of I O kV and
above.
VDE 0875 Suppression of radio disturbances caused by elec-
trical appliances and systems
EN 5501 1 Part 11: Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM)
equipment
EN
55014 Part 14: Electric-motor operated and thermal ap-
pliances for household and similar purposes,
electric tools, and similar electrical apparatus
EN
5501
5 Part 15: Fluorescent lamp and fluorescent lamp
luminaries
VDE 0876 - Radio
interference
measuring
apparatus
(test
re-
ceivers and accessories)
VDE 0877 - Measurement
methods of radio interference
VDE 0878 Radio interference suppression for information
and telecommunication systems and apparatus
EN 55022 Part 3: Limits and methods of measurement
Part 200, 242, 243, and 244: Immunity requirc-
ments
VDE 0879 - Radio
interference
suppression of vehicles, vehi-
cle equipmcnt, and internal combustion cn-
gines
Part 1: Suppression of interference to radio recep-
tion at a distance from the vehicle
Part 2: Suppression of interference to radio recep-
tion within the vehicle
Part 3: Measurements on vehicle equipment
VDE 0879 Part 1/06.79: The RFI suppression of vehicles and of generators and internal
combustion engines for radio reception in far distances, is harmonized with CISPR 12 and the
EU council directive 72/245/EEC. An EMC directive explicitly for vehicles is 95/54/EC as a
successor to Directive 72/245/EEC. The work is carried out by the ACEA (Association des
Constructeurs Europiens d’Automobiles)and includes both limits and test methods for emission
and susceptibility measurements. In the United States, the SAE (Society of Automotive Engi-
neers) has issued SAE J55 1 for vehicles and J 1 1 13 for components, which correspond to the
CISPR and I S 0 standards.
VDE 0875 and EN 55015: 1993 cover frequencies from 9 kHz to 400 GHz for electrical
lighting and similar electrical equipment and systems. The E field emissions are measured using
a triple loop antenna set up around the device under test. The E field limits cover a 9-kHz to
30-MHz frequency. These standards also cover magnetic field emissions measured with a 2-m-
diameter loop antenna from 9 kHz to 30 MHz. In one case, conducted emissions are not mea-
sured directly; instead, the attenuation of the ballasting and starting arrangement is measured
from 0.15 to 1.6 MHz. In twoadditionalcases, the interferencevoltage is measured at the
terminals of the lamps.
VDE 0872 Part 13/08.91 andEN 55013 provide limits and test methods for radio interfer-
ence characteristics of broadcast receivers and attached equipment. In addition to E field mea-
surements at 3-m distance and the typical 0.15-30-MHz power-line measurement, it imposes
voltage limits at the antenna connector and power measurements from 30 to 300 MHz on all
cables.
VDE 0875 Part 14/12.95 and EN 55014: 1993 provide limits and test methods for radio
interference from equipment using electric motors and electric heating equipment for domestic
and similar uses, electric tools, and similar equipment. Thestandard covers the frequency range
of 9 kHz to 400 GHz. The limitsare for radio interference voltage (148.5 kHz to 30 MHz)and
radio interference power (30-300 MHz) on connecting cables, measured with absorbing clamp
transducers. There are significant relaxations for interferers that only emit clicks, such as auto-
matically operated switches in laundry machines, refrigerators, thermostatically controlled irons,
and ironing machines.
VDE 0875 Part 11/07.92 and EN S501 1:1991 cover radio interference voltage 0.15-30
MHz, radio interference field 150 kHz to 1 GHz, and radiated interference power 1- 18 GHz.
Limits are under consideration for the ranges of 9- IS0 kHz and 18-400 GHz. EN S50 1 1 : 199 1
states that radiated emissions from 0.15 MHz to 30 MHz are under consideration and, under
radiated interference power 1-18 GHz, limits emissions to 57dB(pW) erp referred to a half-
wave dipole in the frequency band 1 1.7- 12.7 GHz.
The VDE 0876 ‘Radio interference measuring apparatus” and VDE 0877 “Measurement
methods of radio interference” documents are the German equivalent of CISPR 16. There are
no plans to harmonize these standards by issuing an EN document. VDE 0876 specifies the test
receiver with both quasi-peak and average detectors and the click-rate analyzer for disturbances
caused by switching operations.
The LISN is specified and the impedance characteristic and the equivalent circuiton which
it is based are binding, whereas the circuit diagrams shown in the standards are only examples.
Reference 1 continues with the demonstrably true statement that
Simply reproducing thc circuits will not, in our experience. lead to a fully compliant LISN.
because the high-power inductors have to be measured using an impedance analyzer to ensure
that they also have the necessary RF characteristics. Particular care must be taken that they
do not resonate within the working frequency range.
Conducted voltage measurements are not always possible and a current transducer in the
form of a clamp can be used. VDE 0876 specifies an accuracy of 1 dB but does not give specific
sizes for RF current clamps. It does provide extensive data on the absorbing clamps, which are
typically used for the measurement of radio interference power on cables.
The use of three different voltage probes is proposed for: measurement of interference
voltages on power and control lines; measurement on very short lines; and measurement on
receiving antennas.
VDE 0876 suggests the use of electrically shortened dipoles or monopoles for measuring
field strength below 30 MHz (althoughneither VDE nor EN standards require this).They should
be no longer than 1 m for measurement at distances up to 10 m, and so the MIL-STD l-m rod
antenna may be suitable. For frequencies above 30 MHz, tuned dipoles or broadband antennas
are required. Each rod of the dipole for the 30-80-MHz frequency range must have a length
corresponding to a h/4 resonance at 80 MHz. The VSWR of all antennas must be less than 2.
The VSWR requirement is unlikely to be met by the dipole measuring at 30 MHz and tuned
to 80 MHz. Also, the biconical antenna and the ultrabroadband biconical/log-periodic antenna,
which have VSWRs of up to 30 at 30 MHz, will not comply. It is difficult to know what antenna
can be used from 30 MHz to 80 MHz that will fulfill the requirement.
VDE0877 describesthemeasurement of radio-interferencevoltages,measurement of
radio-interference fields and measurement of radio-interference power on cables. It describes
530 Chapter 9
the use of the LISN, probes, and the artificial hand. It describes a suitable radiated emission
test site, including the use of the normalized field attenuation curves to check the suitability of
the test site. It describes the use of the Meyer De Stadelhofen (MDS) absorbing clamp forpower
measurements on cables. For smaller devices with a side length up to 1 m, the absorbing clamp
replaces the much more complex field strength measurement. For this reason, this technique is
the only alternative givenin the VDE 0875 Standard Part 1 (household appliances, electric tools)
for measurement of radiated emissions.
Figure 9.16a compares the early radiated VDE limits and the FCC limits, converted to a
1m measuring distance, to the MIL-STD-461B narrowband (NB) and broadband limits (BB),
specified at lm. This comparison is not totally accurate due to the different measuring band-
widths and the simple llr- ratio used for the distance conversions. However it does show that
the MIL-STD limits are significantly lower than even the FCC Class B limit.
Figure 9.16b compares the early VDE and FCC conducted emission limits to the MIL-
STD-461B limits. Here the conversion is from a current flowing into a IOpF RF capacitor for
the MIL-STD measuring technique to a voltage developed across a LISN for the commercial
measuring technique. Again some error is inherent in converting from a current to voltage.
9.4.4 Japanese EM1 Requirements on Computing Devices
The control of emission on EDP equipment in Japan is undertaken on a voluntary basis under
the supervision of the Voluntary Control Council for Interference (VCCI). Although a voluntary
Figure 9.16a Comparison of commercial and militaryradiated emissions. 0 1986 IEEE.

3
m
Q
Figure 9.16b Comparison of commercial amd military conducted emission limits. 0 1986 IEEE.
requirement, many Japanese manufacturers comply as a sign of product integrity. Also, equip-
ment manufactured in Japan for export to the United States must meet FCC requirements and
is therefore likely to meet VCCI requirements. Equipment imported to Japan is not required to
meet VCCI requirements; however, membership in the VCCI is allowed to foreign manufactur-
ers and may well be of value in the marketing of equipment in Japan. The VCCI requirements
are modeled on and use the same limits as contained in CISPR 22. Tests on equipment are
performed at a VCCI-approved facility, and the test report is submitted to the VCCI, which
issues a certificate of compliance. Compliant equipment is then labeled with a VCCI mark. The
VCCI routinely retests certified equipment and,should it fail, requires the manufacturer to mod-
ify the equipment. The members agree to abide by the VCCI decisions, which may include
revocation of the certificate on noncompliant equipment. Detailed VCCI regulations are avail-
able from Compliance Engineering (508-264-4208) or Dash Straus and Goodhue (508-263-
2662).
9.4.5 European Economic Community Directive 89/336/EEC

The purpose of the directive is to allow free movement of goods between member statesof the
community. This isaccomplished by overcoming technical barriers to trade imposed by differing
EMC requirements and procedures in different member states.
532 Chapter 9
The proposal from the Commission of the European Community was adopted by the Coun-
cil of European Communities, which issued the Council Directive of 3 May 1989 on the approxi-
mation of the laws of member states relating to electromagnetic compatibility (89/336/eec).
The EMC directive has been passed intolaw in at least 14 of the 15 member states. The directive
became active in 1992, with a l-year transition to 1 January 1993, which under pressure from
manufacturers was extended by three years to 1996. CE marking on compliant equipment is
mandatory throughout the European Union (EU). From 1995, the so-called CE mark directive
made it optional for most products to include the Low Voltage Directive on the declaration.
From1997 it becamemandatory to do so. CouncilDirective 73/23/EEC is thelow-voltage
Council Directive.
The low-voltage directive applies to all electrical equipment designed for use with a volt-
age rating of between 50 and 1000 V for alternating current and between 75 and 1500 V for
direct current. EN60950 covers thesafety of ITE equipment,EN61010-1 covers electrical equip-
ment for measurement, control, and laboratory use, and EN60065 contains the safety require-
ments for mains-operated electronics and related apparatus for household and similar use.
The Official Journal of the European Union contains the list of applicable EMC require-
ments. The number of different limits and requirements applicable to specific devices or that
are generic is 102 at the moment.
If a specific type of equipment is not covered in one of the requirements, then one of the
generic standards may be used.
The directive covers a vast range of apparatus, encompassing as broadly as possible all
electrical appliances, systems, and installations whether or not they are connected to the mains
(the public utility AC power supply). The directive includes devices connected to the electricity
distribution network and the public telecommunications network. No upper or lower limit on
the power output or selection of transmission frequencies is imposed. The directive directly
covers several sectors of electrical and electronic engineering, in particular household appli-
ances, consumer electronics,industrial manufacturing, information technology, radio communi-
cations, and telecommunications apparatus.
The devices that are exempt from the EMC directive are:
Passive devices, since these are not liable to cause or be susceptible to disturbance
Devices in which the emissions, without additional shielding or filtering, are intrinsically
far below the most stringent limitsof the relevant EMC standards and are inherently
immune in the intended electromagnetic environment
Amateur radio equipment
Motor vehicles (a different EMC directive covers these)
Active implantable medical devices
Equipment intended for use in aircraft in flight (covered by a different regulation)
Marine equipment (covered by a different regulation)
A couple of partial exclusions, such as weighing machines and tractors, also exist.
The EMC directive applies to all devices that contain electric orelectronic elements, with
the exception of devices whose EMC isregulated through other directives. These directives are:
Motor vehicles (EC Directive 95/54/EC)
Tractors for agriculture and forestry (EC Directive 72/322/EEC)
Active medical implants (EC Directive 90/385/EEC)
Medical equipment (EC Directive 93/42/EEC)
Personal protective equipment (EC Directive 89/686/EEC)
Telecommunications terminal equipment (EC Directive 9 1/263/EEC)
These post-l987 directives are termed “New Approach Directives,” which means primarily
that they do not contain standards and restrict the technical content to the minimum. The stan-
dards have been and still are in the process of being developed independent of the directives.
Equipment that is exempt from the EMC directive is electromagnetically passive equipment,
such as equipment that does not contain oscillators or clocks or doany switching. One example
would be a linear power supply connected to a passive resistive load. Some engineers extend
this to include equipment that by its nature produces emissions far below the most stringent
limits and is, by its nature, immune. However, for this type of equipment there is no risk in
making a declaration of conformance (DOC). Equipment that is explicitly excluded is quartz
wrist watches and filamentlamps (bulbs).Any component that has a direct function is considered
equivalent to an apparatus, and if it is to be placed on the market for final use, it must be CE
marked. For example, computer cards and motherboards, computer disc drives, lift controls,
electric motors (excluding induction motors), and PLCs have a direct function, whereas cables,
resistors, transistors, and capacitors, outside of an electronic circuit, do not.A system made up
of a number of finished products is considered a final apparatus and must comply with the EMC
directive. Components placed on the market for distribution and use in which the direct function
is available without further adjustment or connections other than simple ones that can be per-
formed by anyone are considered equivalent to “apparatus” as defined by the EMC directive.
Other components that perform a direct function, such as plug-in cards, smart cards, and input/
output modules designed for incorporation into computers, are apparatus commonly found in
retail outlets and are available to the general public. Once cards of this type are inserted into
a PC, they perform a direct function for the user. They must therefore be consideredas apparatus
and are, consequently, subject to the provisions of the EMC directive. This does not mean that
they must necessarily be intrinsically compliant from the EMC point of view in all cases, if
this is either impossible or impractical. However, in such cases they must be designed in such
a way that they become fully EMC compliant (emissions and immunity) when they are installed
as intended in the apparatus, in any of its possible variants and configurations, without excep-
tions, and used in the electromagnetic environment determinedby the manufacturer. The instruc-
tions accompanying the conlponent must clearly indicate these requirements, the pertinent limi-
tations of use, and how to comply without resorting to an EMC specialist (such components
are available to non-EMC specialists, for a wide range of applications). The manufacturer has
the ultimate responsibility for this decision. These EM1 mitigating components may include a
shielded cable or the use of a ferrite balun on interconnection cables. It is advisable to include
these EM1 components with the product if economically viable. If each of the parts of the system
bears the CE mark, then the system does not, although the system manufacturer has to provide
the system with an EU DOC and therefore should be satisfied that the complete system meets
the requirements.
Manufacturers may gain a competitive edge by illegally adding a CE mark to equipment
for which it is unnecessary. For example, the author has seen a numberof cables anddirectional
couplers, which are passive components, mounted to a metal plate to which a CE mark has
been added.
The paths to compliance are contained in articles 10.1 and 10.2 of the directive for all
but radiotransmitters,which are covered in article 10.5. Article 10.1 is theself-declaration
route, which, in the author’s experience, is the most popular. The technical construction file
(TCF) route, contained in article 10.2, is the most difficult.
Article IO. 1 states:
In the case of apparatus for which the manufacturer has applied the standards referred to in
article 7( l ) , the conformity of apparatus with this Directive shall becertified by the manufac-
turer or his authorized representative established within the community.
534 Chapter 9
Despite the phrase “established within the community,” neither the manufacturer nor the
organization making the declaration need be resident within the EU. One of the normalized
standards specific to the class of product or one of the generic standards has to be applied for
the self-declaration route. However. there is some disagreement as to whether “applied“ means
testing or not. The directive does not specify testing to an EN standard but does specify connpli-
ance. If a manufacturer believes that the product is i n compliance, then it can make a declaration.
However, test results may be required to prove the validity of the declaration, and a manufacturer
may be taking a risk in making the declaration without a test, for i n Chapter 1 1 it is demonstrated
how difficult it is to lay out a compliant unshielded PCB that contains high-speed devices. And
in Section 7.6 it was shown how very low RF current flow on cables can cause equipment to
fail radiated emission requirements.
Despite the difficulty of meeting both emission and immunity requirements, and therefore
the risk involved in not testing, some, typically smaller, companies who wish to save money
have made the declaration without a test. Some companies have put forward the argument that
they have no competitors who make similar equipment i n Europe and who can retest the equip-
ment to ensurethat it is compliant, and therefore of low risk. The member statesof the EU could
have followed the approach taken by the FCC and implemented policing of the requirements by
retesting products. Alternatively, they could have followed the approach taken by Industry Can-
ada, which waits until a complaint of interference by a product occurs. Reference 2, which is
a very good source of information on standards and compliance issues, provides the information
that the Swedish enforcement program took three frequency converters off the market in 1997
and that the German regulatory authorities have fined 19 companies so far. TheGerman authority
verifies conformity declarations regarding their formal correctness and logical plausibility and
performs sampling tests of productssold in Germany. Duringthe first sixmonths of 1999,
25,384 items were inspected; of these, 3582 products were subjected to EMC testing. Of the
tested items, 23.7% (849) did not conlply. So it obvious that the policing approach has been
taken by the EU.
The standards to which the declaration is made must be European norms that have been
published in the Official Journal (OJ) of the European Commission and that have been adopted
by at least one of the member states. For example, somestandards, such as the ENVs, are drafts,
and the prEN’s are prestandards and have not been published i n the OJ as yet.
The directive requires that the DOC be signed by “someone empowered to enter into
commitments on behalf of the manufacturer or his authorized representative established within
the community.” Who satisfies this criterion is still debated. Some companies use the signature
of the EMC/compliance engineer, although it would appear that unless this person is a director,
he may not be empowered to enter into legal commitments.
The question that is most often asked is, since this is a legal document with potentially
legal and commercial penalties, who takes the responsibility? Initially it was thought that the
individual signing the document was not responsible but was merely signing on behalf of the
company. Later this was considered incorrect. The present position appears to be that the signa-
tory takes the responsibility.
A good source of additional information is: Guidelines on the application of Council Direc-
tive 89/336/EEC of 3 May 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating
to electromagnetic compatibility 30-8-93, No. L220/21. Yet more information is available on
the Internet at http://europa.eu.int.
The recommended documentation to accompany the equipment is as follows.
For equipment that meets class A of the EN55022 requirements, the following warning
must be included in the instructions for use:
Warning
This is a Class A product. In a domestic environment this product may cause radio interfer-
ence, in which case the user may be required to take adequate measures.
An additional certificate does not need to accompany the product, although most manufac-
turers include it and it is highly recommended, since this is the declaration that customs officials
will review. A CE mark alone may result in an investigation. An example of the declaration is
provided nearby. If the low-voltage directive does not apply, it is better to say so and to state
why than to leave it out. The theory is that it is better to add the title of documents with an
explanation than to leave out what may appear to be an applicable document. Make sure that
the standards to which the declaration is made are the latest version!
Declaration of Conformity
Application
Council
Directive
of E M C Directive X9/336/EEC
Lon Voltage Directive 73/23/EEC
Standards to which conformity is Declared EN55022 1995 .

ENS0082-I 1998
EN 61000-4-3 1997
etc.
Manufacturers Name
Manufacturers Address
( i f available)
1ml)orters address (if available)
Type of equipment
Model No.
Serial No.Manufacture
(Optional)
ofYear
(Optional)
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that thc equipment specified above conforms to the above
Directives and Standards.
Signed on behalf of the Manufacturer and Importer
Place
Date name
Position
Example of Declaration of Conformity

536 Chapter 9
The CE conformity marking that is to be attached to the equipment shall take the following
form:
If the CE marking is reduced or enlarged, the proportions shown in the drawing must be
respected. The various components of the CEmarking must have substantially the same vertical
dimension, which may not be less than 5 mm.
In the case of apparatus for which the manufacturer has not applied, or has applied in
part,thestandardsreferred to in article 7(1) or failing the existence of suchstandards, the
manufacturer or its authorized representative established within the community shall hold at the
disposal of the relevant competent authorities, as soon as the apparatus is placed on the market,
a technical construction file (TCF). This file shall describe the apparatus, set out the procedures
used to ensure conformity of the apparatus with the protection requirements referred to in article
4, and include a technical report or certificate, one or other obtained from a competent body
(CB).
The technical construction file is applicable where no relevant standards are available or
where the product is too large to be tested in a laboratory and the manufacturer does not see
fit to make a declaration without test. The manufacturer may also want to declare for a product
range based on testing one or moreproducts in that range. In this case a justification as to why
these tests represent a coverage ofthe product range should bemade. Anothersituation in which
to use the TCF is where products are certified to existing EMC standards not recognized by the
EU but that are possibly in compliance with some or all of the requirements of the directive or
where harmonized standards have been applied in part only.
Unlike the self-declaration route, the TCF must be approvedby a third party, thecompetent
body.
If testing has been done to nonharmonized standards, then the TCF may make a justifica-
tion as to why these standards are relevant. How the apparatus is described, what procedures
are used to ensure conformity, and the relationship between the file itself and the report of
certificate, written by the CB, are not described and are therefore open to interpretation. A draft
guidance document, but which has no legal standing, was produced by the NAMAS EMC work-
ing group and was reviewed by the German Group of Competent Bodies and the authorities.
This document is intended as a starting point for information on how to prepare the TCF. The
TCF will typically have the following contents: description of the apparatus, identification of
the apparatus, technical description of the apparatus, technical rationale, detail of significant
aspects, test data, report of certificate from competent body. Because it is mandatory to use a
CB forthe report or certificate, the CB should also be usedto provide guidancein the preparation
of the TCF. For example, the role of the TCF is tailored based on the reason for choosing the
TCF route.
The task of the CB isdescribed in German law in paragraph 2.8 of the EMVG as follows:
The CB issues technical construction files and conformity declarations after positively confirm-
ing the protective requirementsof the Directive. The CBmust demonstrate: competence in EMC,
independence, and professionalism. In addition, EN 4501 1/CENELEC/Sept 89General Criteria
for Certification Bodies operating Product Certification is applicable. An association of compe-
tent bodies was formedthat obtained the supportof the Commission of the European Community
by agreeing to comply with the definitionfor the forming of notified bodies contained in CERTIF
94/6.
Using the TCF approach without confirming EM1 testing is novel and not without diffi-
culty, for as we have seen throughout this book, a design may be adequate in one application
but fail in another. An example is a power-line filter that may achieve adequate attenuation
when used with one piece of equipment but may exhibit insertion gain when used witha second
piece of equipment. Assuming the design approach is adopted, then the need for accurate EMC
predictions and competent and experienced CBs to interpret them will increase. Should many
manufacturers opt to incorporate EMC into their designs and follow the TCF route, the market
for a powerful and comprehensive EMC prediction computer program may justify the expense
of developing such a tool. An EMC prediction program would aid in standardizing the evaluation
of the design if the same program were used by manufacturers in all member states.
The CB may requirethe test lab (TL) to beaccredited to EN 45001. However, when
testing to harmonized EN standards, nonaccredited third-party test labs can be used. Because
. only harmonized standards can be applied for the DOC route, it stands to reason that nonaccred-
ited labs can be usedfor the DOC, as they routinely are. The Commission of the EUhas indicated
to interested parties in the United States that the EU will accept the test data from anindependent
laboratory outside of an EU country to support the declaration of conformity made by the manu-
facturer of the equipment. The EU has not to date ruled on accreditation of test facilities outside
of EU countries for the use of CBs. The TL must, however, comply with the IEC 1000-4-5
testing and measurement techniques, which include the open-area test site attenuation calibration
and compliance with the field uniformity requirements for radiated immunity testing. Up until
1997 the CB could operate only in EU countries, although in 1997 the EU was developing and
signing agreements with non-EU countries, allowing them to appoint CBs nationally that will
have the same status as CBs in Europe. The requirements for apparatus designed for the transmis-
sion of radio communications are that it shall be certified by an EC declaration of conformity.
But in addition, an EC type of examination certificate concerning this apparatus (type approval)
shall be provided by a competent body. In Germany the competent body is the BZT.
Table 9.10 describes the more common normalized standards for EMC,their applicability,
and the types of equipment.
Product standards are special limits for emission and immunity for a specific category of
devices. They are never less stringent than the generic standards over which they always take
precedence when they are available for the specific product family. Special product standards
are spoken of when the EMC requirements for a product are embedded in another standard for
the product.
Generic standardsare applicable to a particular electromagnetic environment. They specify
requirements and tests that are used by all products and systems placed in the specified environ-
ment, unless superseded by a specific product standard, which takes precedence. The two envi-
ronments are (1) industry, residential, commercial, and light industry, and (2) industry.
Basic standards define and describe the EMC problem. measurement and test methods,
principle measuring instruments, and test setup. They do not provide limits and are typically
referenced by the generic and product standards.
EN5009 1-2 1995UPSPart 2 EMC requirements

EN 60730-2-18 1999Automaticelectrical controls forhousehold and similaruse
538 Chapter 9
Table 9.10 Normalized Standards for EMC

Type of compatibility
Emissions
Immunity, Voltage Power-line all
Product family harmonics fluctuations RF emissions aspects
Electric household EN 61000-3-2 EN61000-3-3 EN 55014 EN 50082-1, future
appliances and 55 EN 104
electric tools
Lighting equipment EN 60555-2 EN 55015 EN 50082-1
Radio receivers and EN 60555-2 EN 55013
audio equipment
processing,
Data in- EN 60-555-2 repub- EN 55022 EN 50082-1 (used
techno-
formation lished as 61000 until superseded
logy 2, section (part 3, 55024) by prEN
available as draft)
Signaling in the pub- EN 50081-1 EN 50081-1 EN 50065-1 EN 50082-1
lic low-voltage
power
ISM equipment EN 50081-2 EN 50081-2 EN 55011 EN 50082-2
Part 2
EN 60947-5-3 1999 Low voltage switchgear and control gear. Part 5-3
EN 60947-6-2 1993 A1 = 1997 Low voltage switchgear and control gear Part 6-2
EN 61000-6-2 1999 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 6-2
EN 61543 1995 residual current operated protective devices (RCDs) for house-
hold and other use
EN 61812 1996 A1 1 = 1996 Specified time relays for industrial use Part 1
The following are the basic standards published up to 2000;
CISPR 16-l/ 1993 First part of the new edition: Specification for radio disturbance and
immunity measuring apparatus and methods. Part 1 Radio disturbance and immunity
measuring apparatus. There is no EN planned to replace CISPR 16.
The EN 61000-x-x standards 1-6 sections are derived from the IEC 801-2-6 standards,
which were in turn converted to the IEC 1000-4-x standards. The IEC 1000-4-x standards are:
IEC 1000-4- 1 Overview of the immunity tests; basic EMC publication
IEC 1000-4-2 Electrostatic discharge (ESD) immunity test
IEC 1000-4-3 Radiated radio frequency electromagnetic field immunity test
IEC 1000-4-4 Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test
IEC 1000-4-5 Surge immunity test
IEC 1000-4-6 Immunity to conducted disturbances, induced by radio frequency fields
IEC 1000-4-7 General guide on harmonics and interhannonics measurements and in-
strumentation, for power supply systems and equipment con-
nected thereto
IEC 1000-4-8 Power frequency magnetic field immunity test
IEC 1000-4-9 Pulse magnetic field immunity test
IEC 1000-4-10 Damped oscillatory magnetic field immunity test
IEC 1000-4-1 1 Voltage dips, short interruptions, and voltage variations immunity test
The following are the harmonized standards published up to1999 that are specifically
EMC, or contain EMC requirements (among others), or contain voltage or current ripple require-
ments. 0 European Communities 1995-2000
EN 50065- 1 - I99 1 Anlendment A1 = 1992, A2 = 1995, A3 = 1996. Emissions

limit for signaling on low-voltage electrical installations
EN 50082-1 1992 Generic emission standard for residential, commercial, and light
industrial environments
EN 50082-2 1993 Generic emissions standard for the heavy industrial environment
EN 50082-1 1997 Generic imtnunity standard for residential, commercial, and light
industrial environments
EN 50082-2 1995 Generic immunity standard for the heavy industrial environment
EN 50083-2 1995 AI = 1997. Cabled distribution systemsfor TV, sound, and inter-
active media
EN 50090-2-2 1996 Home and building electronic systems (HBES) Part 2-2.
EN 50091-2 1995 UPS Part 2 EMC requirements
EN 5001 30-4 1995 AI = 1998. Alarm systems, tire, intruder, and social
EN 50148 1995 Electronic taximeters
EN 50 199 1995 Arc welding equipment
EN 50227 1997 Control circuits and switching elements, proximity sensors,
DC interface for proximity sensors, and switching ampli-
fiers
EN 5501 1 1998 A1 = 1999. Emission limits for Industrial, Scientific, and Medi-
cal (ISM) RF equipment (supersedes EN 5501 1 1991)
EN 55013 1990 A12 = 1994, A13 = 1996. A14 = 1999. Emissions limit for
broadcast receivers and associated equipment. Amendment
1 I t and Amendment 12
EN S5014 1993 AI = 1997, A2 = 1999. Emission limits for electrical motor
operated and thermal appliances for household and similar
purposes, electrical tools and similar apparatus Part 1 (su-
persedes EN 55014 1987)
EN 5014-2 1997 Emission limits for electrical motor operated and thermal appli-
ances for household and similar purposes, electrical tools
and similar apparatus Part 2
EN 550 1 5 1996 A 1 = 1997. A2 = 1999. Radio disturbance characteristics of elec-
trical lighting and similar equipment (supersedesEN 55015
1986)
EN 55020 1 994 A1 1 = 1996, A12 = 1999, A13 = 1999, A14 = 1999. Immunity
requirements for broadcast receivers and associated equip-
ment (supersedes EN SS020 1987)
EN 55022 998 Enlission limits for information technology equipment (ITE),
based on CISPR 22 1993
EN 55024 998 Information technology equipment. Immunity characteristics
EN 55103-1 1996 Audio, video, audiovisual, and entertainment lighting control ap-
paratus for professional use. Part I emissions
EN 55103-2 l996 Audio, video, audiovisual, and entertainment lighting control ap-
paratus for professional use. Part 2 immunity
EN S5104 1995 Inmunity requirements for household appliances, tools and simi-
lar apparatus
540 Chapter 9
EN 60269-1 1993 Amendment I . Low-voltage fuses (based on IEC 269- 1)

EN 60282-1 1993 High-voltage fuses (based on IEC 282-1)
EN 60439- 1 1999 AI 1 = 1996. Low-voltage switchgear
EN 6052 1 1995 Class 0.5, 1, and 2 alternating-current watt-hour meters (based
on IEC 521 1988)
EN 60555-2 1987 Disturbances in supply systems caused by household appliances
and similar electrical equipment. Part 2 Harmonics
EN 60555-3 1987 A 1 = 199 1. Disturbances in supply systems caused by household
appliances and similar electrical equipment. Part 3 Voltage
fluctuations
EN 60669-2-1 1996 A1 1 = 1997. Switches for household and similar fixed-electrical
installations
EN 60669-2-2 1997 Switches for household and similar fixed-electrical installations
EN 60669-2-3 1996 Switches for household and similar fixed-electrical installations
EN 60945 1993 Marine navigational equipment, general requirements (based on
IEC 945)
EN 60947-1 1999 Low-voltage switch gear and control gear.
EN 60730-1 1995 AI = 1996. Automatic electrical controls for household and simi-
lar use
EN 60730-2-5 1995 Automatic electrical controls for household and similar use
EN 60730-2-6 1995 AI = 1997. Automatic electrical controls for household and simi-
lar use
EN 60730-2-7 1991 A1 = 1997. Automatic electrical controls for household and simi-
lar use
EN 60730-2-8 1995 A1 = 1997. Automatic electrical controls for household and simi-
lar use
EN 60730-2-9 1995 A1 = 1996, A2 = 1997. Automatic electrical controls for house-
hold and similar use
EN 60730-2-1 1 1995 A1 = 1997. Automatic electrical controls for household and simi-
lar use
EN 60730-2-14 1997 Automatic electrical controls for household and similar use
EN 60730-2- 18 1999 Automatic electrical controls for household and similar use
EN 60870-2-1 1996 Telecom equipment and systems
EN 60687 1992 Alternating-current static watt-hour meters for active energy
(classes 0.2s to 0.5s)
EN 60945 1997 Maritime navigation and radio communications equipment and
systems
EN 60947-1 1999 Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 1
EN 60947-2 1996 AI = 1997. Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 2
EN 60947-3 1999 Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 3
EN 60947-4-1 1996 A2 = 1997. Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 4
EN 60947-4-2 1996 A2 = 1998. Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 4
EN 60947-5- 1 1991 A12 = 1997. Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 5
EN 60947-5-2 1997 Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 5
EN 60947-5-3 1999 Automatic electrical controls for household and similar use. Part 2
EN 60947-6- 1 1991 A2 = 1997. Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 6
EN 60947-6-2 1993 AI = 1997. Low-voltage switch gear and control gear. Part 6.2
EN 61000-3-2 1995 A1 = 1998, A2 = 1998. Limits for harmonic current emissions
(equipment current < = 16 A per phase)
EN 61000-3-3 1995 AI = 1998. Limits for voltage fluctuations and flicker (equipment
current < = 16 A per phase)
EN 61000-6-2 1999 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Part 6-2
EN 6 1008-1 1994 A2 = 1995, A13 = 1998. Electrical accessories (RCCBs)
EN 6 1009-1 1994 A2 = 1995, A14 = 1998. Electrical accessories (RCBOs)
EN 61036 1996 Alternating-current electronic watt-hour meters for active energy
(classes 1 and 2)
EN 61037 1992 AI = 1996, A2 = 1998. Electronic ripple control receivers for
tariff and load control
EN 61038 1992 AI = 1996, A2 = 1998. Time switches for tariff and load con-
trol
EN 61 131-2 1994 AI 1 = 1996. Programmable controllers. Part 2: Equipment re-
quirements and tests (based on IEC 1 131-2 1992)
EN 6 1268 1996 Alternating-current static var-hour meters for reactive energy
(classes 2 and 3)
EN 61326 1997 Electrical equipment for measurement control and laboratory use
EN 61543 199.5 Residual current operated protective devices (RCDs) for house-
hold and other use
EN 6 1S47 1995 Equipment for general lighting purposes
EN 61800-3 1996 Adjustable-speed electrical power drive systems. Part 3
EN 61812-1 1996 AI I = 1996. Specified time relays for industrial use. Part 1
EN 12015 1998 Product family standard for lifts, escalators, and passenger con-
veyers. Emissions
EN 12016 1998 Product family standard for lifts, escalators, and passenger con-
veyers. Immunity
EN IS0 14982 1998 Agricultural and forestry machines
The following draft standards or prestandards have been proposed. If any of these apply
to your apparatus, it would be advisable to make sure the draft standard or prestandard has not
been converted to a harmonized standard.
prEN S0098 Radiated emission testing of physically large telecolumunication

systems (prETS300 127: 1991)
ENV S0102 EMC requirements for ISDN terminal equipment
Part 1: Emission requirements
Part 2: Immunity requirements
ENV S0140 Basic EMC standard: Immunity to RF fields 80-1000 MHz
ENV 50141 Basic EMC standard: Immunity to conducted disturbances 0.1S-
80 MHz
ENV SO 142 Basic EMC standard: Immunity to surges
ENV S0147 Anechoic chambers
Part 1 : Shield attenuation nleasurement
Part 2: Alternative test site suitability with respect to site atten-
uation
Part 3: Shielded anechoic enclosure performance for immunity
tests of radiated radio frequency electromagnetic fields
EN SO I60 EMC: Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution system
EN 6060 1- 1-2 Medical electrical apparatus
542 Chapter 9
Part 1: General safety requirements, 2nd supplement EMC

prEN
1000-2-2
6 Compatibility
levels
for
low-frequency conducted disturbances
and signaling in public low-voltage power-supply systems.
IEC 1000-2-2: 1990 modified.
German standard: DIN VDE 0839 Part 2 Draft 11.92
prEN 50096EMC requirements forISDNequipment
(prETS300 126: 1991
prEN 50098 Equipmentengineering (EE): Radiated emission
testing of physi-
cally large equipment
The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has published a range of

product standards and drafts standards that cover radio equipment and systems. Details on these
and updates to the preceding standards can be obtained from the Web at http://europa.eu.int/comm.
(enterprise/newapproach/standardization/h~mstds/reflist/emc.htmlj
Radioted crrld Corlducted Ernissiorls

The EN radiated and conducted emission limits are very close to the FCC limits. Table 9.1 1
lists the colnmon EN and FCC radiated emissions at the specified distances; Table 9.12 shows
the limits converted to 3 m using a far-field inverse linear distance extrapolation factor. NB:
The FCC and EN55022 allow these extrapolated 3-m limits to be used for measurements at
3 m, whereas EN5501 1 requires that the 10-m limits also be applied to lneasurelnents at 3 m.
Thus Table 9.8 is useful for a direct comparison of the different requirements as well as for
comparison of measurements at 3 m to the FCC and EN55022 limits. NB: The FCC alsorequires
measurements above 1000 MHz, under certain conditions in accordance with 47 CFR 15.33,
and for these an average detector function is used.
Table 9.13 comparesthe conducted emission of the EN and FCC requirements above 0.15
MHz, and Figure 9.17 plots the conducted emission limits from 0.15 to 0.5 MHz for the EN
5501 1 group 1, class B, the EN 55022 class B, and the EN 50081-1 requirements.
These tables and plots can be obtained on laminated card from EMC Consulting Inc.
Generic emission requirements apply to electrical and electronic apparatus for which no
dedicated product or product family emission standard exists. The meaning of class A and B
equipment varies from one document to another.For example, in the generic emission require-
mentEN50081- 1, thedefinition of domestic, commercial, andlightindustriallocationsis:
locations that are characterized by being supplied directly at low voltage from the public mains.
EN 50081-2 coversgeneric emissions forequipment operating in industrial environments,
which are defined as: where industrial, scientific,
and medical (ISM) equipment is present; where
heavy inductive or capacitive loads are frequently switched; and where currents and associated
magnetic fields are high. EN 5501 1 covers all ISM equipment and separates them into groups
and classes. Group 1 ISMequipmentcontains all equipment in whichthere is intentionally
generated and/or used conductively coupled radio frequency energy that is necessary for the
internal functioning of the equipment. Group 1 covers digitally controlled equipment i n which
the conductively coupled radio frequency is a by-product of the digital signals and clocks.
Group 2 ISM equipment includes all equipment in which radio frequency energy is inten-
tionally generated and/or used in the form of electromagnet radiation for the treatment of mate-
rial and spark erosion. The equipment is then divided into Class A equipment that is suitable
for use in all establishments other than domestic, and that directly connected to a low-voltage
power supply network that supplies buildings used for domestic purposes. Class B equipment
is suitable for use in domestic establishments and in establishments directly connected to a low-
voltage power supply network that supplies buildings used for domestic purposes. Unlike the
preceding EN requirements, EN 55022, which covers ITE equipment,classifies such equipment
Table 9.1 1 EN and FCC Radiated Emission Limits as Specified

EN550 1 1" EN5501 I"
Group I , Class A Group 1, Class B
EN55022 Class A EN55022 Class B
EN5008 1-2 EN50081- 1 FCC Class A FCC Class B
Specified limit Specified limit Specified Specified
at 30 ni at 10m limit at 10 m limit at 3 m
f WHz) (dBpV/m) (dBpV/m) (dBFV/m) (dBFV/m)
30-88 30 30 39 40
88-216 30 30 43.5 43.5
2 16-230 30 30 46.5 46
230- 1000 37 37 46.5-960 MHz 46-960 MHz
49.5 > 960 MHz 54 > 960 MHz
~ ~~~
EN Europaeische Norm (European Standard)

EN5501 1 Industrial Scientific Medical:
Group I , Class A-Nondomestic or not connected to low-voltage supply
Group I , Class B-Domestic o r connected to low-voltage supply
("No increase i n the 10-m level allowed for measurements at 3 ni)
EN55022 Information Technology Equipment:
Class A-Commercial
Class B-Domestic
EN5008 1- I Generic Standard for Domcstic. Commercial, or Light Industrial
EN5008 1-2 Generic Standard for the Industrial Environment
FCC Part 15. Subpart J:
Class A Computing Device-Commercial
Class B Computing Device-Residential
Class A-Commercial
Class B-Domestic
ENSOOX I - I Generic Standard lor Domestic, Comniercial or Light lndustrial
FCC Part IS. Subpart J:
Class A Computing Device-Commercial
Class B Computing Device-Residential
Soirrcr: Reproduced by kind permission of EMC Consulting Inc.
as Class B when intended primarily for use in the domestic environment, which is in turn defined
as an environment where the use of broadcast radio and television receivers may be expected
within a distance of 10 in of the apparatus concerned. Class A equipment is defined as a category
of all other ITE that satisfies the Class A ITE limits but not the Class B limits. Such equipment
should not be restricted in its sale, but the class A warning, described previously, should be
included with the equipment.
9.4.5.2 Immunity Tests

Unlike the majority of commercial requirements, the EN requirements include immunity tests.
The generic immunity requirement for residential, commercial, and light industry environment.
EN 50082- I : 1998, specifies the following tests:
RndiLited Itnmutiity: Radiated radio frequency energy from 80 to 1000 MHz at 3V/m
unmodulated, with the test performed with a 1-kHz 80% am using the test setup
described in EN 6100-4-3. Applicable to enclosure port.
544 Chapter 9
Table 9.12 EN and FCC Radiated Emission Limits Converted to 3 in
EN55022 Class A EN55022 Class B

-.
EN5008 1-2 EN5008 1 - I FCC Class A FCC Class B

at 3 I l l at 3 m at 3 m at 3 I l l
~~~
Corrected limit Corrected limit Corrected limit Specified limit

(30 m to 3 in) (10 in to 3 in) (30 111 to 3 Ill) (no correction)
,f' MHz (dBpV/m) (dBpV/m) (dBpV/m) (dBpV/m)
30-88 50 40 49.5 40
88-216 50 40 54 43.5
2 16-230 50 40 57 46
230-1000 57 47 57-960 MHz 46-960 MHz
67.5 > 960 MHz 54 > 960 MHz
EN Europacischc Norm (European Standard)

ENS501 I Industrial Scientilic Medical:
Group I , Class A-Nondomestic or not connected to low-voltage supply
Group I . Class B-Domestic or connected to lowvoltage supply
(EN 5501 1 does not allow a reduction in emission levels lor nieasurcnicnt ;it 3 111 and so the limits at
30 111 ; l i d I 0 111 also apply to 3 Ill)
ENSSO22 Inlorinntion Technology Equipmcnt:
Class A-Commercial
Class B-Domestic
ENSOOX I - 1 Gencric Stmndard for Domestic. Commercial. o r Light Industrial
EN5008 1-2 Generic St;indard lor the Industrial Environment
FCC Part 15, Subpart J:
Class A Coinputing Device-Commercial
Cl;iss B Computing Devicc-Residential
Sorrrw: Reproduced hy kind permission of EMC Consulting Inc.
Electrosttrric D i s c h r g e : Air discharge 8 kV and contact discharge of 4kV with test setup
IEC EN 61000-4-2, also for enclosure port.
Elec.tricd Ftist Trmsierit (EFT): The requirements for ports for signal lines and control
lines and functional earth ports is 0.5 kV, rise time 5 nS, and pulsewidth 50 nS at
a repetition rate of 5 kHz with the test setup described in IEC 61000-4-4,capacitive
clamp. The EFT pulse is injected coinnioii mode and for signal and control lines is
only applicable to ports interfacing with cables whose total length according to the
manufacturer's functional specification may exceed 3 in. The same EFT pulse is
specified for DC power ports with no cable length restrictions; however, the require-
ment is not applicable to input ports intended for connection to a dedicated battery
or a rechargeable battcry that must be removed or disconnected from the apparatus
for recharging. Apparatus with a DC power input port intended for use with an AC-
DC power adapter shall be tested on the AC power input of the AC-DC power
adapter specified by the inanufacturer or, where none is so specified, using a typical
AC-DC power adapter. The test is applicable to DC power input ports intended to
be connected permanently to cables longer than 10 i n . The EFT pulse for input and
output AC power ports is 1 kV, 5-nS rise time, 50-11s pulsewidth at a repetition
rate of 5 kHz.
Surges: The surge test is applicable to AC and DC power and in some cases to signals.
The generator shall have a 1.2-psrise time and a 50-ps pulse width at 50% amplitude
into an open circuit and an 8-ps rise time, 20-ps pulsewidth into a short circuit. The
Table 9.13 ENandFCC ConductedEmissionLimits
E5501 1 EN5501 1
Group l , Class A Group 1, Class B
-
EN55022 EN55022
Class A Class B
EN5008 1-2 EN5008 1- 1 FCC Class FCC Class B
Quasi-peak
Average
Quasi-peak
Average
Quasi-peak
Quasi-peak
f (MHz) (dBpV) (dBpV) (dBPV) (dBpV) (dBPV) (dBpV)
0.150-0.450 79 66 See Figure 9.16 See Figure 9.16
0.450-0.500 79 66 9.16
Figure
See Figure 9.16 See 60 48
0.500-1.600 73 60 56 46 60 48
1.600-5 73 60 56 46 69.5 48
5-30 73 60 60 50 69.5 48
ENS501 1 Industrial Sclcntilic Medical:

Group I , Class A-Nondomcstlc or not connected to low-vollage supply
Group 1. Class B-Domestic or connected to low-voltage supply
EN55022 Information TechnologyEqulpmcnt:
Class A-Conmcrcial
Class B-Domestic
EN500XI-1 GenericStandard lor Domcstlc. Commercial, or Llght Industrial
ENSOOXI-2 GencrlcStandard for the Industrial Envlronnient
FCC Part IS. Suhpart J:
Cl;~ssA Computing DevIce-Commcrci;Il
Class B Compuhng Dcvice-Resdcntial
Sortrcr: Reproduced by kind pcrlnlssion o f EMC Consulting Inc.
source impedance of the generator is 2 Q. The charge ( O K ) voltage for DC power

is 0.5 kV line to ground and line to line. For AC power the charge voltage is 2 kV
line to earth and 1 kV line to line. The line-to-line pulse is injected via an 18-pF
capacitor and line-to-ground via a 9-pF capacitor in series with a 10-R resistor. The
test procedure, including injection methods, is contained in EN 61000-4-5.
Rrrclio Frequency Cornmorl Mode: Applicable to ports for signal lines and control lines
as well as DC and AC power ports and functional earth ports. The RF is injected
common mode at a level of 3-V rms unmodulated, but during the test this level is
modulated at 1 kHz 80% am. The test methods, including injection methods and
calibration method, are included in EN 61000-4-6.
Voltcrgo Dips m d Voltrrge Irlterruptiom: These are applicable to AC power only and in-
clude a voltage shift at zero crossing, 30% reduction in amplitude for 10 ms for
output ports, and a 60% reduction for 100 m s for input ports. A voltage interruption
of greater than 95% of the applied voltage shall be applied for 5000 ms to input
ports only. Voltage dip and voltage interruption test methods are described in EN
6 1000-4-l 1.
Apparatus shall not become dangerous or unsafe as a result of the application of the tests
defined in EN 50082- 1. A functional description and a definition of performance criteria, during
or as a consequence of the EMC testing, shall be provided by the manufacturer and noted in
the test report, based on criteria described in EN 50082-1. The criteria are basically (A) the
apparatus shall continue to operate as intended during the test, (B) the apparatus shall continue
546 Chapter 9
EN55011 Group 1, Class B,

EN55022 Class B
and EN50081-1
Conducted Emissions Requirements
for 150kHz to 500kHz
70
65
MI
Limit
55
45
IW I% 1W xx) (W 500 MI0 700 800 9W 1oW
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 9.17 EN conducted emission limits below 500 kHz.
to operate as intended after the test, and (C) temporary loss of function is allowed, provided
the function is self-recoverable or can be restored by the operation of controls. Which criterion
applies is typically decided by the criticality of the apparatus. The tests shall be made in the
most susceptible operating mode and shall be varied to achieve maximum susceptibility. If the
apparatus is part of a system or can be connected to auxiliary apparatus, then the apparatus
shall be tested while connected to the minimum configuration necessary to exercise the ports
in accordance with EN 55022. EN 50082-1 also describesthe selection of terminations, inappro-
priate tests, and immunity test requirements. The rule is that previously compliant equipment
that is modified must remain compliant. If the modification changes the configuration and this
was not covered in the original declaration, then a new declaration is required and any tests
that have been added since the original declaration must be included. This is one reason why
it makes sense to include any immunity tests that are still “for infornmtion only” if the product
life is sufficiently long.
Because the 1.2-ps/50-ps surge test is an addition to the latest version of EN 50082- 1,
wall-mount or modular AC-to-DC power supplies may have a CE mark and yet not have been
tested with the surge test.
The generic requirements for industrial environment, EN 50082-2, specifies for enclosure
ports: the RF field at 10 V/m when unmodulated, but with 80% I-kHz AM,80-1000-MHz
frequency range, at 900 MHz ? 5 MHz. a 10 V/m unmodulated,but modulated during the test
with a 50% duty cycle pulse and 200-Hz repetition rate; the power frequency magnetic field at
30 A/m 50 Hz (applicable only to apparatus containing devices susceptible to magnetic fields);
and ESD with 4 kV contact and 8 kV air discharge.
For signal lines and data buses not involved in process control etc., the requirements are:
C/M injected RF, 0.15-80 MHz at 10 V rms, when unmodulated but modulated at 80% AM
(1 kHz) with a source impedance of 150 R; the EFT requirement is 1 kV peak, and both are
applicable only to cables exceeding 3 m in length.
For ports for process, measurement, and control lines and long bus and control lines, the
10-V-rms RF C/M injection applies, as does the E m , but at a peak voltage of 2 kV.
For DC input and output power ports, as well as AC input and output power ports, the
same 10 V rms RF C/M injection and the 2-kV EFT pulse applies.
The informative annex in EN 50082-2 indicates the following tests that may be included
in the standard: power frequency C/M injection of 10 V rms at 50 Hz for signal lines and data
buses not involved in process control and 20 V rmsfor process, measurement, and control lines;
2 kV C/M and 1 kV D/M 1.2 pd50 ps for process, measurement, and control lines, and 0.5
kV D/M and 0.5 kV C/M for DC power and 4 kV C/M and 2 kV D/M for AC power; voltage
deviation and voltage variation for DC power and voltage dips, voltage interruptions, voltage
fluctuation, and low-frequency harmonics for AC power.
Because the 1.2-ps/SO-ps surge test has been included in the most recent update to EN
50082-1, it is very likely that it will be included in an update to EN 500882-2.
The modulated and unmodulated test levels are defined in ENV 50140, in which if the
unmodulated specified test level is 1 V/m rms or 2.8 V p-p, then when amplitude modulated
at SO%, the rms value 1.12 V and the peak-to-peak value is 5.1 V. This increase in level with
modulation is important. for many signal generators provide the same output level modulated
or unmodulated, and the capability of the power amplifier must include the peak-to-peak levels.
It is also important to find out if any E field monitoring device is used, whether it measures
peak or rms values and also what the displayed value is.
EN55024 1997 are the specific immunity requirements for information technology equip-
ment. And these are identical to the latest EN 50082- l , with the very irnportcmr additiot~of the
1.2-ps/SO-ps surge voltage at 1 kV between ground and the cable on signal and telecommunica-
tions ports.
The emission and immunity tests described in the harmonized standards refer to test meth-
ods, test setups, and test location calibration criteria. For radiated emission measurements, the
test area must typically be a calibrated open-area test site, described in ANSI C63.4 1992 and
in Appendix A of EN 55022.
9.4.5.3 Emission Tests
In EN 5501 1, Class A ISM equipment may bemeasuredeither on a test site or in situ as
determined by the manufacturer. Class B ISM equipment shall be measured on a test site. The
test site shall meet an ambient requirement of at least 6 dB below the limit, which is almost
impossible for an open-area test site. The test site for measurements from 9 kHz to 1 GHz shall
have a ground plane for both conducted and radiated measurements with the minimum size and
shape as depicted in Figure 9.18. Details on the validation of this test site await the third edition
of CISPR 16, but it is likely to be the open-area attenuation calibration. Equipment shall, if
possible, be placed on a turntable and rotated. If a turntable is not possible, the antenna shall
be positioned at various points in azimuth for both vertical and horizontal polarizations.
548 Chapter 9
Major diameter = 2F
d
L
-""" - - -.
1
--- """
..
c
0
0
.
.H
0 -
/ diameter Minor .
I6 F \
/ \
/ \
/ \
I \
I
\
I F \
I
Antenna unit
Test l
t 1
\
'\ /
\ /
\ Boundary of area
defined by /
/
an ellipse. Volume above earth
..
\ \ /
\
x, tobe freeof reflecting objects. 0
,
/
" I.
-
/
" "-#-
""""""
l m
D = (d + 2) m, where d is the maximum test unit dimension

W = (U + 1) m, where a is the maximum antenna dimension
L =10m
Figure 9.18 Characteristics of radiated emissions test site and minimum ground plane for radiated cmis-
sions measurement. (Reproduced by permission of CENELEC, Brussels, Belgium. OCENELEC.)
The configuration of the equipment shall be varied to maximize emissions. Interconnecting

cables shall be of the type and length specified in the individual equipment requirements. If the
length can be varied, the lengths shall be selected to produce maxirnum radiated emissions. For
conducted measurements, excess lengths of cable shall be bundled at the approximate center
of the cable, with bundles of 30-40 cm in length. Where multiple interface ports are all of the
same type, connecting a cable to just one of those ports is sufficient, providing it can be shown
that the additional cables would not significantly affect the results. This is difficult to achieve,
for the C/M noise on two or more cables can drive against each other, just like the rods of a
dipole, and the fields generated by the cables can add or subtract at the location of the antenna.
A description of the cable and equipment orientation must be provided so that results can be
repeated. If the equipment can perform separately any one of a number of functions, then the
equipment shall be tested while performing each of these functions.
Fundamentally, EN 5501 1 requires that worst-case, maximized emissions be performed.
EN 5501 1 also describes the measuring equipment requirements, antennas, connection to the
electricitysupply on a test site, “insitu” measurementsdisposition of medical equipment,
types of medical, industrial, scientific, laboratory, and measuring equipment, microwave cooking
appliances, and other equipment in the 1-18-GHz frequency band.
For conducted measurements, the 50-Q/50-pH V-network (LISN) shall be used, or the
voltage probe when the LISN cannot be used. EN 5501 1 supplies additional information on
connection of the EUT to the electricity supply network when performing measurements on a
test site.
EN 55022:1994 is the emission document for information technology equipment (ITE),
and it provides the same basic guidelines for EUT configuration, general measurement condi-
tions, methods of measurement, etc., as provided in EN 5501 1, with some additional EUT con-
figuration details specific to ITE equipment. The test site information is more specific, in as
much as a site attenuation measurement requirement is imposed. In general the site shall be
validated by making site attenuation measurements for both horizontal and vertical polarization
fields in the frequency range of 30 MHz to 1000 MHz. The distance between the transmitting
’ antenna and receivingantennasshall be the same as thedistance used for radiatedemission
tests of the EUT.A measurement siteshall be considered acceptableif the horizontal and vertical
site attenuation measurements are within 2 4 dB of the theoretical site attenuation of an ideal
site (see also CISPR 16). The problems inherent in achieving the site attenuation requirement
are discussed in Section 9.4.1. The test site shall characteristically beflat, free of overhead wires
and nearby reflecting structures, and sufficiently large to permit antenna placement at the speci-
fied distance and provide adequate separation between antenna, EUT, and reflecting structures.
Rejecting sfructures are defined as those whose construction material is primarily conductive.
The test site shown in Figure 9.18 is presented in both EN 55022and EN 550 1 I , with a minimum
alternative test site, shown in Figure 9.19, presented in EN 55022. A conducting ground plane
shall extend at least 1 m beyond the periphery of the EUT and the largest measuring antenna
and shall cover the entire area between the EUT and the antenna. It should be of metal, with
no holes or gaps having dimensions larger than one-tenth of a wavelength at the highest fre-
quency of measurement. The minimum-size ground plane is shown in Figure 9.18. A larger-
size conducting ground plane may be required if the site attenuation requirements are not met.
As an alternative,tests may beconducted on other test sites that do uot have the physical
characteristics shown in Figure 9.18 or 9.19. Evidenceshallbeobtained to show that such
alternative sites will yield valid results. Annex A describes a method of testing an alternative
site whereby a measurement antenna is moved within a volume in both horizontal and vertical
polarizations. A second antenna is scanned in height from 1 m to 4 m. This alternative site test
measurement method could be performed in a semianechoic chamber designed for at least a 3-
m test area but would preclude the use of the GTEM cell. However, if the GTEM, or any other
test fixture, can be proven to yield valid test results, then its use may be acceptable.
EN 55022 statesthat tests can be made on one appliance only or ona sample ofappliances
using a statistical approach, and the requirement then is that 80% of the mass-produced appli-
ances must comply withthe limits with at least 80% confidence. EN 55022 states that subsequent
tests are necessary from time to time on appliances taken at random from production, especially
when only one appliance has been tested. However, although this retest may be highly recom-
mended, it is well to remember that the widely held view is that testing is not mandatory to
make a declaration of conformity for an appliance.
550 Chapter 9
I
\
‘\ /
/
‘\
‘. Limito du p4rimdtre
Surrounding boundary /
/
/
“”“”””””
There shall be no reflecting object inside the volume defined on the ground by the line corresponding to this
figure and defined in height by a horizontal plane 23 m above the highest element of either aerial or equipment
under test.
Figure 9.19 Alternative minimum radiated emission test site (EN 55022: 1994). (Reproduced by permis-
sion of CENELEC, Brussels, Belgium, OCENELEC.)
1rnmunif.y Testing
One of the most common errors when performing immunity tests is the lack of an inadequate
method of testing any or all the functions of the EUT and an effective method of flagging a
failure during or after the test. Digital, analog, video, or RF should flow on all signal interfaces
during the test. Digital data should be monitored either by a typical interface device that can
flag an error in the data or by a computer that can perform error checking. An alternative to an
external device is to loop back the data to the EUT at the end of the signal cable. However, an
effective means of flagging the data on the EUT by an audible or visual warning is required.
Video data should be displayed on an external monitor, which, if part of the EUT, must remain
inside the test setup. If the monitor is used merely to test the video signal, then it may be located
outside of the test area. However, adding long cables between a computer and a monitor in
order tolocate the monitor away from the test area will invariably result in EM1 during a radiated
immunity or C/M RF conducted immunity test. This typically takes the form of distortion of
the image or bars in the image. In this case it is probably more realistic to have the monitor
located close to the computer, and this is lesslikely to result in EMI. If a display must be viewed
inside a semianechoic chamber during a radiated immunity test, then a door with a wire mesh
screen may be used. More convenient is the use of a video camera located inside the room,
with an external monitor. In some cases, where a large-diameter “waveguide below cutoff”
port is installed in the chamber, a set of mirrors has been used to view the display outside of
the chamber!
If a bar code reader or similar device is connected to the EUT, the bar code should be
read and displayed or monitored by the EUT on a repetitive basis. This usually entails the writing
of separate software forimmunity testing, and this is often required to ensure that all the interface
signals are exercised as well as disk drives, alarms, displays, wireless, etc. during the EM1 test.
If a writing board or touch display requires contact on the surface to read information,
this can easily be achieved by a weighted wooden structure containing a suitable pen.
It is not uncommon to be asked to perform immunity tests where no indication of a pass/
fail condition is available from the EUT; in this case there is no sense in perfomling the test!
It is common forradiated and conducted RF immunity tests that the EUT padfailperfor-
mance criterion is A, which means that “the apparatus shall continueto operate m intended. No
degradation of performance or lossof function is allowed below aperformance level specified by
the manufacturer, when the apparatus is used as intended. The performance level may be re-
placed by a permissible loss of performance. If the minimum performance level or permissible
Performance loss is not specified by the manufacturer, then either of these may be derived from
the product description and documentation and what the user may reasonably expect, from the
apparatus if used as intended.” Thus in testing to the criterion A level, thefunctional/monitoring
test equipment must also continue to function correctly during the EM1 test.
For ESD, EFT, and surge tests on either AC/DC power or signal lines, the p a d f a i l crite-
rion is B. Criterion B is described as “The apparatus shall continue to operate as intended after
the test. No degradation of performance or loss of function is allowed below a performance
level specified by the manufacturer, when the apparatus is used as intended. The ,performance
level may be replaced by a permissible loss of performance. During the test, degradation of
performance, however, isallowed. No change of actual operating state or stored data is allowed.
If the minimum performance level or permissible performance loss is not specified by the manu-
facturer, then either of these may be derived from the product description and documentation
and what the usermay reasonably expect from the apparatus if used as intended.” Thus in testing
to the criterion B level, the functional/monitoring test equipment must continue to monitor or
store the data, which must remain uncorrupted during the test. As described later, this may be
very difficult to achieve, and in some cases a display may momentarily blank or the I/O card
in the monitoring equipment may lose the data due to the impressed transient. In this case, as
long as data and the correct monitoring of data resumes after the test, the equipment can be
said to have passed at criterion B, which is the requirement, even though it is the monitoring
device that is susceptible.
Before a radiated immunity test can be performed, the test facility field uniformity test
described in IEC 6000-4-3 and ENV 50140 must be performed. If a usable test area of 1.5
X 1.5 m is required, the field uniformity over this area and at a height of 0.8 m above the floor
of the facility must be measured. The calibration is performed without the EUT present, and
12 of 16 points on a grid over the plane must meet the 0-to +6-dB field uniformity criterion
referenced to 3 V/m or 10 V/m. For testing larger EUTs it is required that the intensity of the
field at a height of 0.4 m above the ground plane, as well as over the full width and height of
the largest EUT, be measured and reported in the test report. Figure 9.20 shows the calibration
of the field.
The preferred test facility consists of an absorber-lined shielded enclosure, an example
of which is shown in Figure 9.21, in which the anechoic lining material on walls and ceiling
has been omitted for clarity. Both the type and construction of the test area and the type of
transmitting antenna can lead to errors larger than 6 dB. For example, many anechoic chalnbers
exhibit low-frequency resonances, which can result in a wide variation in E field Over the test
volume. Addition of absorber loads at strategic locations in the room or ferrite tiles at strategic
locations on the walls or any other of the steps discussed in Section 9.51 (9) may be applied.
If the transmitting antenna has too high a gain, then the field strength in the main lobe of the
552 Chapter 9
,
U n i f m area I l I
0
+ ll
I
I
Figure 9.20 Calibration of immunity test field. (Reproduced by permission of CENELEC,Brussels,

Belgium, OCENELEC.)
antenna can vary by more than 6 dB. If the required test area is smaller than 1.5 m X 1.5 m,
then the number of test points can be reduced.
One very important guideline, which should be applied to MIL-STD orany type of radiated
susceptibility tests but which seldom is, isthat the test field be calibrated on the empty test area
before the test and the test then performed with the same output power to the field-generating
antenna as during the calibration. Control of the field strength during the test is of no value,
becausethe field will be distortedwhenthe test object is present and the field may not be
correctly measured.
The test sample shall not be placed closer than 1 m to the field-generating antenna, al-
though a test distance of 3 m is preferred.
Annex A of ENV 50140, which is for infornxdon, discusses field strength to be expected
at thebiconical antenna from 20 to 300 MHz andthelog-periodicfrom 80 to 1000 MHz.
Circularly polarized antennas may be used only if the output power from the power amplifier
is increased by 3 dB. It is recommended in semianechoic chambers (those with no absorber on
the floor) that additional absorber be placed on the floor in the illumination path from antenna
to EUT. Striplines, TEM, and (although it is not mentioned) the GTEM cells may be used only
if the field homogeneity requirements are met and if the EUT and cable can be arranged as
required by the standard. Additionally, wiredcables cannot exceed one-third of the dimension
between septum and outer conductor. Thus the TEM, GTEM, and stripline are typically useful
for small EUTs. Ascreenedroomwithlimitedabsorbingmaterial may be used if the field
homogeneity requirement and all other requirements are met and an open antenna range provid-
ing legal limits on radiating E fields is met and absorbing material is placed on the floor.
mtnmpnlatii
Chamber penelralimcables
Figure 9.21 Example of semianechoic chamber suitable for radiated immunity tests. (Reproduced by
permission of CENELEC, Brussels, Belgium, OCENELEC.)
Conducted Immunity C/M RF

The generic conducted immunity (C/M injection), specified for equipment used in industrial
environments,is covered byEN 50082-2, Part 2. This references ENV 50141 for the test method.
The generic requirement for conducted immunity onequipment used in residential commercial
and light industry is contained in EN 50082-1, Part 1, which reportsthat C/M injection is “under
consideration” and whichreferences EN 61000-4-6. The test frequency is 0.15 MHz to 80 MHz
AM modulated at 80%. Three methods of injection are provided. The direct coupling is for tests
on shielded or unshielded cables; the basic test setup for shielded cables is shown in Figure
9.22, and the calibration test setup for unshielded cables is shown in Figure 9.23. The value
for R is N X 100 Q where N = number of conductors in unshielded cable. An alternative
coupling method is via a coupling/decouplingnetwork (CDN). The injection may be made either
directly via the CDN, as shown in Figure 9.24, or by an inductive injection clamp into the
impedance of the CDN, as shown in Figure 9.25. If a CDN is not available, the method shown
in Figure 9.25 can be used with the terminating resistors shown in Figure 9.23 as long as the
impedance of the terminating resistors is in accordance with the requirements of ENV 50141
and EN 61000-4-6. EN 6100046 describes a separate setup for level-setting. The injection test
setups are described as follows.
Equipment Checklist
1. Signal generator 0.15-80 MHz with either an AM modulation capability of 1 kHz at
80% or an external modulation input.
554 Chapter 9
Figure 9.22 C/M injection direct test method for screened (shielded) cables.
2. Signal generator for 1 kHz. If generator in ( I ) requires an external modulation source.

If generator in ( l ) does not have an external modulation input, then a modulator is
required between the signal generator output and the power amplifier in (3).
3. Power amplifier 0.15-80 MHz. Typically 10-75 W, depending on injection method,
with 50-ohm source impedance.
4. Inductiveinjection clamporcoupling/decoupling networks (CDNs) orcapacitor/
resistor networks (see 6) for direct coupling.
5. Ferrite ring cores for the direct coupling into screened (shielded) cables test set.
Figure 9.23 Test setup for calibration, direct coupling to nonscreened (unshielded) mains and (Power)
cables.
ground plane
"
Power Vm = 1/6th Measuring

VI11
Amplifier of the test Equipment
Voltage
RL = 5 0 011m(Inay be extemal
Signal or internal to
equipment )
Generator
Figure 9.24 C/M injection directly via the CDN, with CDNs or resistive networks asthe loads.
Figure 9.25 Test setup for injection via the inductive clamp, with resistive networks, or more typically
CDNs, as the loads.
556 Chapter 9
6. 100-ohm and 50-ohm series injection and load resistors and for direct coupling into
nonscreened (unshielded) cables <20-nF coupling capacitors.
7. Oscilloscope with at least a 100-MHz bandwidth and a 5 0 4 input impedance or a
50-Q terminating resistor.
8. Spectrum analyzer or EM1 receiver.
9. >6-dB power attenuator. Required for CDN injection only.
Setup and Operations

For direct coupling into shielded cables and unshielded cables: Connect the equipment as
shown in Figure 9.22 for shielded cables and Figure 9.23 for unshielded and ensure that the
full 3 V or 10-V rms unmodulated can be developed across the 150-ohm load. Because the
voltage is measured across only the 50-ohm part of the load and an impedance of 250 Q is
presented in series, the 10-V rnis (28-V pk-pk) level is met when the voltage is one-sixth, or
1.67 V rnis (4.7 1 pk-pk measured using the oscilloscope). With the carrier amplitude modulated
at 80%, ensure that the pk-pk voltage increases. EN 61000-4-6 shows a test setup for level
setting. Also measure the harmonics using the spectrum analyzerheceiver and ensure that they
are at least 15 dB below the carrier level.
For unshielded cables during the test, the signal is injected in parallel into all the power
conductors in the cable via a resistor and capacitor in series. The total value of all of the resistors
in parallel (the C/M resistance) is 100 Q. Thus, if four lines are tested, 4 X 400 Q resistors
are used.
For the coupling directly via the CDN or via the inductive clamp with CDNs or resistor
networks:
1. Ensure that the CDN has been calibrated as described in ENV 50141 and meets the
Z,,, common-mode impedance requirements (with all lines connected together while
tested for the impedance) of 150 I+_ 20 R from 0.15 to 26 MHz and 150 +60/-45
Q from 26 to 80 MHz when tested in accordance with Figure 7c of ENV 50141:
1993.
2. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 9.24 for direct injection or as shown in
Figure 9.25 for injection via the inductive clamp. Ensure that the full 10-V rms unmod-
ulated can be developed across the 300-ohni load presented by the CDNs or CDN
and resistor network. Because the voltage is measured across only the 50-ohm output
of the CDN and a series impedance of 250 ohms is included in the two CDNs or
resistor network, the voltage developed across the 50-Q termination is one-sixth of
the test voltage. Thus, with a 10-V rins (28-V pk-pk) level applied, the test is met
when the measured voltage is 1.67 V rins (4.7 1 V pk-pk measured using the oscillo-
scope). EN 61000-4-6 shows a setup for level setting. With the carrier amplitude
modulated at 80%, ensure that the pk-pk voltage increases across the 50-ohm load.
Also measure the harmonics using the spectrum analyzerheceiver and ensure that
they are at least 15 dB below the carrier level.
When the EUT does not have any conductive surface (such as a terminal contained within
a plastic enclosure), a more realistic test setup is with the EUT completely disconnected from
the ground plane, this is shown in Figure 9.26.
If a computer or other device is used to monitor the performance of the EUT during
immunity testing, then this can be protected from the test level by locating it outside of the
shielded room, by the use of ferrite baluns on the cable, or by a filtered connector at the shielded-
Figure 9.26 Inductive clamp injectionwiththe EUT disconnected from ground.
room entry. Figure 9.27 shows a similar test setup with direct injection of the C/M RF into the
power lines.
For coupling via the EM-clamp, see Figure A.5.2 of ENV 50141:1993 or Annex A of
EN 6 1000-4-6.
Rrrdicrted hntnunity H Field
The power frequency H field immunity requirement is contained in EN 50082-2, with the test
method described in EN 61000-4-8 (IEC 1000-4-8). One calibration test setup, using the MIL-
STD 13.3-cni loop antenna available in many test facilities, is shown in Figure 9.28. The trans-
mitting loop is either a 1 - m X 1-m single square induction coil connected to a ground plane,
a double square loop, 1 m per side and spaced 0.6 nl apart, or a single rectangular coil 1 m X
2.6 m, all of which are described in EN 61000-4-8. The calibration method is as follows.
Figure 9.27 C/M RF injection via the CDN into the power lines.
558 Chapter 9
Figure 9.28 Calibration test setup for loop antenna.
Equipment Checklist
1. AC power source for continuous-mode operation with a current capability of 1-100
A divided by the coil factor (typically 0.833, resulting in a current of 1.2-120 A).
The power source istypically the variac and step-down transformer used in the MIL-
STD-462 RS02 test.
2. AC power source for short duration, 1-3 S, with a current capability of 300- 1000 A
divided by the coil factor (typically 350-1200 A).
3. AC power current clamp or the equipment in (7) and (8) or in (8) and (9).
4. AC voltmeter for use with the current clamp.
5. 0. l-ohm resistor rated at 1' X 0.1, where I is the test current. At 100 A the resistor
may be constructed of a number of resistors with a total wattage rating of greater
than I kW.
6. An oscilloscope used for differential measurements (channel A + B or A - B) and
an input voltage range of at least 50 V DC or the differential probe with X I O attenua-
tor, or an AC voltmeter.
7. l-m x I-m single square induction coil with ground plane or double l-m-side, 0.6-
m-spaced square induction coil or single rectangular coil 1 m X 2.6 m as described
in EN 61000-4-8.
8. 13.3-cm shielded loop H field antenna, as described in MIL-STD-462 REO1, 30 HZ

to 30 kHz, 1997, and MIL-STD-462D RE101, 30 Hz to 100 kHz, 1993.
9. Low-frequency preamplifier, if required, with MIL-STD loop in (8).
For AC power source continuous current:
1. Connect the variac to the AC power line, with the adjustable winding connected to
the high-voltage winding of the step-down transformer.
2. Connect the 0.1-ohm resistor across the low-voltage winding of the step-down trans-
former with a sufficiently long connection to accommodate the jaws of the current
clamp.
3. Connect the current clamp around the low-voltage connection of the step-down trans-
former and the clamp to the AC voltmeter.
4. Adjust the variac until the voltage measured across the voltmeter is correct for the
specified test current.
For AC power.frequency test using the 0.I-ohm resistor and oscilloscope for continuous
current:
1. Connect the variac to the AC power line, with the adjustable winding connected to
the high-voltage winding of the step-down transformer.
2. Connect the 0. l-ohm resistor across the low-voltage winding of the step-down trans-
former.
3. Connect the oscilloscope or AC voltmeter across the 0.1-ohm resistor.
4. Adjust the variac until the voltage measured across the voltmeter or measured by the
oscilloscope is equal to the specified test current multiplied by 0.1.
For AC power frequency test using the 0.l-ohm resistor and oscilloscope for short-
durution current:
1. Connect the short-duration current generator to the 0. I -ohm resistor.
2. Connect the oscilloscopedifferentiallyacrossthe0.1-ohmresistor.
3. Adjust the short-duration current generator until the voltage measured by the oscillo-
scope is equal to the specified test current multiplied by 0.1.
Culibrutiow of the loop for coil factor:
I. Connect the current source to the induction coil via an 0.1-ohm resistor if the oscillo-
scope is used to measure current, or directly if a current clamp is used to measure
current. The test setup is shown in Figure 9.26.
2. Connect the 13.3-cm loop to the oscilloscope, terminated in a 50-ohm resistor.
3. Adjust the current in the induction coil to a known value, typically 10-50 A.
4. Place the MIL-STD 13.3-cm loop in the center of the induction coil and orient the
loop for a maximum voltage reading on the oscilloscope.
5. Use the conversion factor of the MIL-STD 13.3-cm loop orthe manufacturer’s calibra-
tion at the power-line frequencyto obtain the H field in amps per meter. For example,
assume that the voltage measured from the loop is 1 1 mV pk-pk, which converts to
3.9 mV rms = 72 dBpV. Assume the conversion factor for the loop is 68.5 dB at
the power-line frequency; then the magnetic field in dBpT is 72 dBpV + 68.5 dB
= 140.5 dBpT = 1.06 X IO’ PT. The magnetic field in amps permeter is 1.06 X
lo7 pT X 7.936 X IO” = 8.4 A/m. The coil factor of the transmitting loop is given
560 Chapter 9
by the magnetic field strength divided by the input current. With a transmitting induc-
tion loop current of 10 A, the coil factor of the transmitting loop is 8.4 A/m/IO A
= 0.84.
Corlducted Itnmunity EFT

The extrafast transient (EFT) immunity test is specified i n EN 50082-1, EN 50082-2, and EN
55024, with the test setup described in IEC 1000-4-4 and EN 61000-4-4. The EFT generator
has the following stringent requirements placed upon it: Up to 4 kV O K and 2 kV when loaded
with 50 Q. The waveshape measured across 50 R is to be in accordance with Figure 3 of IEC-
801-4 ( 5 ns ? 30% rise time to 90% amplitude and SO ns t- 30% at 50% amplitude). Thepulse
repetition rate is to be 2.5-5 kHz, depending on output voltage, with a burst duration of 15 ms
and a burst period of 300 ms. A gas discharge tube is shown in IEC 1000-4-4 as the device
used to generate these very fast pulses. However, gas discharge tubes have a limited life and are
often erratic in triggering. A patented semiconductor device has been manufactured by Behlke
Electronic GmbH, Am Auernberg 4, D-61476 Kronberg, Germany, Tel +49(0) 6173-9229020,
Fax +49 (0) 6173-929030. This is a very reliable and easy-to-use device for those who want
to build their own EFT generator.
The EFTgenerator can best be calibrated using a calibration network/high-voltage attenua-
tor. This network will load up to a 2.5-kV pulse with 50 L2 and divide down the voltage so that
a fraction of the high-voltage pulse can be developed across the 50-R input of a very high-
speed oscilloscope. This network can be calibrated to ensure that the waveshape of the EFT
pulse measured by the oscilloscope is virtually identical to the EFT generator output pulse.
For the EFT test the following equipment is required.
Equipment Checklist
1. EFT generator of up to 4kV O/C outputand2 kV when loaded with 50 R. The
waveshape measured across 50 R to be in accordance with Figure 3 of IEC 1000-4-
4 ( 5 ns -+ 30%risetime to 90% amplitudeand S O ns I+_ 30% at 50% amplitude).
The pulse repetition rate to be 2.5-5 kHz with a burst duration of 15 ms and a burst
period of 300 ms. If a calibration of the generator cannot be made, ensure that the
generator has a calibration certificate and that the calibration was conducted less than
a year prior to the proposed test.
2. Coupling/decoupling network for AC/DC power supply lines in accordance with IEC
1000-4-4.
3. Capacitive coupling clamp for U0 circuits may also be used for AC/DC power when
the coupling/decoupling network cannot be used. Capacitance between SO and 200
PF.
4. Oscilloscope and coaxial cable with length of well-insulated wire connected to center
conductor of the shielded cable.
Capacitive Coupling Clamp or Coupling/Decoupling Network Test Setup
Connect the capacitive clamp or coupling network to a ground plane with a minimum
size of 1 m X 1 m, as shown in Figures 9.29a and 9.29b. Locate the signal/power cable under
test through the capacitive clamp, and locate the EUT at a distance of less than 1 m between
the end of the clamp and the EUT. The clamp hasa coaxial connector at one end and a second
coaxial connector at the other end. Always connect the output of the EFT generator to the
connector closest to the EUT. The minimum distance between the EUT or the capacitive cou-
pling clamp and all other conductive structures other than the ground plane shall be more than
0.5 m. The capacitive coupling clamp is the first choice for the test on 1 / 0 or communications
0.SkV
Generator
Figure 9.29a Typical capacitive clamp injection of the EFT pulse with both EUT and AE tested.
Et
1 Ocrn
"
Figure 9.29b Typical capacitive clamp injection of the EFT pulse with the monitoring equipment pro-
tected and outside the shielded room.
ports. If the clamp cannotbeused due to mechanicalproblems(size, cable routing)inthe

cabling, it may be replaced by a tape or a conductive foil enveloping the lines under test. The
capacitance of this coupling arrangement with foil or tape should be equivalent to that of the
standard coupling clamp. As an alternative it might be useful to couple the generator output to
the terminals of the lines under test via discrete 100-pF capacitors. If only one EUT is to be
562 Chapter 9
tested and not the AE, or if a computer or monitor is used to monitor the performance of the
EUT during the test,it is advisable to locate this equipment outside of the shielded room. Ferrite
baluns can be added on the interconnection cables or a transient suppressor/filtered connector
at the entry of the cable into the shielded room, as shown in Figure 9.29b. Even with these
precautions it is not uncommon for the I/O board on a computer to be destroyed during the
EFT test, especially when coupling occurs within the EUT. In this case use a fiber-optic coupled
I/O board.
A typical time period for calibration of the EFT generator is once a year, unless it has
sustained some obvious damage, in which case an immediate recalibration is recommended.
Figure 9.30 shows the CDN coupling of the EFT pulse.
Conducted Immunity Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
The ESD generator is described in EN 1000-4-2 and has the following specifications:
Energy storage capacitance 150 pF -+ 10%
Discharge resistance 330 Q tr 10%
Charging resistance Between 50 and 100 MQ
Output voltage Up to 8 kV (nominal) for contact discharge
and 15kV (nominal) for air discharge
Tolerance of the output voltage indication t5%
Polarity of the output voltage Positive and negative (switchable)
Holding time At least 5 seconds
Discharge, mode of operation Single discharge (time between successive
discharges at least 1 S)
Waveshape of the discharge current The peak current is reached witha rise time
of 0.7-1 ns. At 30 ns, the current is
at 53.3% of the peak, and at 60 ns at
26.6% of the peak.
A discharge electrode with a round tip and having specific dimensions is shown for air
discharges; a sharp-pointed tip with a specific angle for the tip is shown for contact discharges.
A current-sensing transducer, for use with a 1-GHz-bandwidth oscilloscope, is described
for the calibration of the ESD generator. Dimensions for the transducer are provided in IEC
1000-4-2, and these transducers are commercially available. It is advisable to mount the trans-
ducer in the wallof a shielded room, with the ESDgenerator on the outside and the oscilloscope
(iCllcn.at<r-
Figure 9.30 Typical CDN coupling of the EFT pulse.

EMI Measurements,
Requirements,
Control and Testing 563
on the inside.Alternatively, a smallfaraday cage can be constructed, with the transducer

mounted to a face made of solid sheet metal.The oscilloscope can be mounted inside the faraday
cage and either viewed through a wire mesh or operated in a storage mode. A typical time
period for calibration of the ESD generator is once a year, unless it has sustained some obvious
damage, in which case an immediate recalibration is recommended.
The contact discharge should be made to conductive surfaces and to the horizontal c m -
pling plane (HCP) and vertical coupling plane (VCP). Some typical conductive surfaces on an
EUT contained in a nonconductive enclosure are screws and other metal fasteners, Connector
housings, pins in connectors, and metal covers. Some of the most potentially susceptible areas
are pins in a connector to which no cable is attached, arounda reset switch, and a plasma, LCD,
or LED display. Air discharges should be made to insulating surfaces such as video display
Screens or keyboards. Some of the most potentiallysusceptible areas aredisplaysand any-
where where a metal fastener, PCB, or other metal is close to the surface in a nonconductive
enclosure.
A ground reference plane shall be provided on the floor of the test area. It shall be a
metallic sheet (copperor aluminum) of0.25-mm minimum thickness. Any other metallic materi-
als may be used, but they shall have at least 0.65-mm minimum thickness. The minimum size
of the ground reference plane shall be 1 m!, and it shall project beyond the EUT or coupling
plane by at least 0.5 m .
A distance of 1 m minimum shall be provided between the EUT and the wall of the test
facility and any other metallic structure; this requirement may restrict the use of a small shielded
room for this test. The EUT shall be connected to the grounding system, in accordance with
its installation specifications. No additional grounding connections are allowed. If the EUT is
contained in a nonconductive enclosure and DC power is derived via an isolated power supply
connected to the AC outlet, no obvious ground connection is made. Often the equipment will
interface to a computer or monitor, in which case the ground is often made via these devices,
typically via a single-ended digital/analog or video signal interface. Just as with the EFT test,
the ESD current can flow via the EUT into the peripheral equipment, resulting in damage. In
one instance the equipment was connected inside a vehicle and the current path to ground was
via the power return cable and via the battery terminal to the chassis of the vehicle. Analyzing
the path for the ESD event current flow is very important when solving ESD susceptibility
problems. The connection of the earth cable to the ground reference plane and all bondings
shall be low impedance. Coupling planes are connected to the reference ground plane withcable
that contains 470-kQ resistors at each end of the cable. The ESD test setup shall consist of a
wooden table 0.8 m high standing on the ground reference plane. The horizontal coupling plane
is 1.6 m X 0.8 m and shall be placed on the wooden table. The EUT and cables are isolated
from the HCP by an insulating support 0.5 mm thick. The ESD generator return is connected
to the ground reference plane. The test programs and software, as with all immunity tests, shall
be chosen to exercise all normal modes of operation of the EUT. The use of special exer-
cising software is encouraged, but it is permitted only where it can be shown that the EUT
is comprehensivelyexercised.Forthe ESD test,performancecriterion B is required for a
pass, so the correct functioning of the EUT after the test has been conducted must be demon-
strated.
For direct application of discharges to the EUT, the ESD shall be applied to such points
and surfaces of the EUT as are accessible to personnel during normal usage. The test shall be
performed with single discharges. On preselected points, at least I O single discharges (in the
most sensitive polarity) shallbe applied. Multiple discharges are recommended when attempting
to find the source of ESD susceptibility or after modifications designed to harden against ESD.
564 Chapter 9
The ESD generator is to be held perpendicular to the surface to which the discharge is
applied. The discharge return cable is to be kept at a distance of at least 0.2 m from the EUT.
For contact discharges, the tip of the discharge electrode shall touch the EUT, before the dis-
charge switch is operated. In the case of air discharges, the round discharge tip of the electrode
shall be approached as fast as possible (without causing mechanical damage) to touch the EUT.
After each discharge, the discharge electrode shall be removed from the EUT. The generator
is then charged for a new, single discharge. The discharge switch, which is used for contact
discharge, shall remain closed. At least I O single discharges shall be made to the HCP at points
on each side of the EUT. At least 10 single discharges shallbe made to the center of one vertical
edge of the VCP. The VCP is 0.5 m X 0.5 m in size and is placed parallel to, and positioned
at a distance of 0.1 m from the EUT. Figure 9.31 illustrates the ESD test setup.
Conducted ltntnunity Surge Test
The surge generator is referred to as a combination wave (hybrid) generator. The major charac-
teristic of the combination wave generator is that it delivers a 1 . 2 - p / S O - p voltage surge under
open-circuit ( O K ) conditions and a 8-ps/2O-p current surge into a short-circuit (WC) with an
effective output impedance of 2 Q.
Thus at a peak open-circuit voltage of 2 kV, the peak short-circuit current is 1000 A.
The characteristics of the generator, from IEC 1000-4-5, are as follows.
Open-circuit
output
voltage At least as low as 0.5 kV to at least as high
as 4.0 kV
G R O U N D PLANE
Figure 9.31 ESD test setup.

EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Testing
Control
and 565
Waveform of the surge voltageRisetime of 1.2 v s +- 30%from 0.1 X Vpk

to 0.95 X Vpk. Time from 0.1 X Vpk
on risingedge to 0.5 X Vpk on falling
edge = 50 ps 2 20%
Short-circuit output current At least as low as 0.25 kV to at
least
as
high
as 2.0 kV
Waveform of the surge current Rise time of 8 ps -+ 20% from 0.1 X Ipk
to 0.95 X Ipk. Time from 0.1 X Ipk
on rising edge to 0.5 X Ipk on falling
edge = 20 ps +- 20%
Polarity Positivehegative
Phase shifting In a range between 0" versus
the
360"
and
AC line phase angle
Repetition
rate At least
minute
1 per
A generator with floating output shall be used.
Additional resistors of 10 R or 40 R shall be included to increase the required effective
source impedance, as described later, and under these conditions the open-circuit voltage wave-
form and the short-circuit current waveform in combination with the coupling/decoupling net-
work are no longer as specified.
Coupling/decoupling networks are used to isolate the power or signal source from the
surge, and these should not significantly influence the parameters of the generators, e.g., open-
circuit voltage, short-circuit current.
Capacitive coupling for power supplies allows the surge to be applied line to line or line
to earth (ground) while the decoupling network is also connected.
The coupling capacitors are either 9 pF or 18 pF, and the inductance in the decoupling
network is 1.5 mH.
The residual surge voltage on unsurged lines with the EUT disconnected shall not exceed
15% of the applied voltage, and shall not exceed 15% on the power supply inputs when the
EUT and power supply are disconnected.
Figure 9.32 shows the capacitive coupling into AC/DC power line to line, and Figure
9.33 shows the capacitive injection line to earth.
(snfety ground)
l I
Figure 9.32 Capacitive injection of the surge on AC/DC power line to line.
566 Chapter 9
Capacitive coupling is the preferred method for unbalanced unshielded I/O circuits when
there is no influence to the functional communication on that line. The application is via a 0.5-
pF capacitor in series with a 4 0 4 resistor, in accordance with Figure 10 of IEC 1000-4-5.
Coupling via arrestors is the preferred coupling method for unshielded balanced circuits, as
shown in Figure 12 of IEC 1000-4-5.
Manufacturers of commercial equipment are used to meeting FCC radiated and conducted
emission requirements, and therefore the EN emission requirements do not generally present
any more of a problem, whereas the immunity requirements may present a problem for certain
types of equipment.
Military/aerospace equipment radiated susceptibility test levels contained in MIL-STD-
461 are specified from 1 V/m and above. However, a very great difference exists between
equipment designed to meet military/aerospace requirements and commercial equipment. For
example, MIL-STD-46 1 type of equipment is typically contained in shielded metal enclosures
with few if any apertures, use effective power-line filters, and are connected with shielded cables.
Commercial equipment is often contained in plastic unshielded enclosures or metal enclosures
that contain large slots, which often enhance emissions from that location, and use unshielded
interface cables. Thus the incident E field in a radiated immunity test results in RF currents that
flow on cables and on PCBs inside the enclosure, When equipment uses digital techniques and
digital signal interfaces, it is itself a source of high levels of electromagnetic fields. It is self-
compatible and therefore typically immune to the specified radiated susceptibility test levels
and the resultant R F currents set up in the equipment. The problem occurs with telephone and
audio equipment and their associated signal interfaces, in which a high incidence of susceptibility
has been seen. In the early drafts of the EN documents, the C/M conducted immunity require-
ment appeared to apply to all classes of equipment, and much of the telephone, audio, and low-
signal-level control equipment was tested with radiated immunity and C/M conducted immunity
test levels and had a problem meeting the requirements.
Sections 5. I . 10, 5.3.2 and 5.4 discuss how the immunity of equipment may be increased
both in the design and after production.
L
nr,
AC: (Dc) 1
Fo-r ~ P P ~ Y ELJT
nehuxk
--
/\
PE
(snfcty ground)
Iknh retbrence
9.4.6 Taiwan EMC Law

At present, only RF emissions are regulated, although the proposed immunity standards may
be adopted. The Ministry of Economic Affairs published the requirements in Commodity EMC
Regulation. The Bureau of Commodity Inspection and Quarantine (BCIQ) is responsible for
issuing EMC type approval certificates and for granting laboratory accreditation. By law, only
Chinese National Standards (CNS) may be used as inspection standards. Theemission standards
are based on IEC and CISPR, as follows:
Standard CISPR
CISPR 11 ISM equipment CNS13306
CISPR 13 RadioITVs CNS13439
CISPR14 Appliances Products covered by IEC 335
CISPR 22 ITE/Telecom CNS13438
CISPR16 + ANSI 63.4 Methods CNS13306
The process to secure an EMC typeapprovalcertificatefromthe BCIQ and to allow

equipment to be sold in Taiwan is to obtain an EMC test from a BCIQ-accredited test laboratory,
submit a test report and other documentation to the BCIQ for issuance of the type approval
certificate. The other documentation required includes:
Completed application form
Product sample (if requested)
Two copies of product catalog
Sufficient 4- by 5-inch color photos of the product to show its appearance and construction
as well as component placement in the chassis and nature of the chassis assembly
Instruction manual and technical specifications
Block diagram showing all oscillator frequencies
Circuit diagram
Application fee
The BCIQ intends to audit products offered forsale in Taiwan toensure that they conform
to the type approval. Nonconforming products will be withdrawn from the market and their
type approval certificates revoked. Asidefrom nonconformance, other reasons for the revocation
of a type approval certificate include: false labeling that is not corrected immediately; failure
promptly to provide a sample to the BCIQ when requested; failure to pay a processing fee in
a timely manner, and fraudulent acquisition of a certificate or improper use of the same. At
present, no BCIQ-accredited EM1 laboratories exist outside of Taiwan.
9.5 SHIELDED ROOMS, ANECHOIC CHAMBERS, TRANSMISSION LINES,

AND CELL ANTENNAE
The use of a shielded room for low-level electromagnetic measurements is often predicated on
the high electromagnetic ambient outsideof the room; also, the room may be required to contain
susceptibility test levels. The use of a shielded room results in errors in the measurement of
radiated emissions and in the generation of radiated susceptibility test fields. The causeof errors
and some techniques available to reduce them are described in the following section.
568 Chapter 9
9.5.1 Shielded-Enclosure Internal Fields and Antenna Errors

Shielded rooms are used primarily eitherto contain electromagnetic fields within them, typically
for either Tempest requirements or during radiated susceptibility tests, or to reduce the ambient
electromagnetic environment to low levels. Two principle types of shielded enclosures are those
with low-loss, reflective interior walls and those with lossy interior walls (e.g., the anechoic
chamber). When using a shielded enclosure with reflective walls for radiated emission or radiated
susceptibility tests, the accuracy of measurements are adversely affected by
1. Enclosureinternal reflection
2. Capacitive or inductive coupling of antennas to the conductive walls
3. Distortion, noncoherent and standing waves due to reflections from the interior sur-
faces
4. Enclosureexcited in the TEM mode
5. Otherresonancemodes
Some characteristics that affect all of these factors are the shape and size of the enclosure,
the position of the test setup, the size and gain of the antenna, and the presence and location
of personnel and test equipment and the enclosure.
Errors of as high as r 4 0 dB are possible in radiated emission measurements made in a
shielded room, with a change in field strength of approximately 15 dB due to a 1-2-cm change
either in the spacing between theEUT and the antennaor in the location of measuring equipment
or personnel. The continued use of nonanechoic chambers for measurements of electromagnetic
waves is a puzzle to most antenna engineers. However, shieldedrooms have been used for many
years for the MIL-STD-462 and DO-160 type of tests.
Both DO-160 and MIL-STD-462, prior to MIL-STD-462D, require the use of a ground
plane on which nonportable equipment is bonded. Most, but not all, procuring agencies using
the foregoing specifications require that the ground plane be connected to a vertical conductive
wall and located at a height of 1 m above a second conductive surface (shielded-enclosure floor);
however, this does not rule out the use of an anechoic or semianechoic chamber (a chamber in
which the floor is not covered with absorber). The resonances of a shielded room with and
without equipment and the coupling between antennas located a meter apart compared to the
coupling in free space are reproduced in Figures 9.34a and 9.34b, respectively, from Ref. 3.
Figure 9.35 shows the principal reflection paths in a shielded room that cause a spatial interfer-
ence pattern due to the phase difference between the primary and reflected wave. It is theoreti-
cally possible to measure either an infinitely high wave impedance (i.e., no magnetic field com-
ponent) or zero wave impedance (i.e., no electric field component) due to the interference. The
gain of a current element or short dipole antenna is affected by the proximity of the antenna
to the ground plane. The gain of the current element over a ground plane may be found from
d, the effective length, and p = 2 d h . When pd is small, the gain of the current element over
the ground plane is approximately three times that for an element in isolation. When pd = 2.9,
the gain is a maximum of 6.6 and the length of the antenna d is 0.46h.
A knowledge of the gain is important when predicting E fields from an antenna located
in a shielded room, for susceptibility measurements or for an EMC prediction of radiated emis-
sion from a current element close to a ground plane.
Afteralmost 50 years of conductingMIL-STD radiatedemissionmeasurements in
shielded rooms without damping, the requirement that RF absorber material be used in shielded
rooms when performing radiated emission or radiated susceptibility measurements was intro-
duced in MIL-STD-462D, 11 January 1993, although other, unspecified, test sites may be used.
The MIL-STD-462D/MIL-STD-461E absorber requirements, as well as other, often less
40
m
v
I/)
U
L
30
r
w
e
5 20
X
W
W
c
IO
W
m
U
E
-A
O
(L
73
0
U .IO
O
W
-
W
2 -20
I
a
0
E
-30 I
IO 20 30 40 50 100 200 300 500
FRLQULNCY. M H L
Figure 9.34a Antenna coupling in a shielded room. (From Ref. 3.)
60
m 40
D
20
-10
100 5 0 75 125 150 175 200
FREQUENCY - MHz
Figure 9.34b Shielded-enclosure resonance effects versus frequency for constant drive with the enclo-
sure empty and with equipment in it. (From Ref. 3.)
expensive, methods used to reduce errors inherent in shielded-room measurements are discussed
next.
1. MlL-STD-462D/MlL-STD-461E crbsorber requirements. TheRF absorber may be
carbon-impregnated foam pyramids or ferrite tiles or a combination of these types of absorber
material. The RF absorber shall be placed above, behind, and on both sides of the EUT and
behind the radiating or receiving antenna, as shown in Figure 9.36. Minimum performance of
the material shall be as specified in Table 9.14. The manufacturer's certification of their RF
absorber material (basic material only, not installed) is acceptable.
570 Chapter 9
. Source
..
Antenna /
Figure 9.35 Multiple-pathreflections in a shieldedroom
2. Measurements made i n the shielded roomat a specific location with antennas cali-
brated at the same location. As with all antenna factor measurements, these should be made
in the far field and above thefrequencywherea TEM mode may occur in theroom. This
technique is most effective when used with high-gain antennas, such as horns, at frequencies
above 500 MHz and relies on the fact that the principal resonances in the room are compensated
for, to a degree, in the AF calibration, as are reflections. Although less effective, the technique
may be applied to broadband antennas at frequencies below 500 MHz. The transmitting and
receiving antennas should be identical, and the receiving antenna should be located at a specific
location in the room. The AF calibration is then valid only for that specific location. The AF
is derived using the two-antenna test method described in Section 2.5.3. The accuracy of the
AF obtained by use of this method is sensitive to the location of the transmitting antenna, to
the location of equipment in the room, and to the exact location of the receiving antenna. Inter-
pretation of the resultant AF is often difficult, due to the sharp dips andpeaks in the curve from
room effects. Despite thesesources of error, the resultant AF is more accurate thanthat published
by the manufacturer, and at the very least room resonances may be identified by examination
of the measured AF.
3. Stirred mode or reverberation room. The reverberation room contains a large paddle
that moves and changes the resonance frequencies of the room. Figure 9.37a illustrates the setup.
The fields inside a reverberation room can be accurately described as isotropic and noncoherent
and exhibit a constant, average, uniform field in the large inside volume of the room. The room
can be characterized by separating the time and spatial variations, and this can be achieved by
filtering the revolution frequency of the moving paddle from the change in frequency caused
by the stirred mode. Thus a calibration curve of the room that compares the measured field
strength to the free-space-equivalent field strength can be constructed. The accuracy of the corre-
lation is typically ?6 dB from 45 MHz to 1 GHz and + O S dB from 1 to 18 GHz. Although
a fairly recent development, the use of reverberation chambers has been looked at by CISPR
(International Special Commission for Radio Interference) and the U.S. Navy. MIL-STD- 1377
describes a tuned-mode test setup that is useful above 200 MHz and isan improvement on MIL-
STD-285 for the test of enclosure shielding effectiveness. The tuned-mode test setup is shown
in Figure 9.37b. An alternative to the MIL-STD-462 radiated susceptibility test setup (RS03),
using a stirred-mode reverberation room useful over the frequency range from 200 MHz to 1
GHz is described as follows: The components used inside the room are shown in Figure 9.37.
The room contains a tuner stirrer. Either it is stepped and stopped, with a measurement made
during the stopped interval, or a sample-hold technique may be used, with the stirrer in continu-
EMI Measurements, Control Requirements, and Testing 571
Figure 9.36 " D - 4 6 2 D RF absorber loading diagram.
ous stepped motion. The sampling is then accomplished during the stopped time of the stirrer.
The stirrer is rotated through 360" in a minimum of 100 steps. Where fewer than 100 steps is
used, a derating correction is required, as described later. The step rate must be slow enough
to ensure that the EUT has time to respond to the changing electromagnetic environment. A
power meter is used to monitor the output of the signal generatodpower amplifier applied to
the transmitting antenna. The transmitting antenna may be a matched long-wire antenna,up to
the resonant frequency of the long wire. Isolators may be required to protect the signal source
and power meter from large reflection coefficientsat the test power frequencies and levels.The
Table 9.14 Absorptionat

Normal Incidence of MIL-STD-
462/MIGSTD461E Specified
Material
Minimum
absorption Frequency
80-250 M H z 6 dB
Above 250 MHz 10 dB
572 Chapter 9
Shielded enclosure
ntenna paddle Rotating

wheel
4 0
Figure 9.37a Stirred-mode perturbation test configuration.
room is calibrated at a givencalibrationinput power P(ca1) that generates a givenaverage

calibration E field E(ca1). The E field is measured by a receiving antenna and receiver or spec-
trum analyzer. To obtain the required input power, P,,,(test),to develop the specified test field,
E(test), the following equation is used:
P,,(test) = P,,(cal) X (z;::;;)

~ + 3 dB + step derating (dB)
Shielded enclosure
Antenna
Structure under test
l Antenna
Paddle wheel
I tuner
RF receiver
Figure 9.37b Tuned-mode perturbation test configuration,

' Source
Figure 9.38 RE02 radiated emission shielded room configuration for frequencies below 30 MHz which
may excite the room.
When the number of steps is less than 100, the step derating [given by 10 log( IOO/N), where
N is the number of steps] is added. The test frequency is not swept in the stirred-mode test,
unlike the standard RS03 test. Instead, the stirrer is swept through 360" at a number of fixed
frequencies. Some recommended frequencies are 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 800, and
1000 MHz.
Other frequencies at which the EUT may be susceptible should be used,ifknown. Thetime
during which the stirreris stopped is determinedby the time requiredto complete a functionaltest
on the EUT and to determine if a malfunctionhas occurred. Thus test times may be extremely long,
especially if the 100 steps per rotation are adhered to. Another disadvantage is that the frequency
is not swept, and susceptibility at a specific resonance frequency may be missed.
If the EUT is found to be susceptible, then the level of the E field generated should be
closelymonitored,using the stirrerposition at which susceptibility occurred, if known,and
adjusted to the specification level. If the EUT is susceptible at the specification level, the input
power is reduced until the EUT functions as normal and the test E field is either measured or
calculated. Although a more accurate method of controlling the test E field than the standard
RS03 test method, the inaccuracies inherent in measuring the magnitude of the E field with a
receiving antenna or probe inside the room remain.
4. Correction of N shielded rootn j b r electric. rrrrd tn~lgtzeticdipole c.vcitutio~r.Below the
first resonance frequency of a shielded room it (the shielded room) can be excited and function
as a large TEM cell. The room is typically excited during radiated elllission measurements, as
per MIL-STD-462 method RE02, by the EUT, placed on the ground plane, or interconnection
cables; this is illustrated in Figure 9.38. A test is described in Ref. 10 of the excitation of a
shielded room by either an electric field or a magnetic field source in the frequency range of
I O kHz to 30 MHz. It was found that the position of the source of emission on the ground plane
(i.e., proximity to the wall) affected the magnetic field source results by approximately 6 dB,
whereas thefield from an electric source variedby up to typically 25 dB. Thisrelative insensitivity
to reflections in the magnetic field has been seen in numerous measurements.One of the characteris-
tics of an excitation mode in a room is that the measurement antenna may be moved from the
measurement location to almost any location in the room with very little change in the measured
E field. Once the source of emission is discovered (enclosure, aperture, or cable)a correction of
the measured results basedon the excitation of the TEM mode of the room may be made.
One correction techniquethat may be applicableis to change the effectivedimensions of the
room by adding metal structures. If the coupling to the room can be reduced, then the excitation
of the room may be reduced. Moving the EUT and cables o r even isolating the EUT from the
574 Chapter
ground plane may effectively reduce the coupling. Although in the radiated emission (RE02) type
of tests it is a requirement that the EUT be bonded to the ground plane, some measure of the
reduction in E field with the room nonresonant may be useful in applying for a waiver. Absorber
material placedon the wall behind theEUT and on theceiling above it, althoughnot very effective
at low frequency, can also reduce thecoupling to the room.
5. Long-wire utltellnlI, multiwiretmtwnissionlines. ami prrrctllel-plate mtenrlus. The
long-wire antenna technique uses the excitationof the room as a TEM cell forradiated suscepti-
bility measurement up to 30 or 50 MHz. The typical configuration is shown in Figure 9.39a.
The generation of test fields at low frequency from conventional antennasis difficult. The long-
wire antenna, multiwire transmission line, and parallel-plate (stripline) antenna are all capable
of generating high E fields, from 14 kH to 30 or 50 MHz for the long-wire/multiwire and up
to 200 MHz for the parallel plate, with an EIH ratio of 377 Q, with the benefit of low cost.
Because the wave impedance is 377 R, only the E or H field need be measured to determine
the unknown field. A transmission line, such as a coaxial cable or an air dielectric stripline will
create an internal 3 7 7 4 field when it is terminated by its characteristic impedance, even when
the transmission-line impedance is far from 377 Q. When a transmission line is terminated in
other than its characteristic impedance, the field impedance is directly proportional to the load
impedance. The author is indebted to a private communication from Ref. 5 for a clearer under-
standing of the relationship between field impedance and circuit impedance (EIH = V I I ) and
that when VI1 is replaced by the characteristic impedance of the line, Z , , the EIH ratio reduces
to 377 R.
This has a very important implication in generating high E fields using a low-level power
amplifier. If a step-up transformer is used between a power amplifier and a long-wire antenna
or a stripline antenna, then a higher level of E field can be generated than possible without the
transformer, and a closer match to the optimum load, for most power amplifiers, of 40-50 R,
is achieved. A suitable transformer is commercially available that has step-up ratios of X2, X3,
X4, X7, and X 10 and a frequency range of 10 kHz to 30 MHz. The transformer is heavy, but
it is multipurpose because it is also designed to transform the DO-160-specified lightning pulse
from 750 V, 70 MS, 1500 A to 1600 VI320 A, 70 p , and the 750-V, 500-ps, 5000-A pulse to
Insulator
Long wireantenna n
Load
l
resistor I
I
I
R
I
I
E.U.T. l
I
l
h4
- 4 1 Signal
generator
Figure 9.39a Long-wireantennain a shielded-room configuration for radiated susceptibility tests in

the typical configuration.
1600 V, 500 p , 1600 A, and it can be used to increase the amplitude of a damped sinusoid
waveform with a frequency of 10 kHz up to 30 MHz.
A small long-wire antenna can be designed with an impedance close to 400 R, modeled
as a wire over a ground plane, by locating the wire 0.75 m above the tabletop ground plane.
The long wire should be approximately 2 m below the ceiling of the room and at least 3 m
from the nearest wall, which typically requiresmoving the tableaway from a wall. In this
configuration using the X3 step-up ratio of the transformer (impedance change of X91 and with
the long wire terminated in the characteristic impedance of the line, an E field as high as 200
V/m can be generated using a 75-W power amplifier! This configuration is shown in figure
9.39b. By comparison, a conventional E field generator requires 800 W to generate a 200-V/m
field 1 mfrom the antenna.Addingasecondwire0.25mfrom the first wire will improve
the field uniformity of the line, but due to the lower impedance (approximately 280 R) the step-
up ratio of the transformer is limited to X2 and approximately 150 W is required to generate
200 V/m. With the long-wire antenna strung across a2.43-m- (8') high room, in the more typical
configuration shown in Figure9.39a, but with the use of atransfonner, the E field can be
approximately 50 V/m with a distance between wire and ceiling of 0.25 m, and 100 V/m with
a distance of 1 m and the 75-W power amplifier. This is approximately 2.8 times the fields
generated without the transformer. A multiwire transmission-line antenna is described in detail
in Ref. 6. The multiwire antenna is constructed from metal tubes terminated in an array of high-
power resistors connected to the chamber wall. The line is easy to assemble and dismantle and
can generate 100-V/m fields up to 50 MHz, over a 4-m-deep X 6-m-wide and 2.8-m-high test
area with a 52-dB spatial field uniformity. The multiwireantenna has a much higher field
uniformity than the long-wire antenna and can accommodate higher EUTs, but it is not nearly
as efficient as the long-wire, or stripline, with step-up transformer, forit requires a power ampli-
fier of 2 kW to generate 100 V/m.
A parallel-plate transmission line, often referred to as a stripline antenna, open TEM cell,
or open-cage parallel-plate antenna, achieves high efficiency and a uniform field between the
Figure 9.39b Long-wireantenna with step-uptransformer.

576 Chapter 9
lines. It is terminated in the characteristic impedance of the line and will generate a TEM 377-
Q impedance field between the plates with the E field vertically polarized. If the upper surface
of the EUT is equal to or less than one-half the width of the lines, then the upper surface of
the EUT can be as close as 3 cm to the upper line when used with an upper frequency of
30 MHz, although this may result in multirnoding; i.e., more than the TEM is generated. The
recommended maximum EUT height is three-fourths of the distance between the lines. The
upper useful frequency is given by h = 2h, where h is the distance between the plates.In practice
this upper frequency is typically limited to 200 MHz for large lines and may be achieved only
with great care in the manufacture of the terminating resistance and with a small EUT.
The length of the line is not limited as long as it is correctly terminated in its characteristic
impedance.
Use of the parallel-plate line with a step-up transformer is not as effective as the long-
wire antenna, due to the lower characteristic impedance of the line. However, a parallel-plate
antenna with a l-nl distance between plates and an upper plate width of 0.4 m can be used with
a X 2 step-up transformer, which matches the line to the power amplifier reasonably well and
can generate an E field of up to 100 V/m with a 75-W power amplifier.
The parallel-plate or stripline antenna has been described in the Society of Automotive
Engineers Aerospace Information Report AIR 1209. One of the parallel-plate antennas described
has a I-m-wide upper plate with 1/16” slots at 1/2” centers and an unslotted lower plate. The
distance between the upper plate and the lower plate is 1 m , and the characteristic impedance
of the line is 120 Q. The termination impedance is three separated layersof 377 Wsq. conductive
plastic film. The film distributes the impedance more evenly at the termination and reduces the
coupling to the shielded-room wall from the termination by 36 dB. Therecommended grounding
of the lower plate is at the termination only over the complete width of the plate. The input to
the line is described as a wave launcher rather than a matching section, which has an empirically
determined shape.
The recommended frequency range of the line is 0 Hz to 30 MHz, and the maximum
recommended EUT size is 0.75 times the strip separation.
The second line is a MIL-STD-462 type in which the height-to-width ratio is not unity.
Typical characteristic impedance for these lines is anywhere from 80 Q to 105 Q, depending
on the height-to-width ratio; the normally used frequency range is 14 kHz to 30 MHz. Again
the recommended maximum EUT height is 0.75 times the distance between the plates, and the
ground plane on the table may be used as the lower plate. It is recommended that the top plate
of the line be at least 30 cm from the shielded-room wall. The feed point is tapered to match
the 5042 power amplifier impedance to the impedance of the line. When used with a matching
transformer, this tapered section is not required.
One variation of the stripline is the open TEM cell, i n which the input section is tapered
up from the drive point, located on the ground plane, to the upper plate and tapered down from
the upper plate to the 5 0 4 termination, located on the ground plane. An open TEMcell with the
dimensions shownin Figure 9.40a is described in Ref.7. Thisstripline has the great advantageof
very high E fields with a low-power amplifier and a useful upper frequency of 400 MHz. The
disadvantage with this antenna is that the tnaximum size of EUT is 0.5 m X 0.25 m X 0.06 m
in height.
Because all of the plate/stripline antennas described in this section are open on the sides,
they will radiate and must typically be used in a shielded room. One great disadvantage with
using these antennas above 30 MHz is that the radiation from the antenna will result in room
resonances that change the E field generated between the lines of the antenna. Reference 7
describes errors as high as 49 dB in the E field generated by the open TEM cell antenna due
to room resonances. The techniques described in (9) to damp room resonances with ferrite tiles
Maximum EUT dimensions = 0.5117x 0.25m x 0.06m height
Figure 9.40a Open TEM cell antenna usable up to 400 MHz.
and absorber loads may be employed. Reference 7 describes surrounding just the open TEM
cell antenna with ferrite and small pyramid absorber, with a resultant reduction in the amount
of absorber required. With this configuration, with the absorber experimentally optimized for
location, the errors were reduced to within a 23-dB range up to 400 MHz.
Figure 9.40b shows a stripline antenna with a 0.6 m height which has been calibrated to
220 MHz. Maximum EUT height is 0.4 m and the stripline is used in a damped room.
6. Tuned resoncrror. The shielded enclosure becomes a large rectangular resonant cavity
at resonant frequencies. The resonant frequencies of an enclosure are given by
f[MHz] = 150 {(F) + (:) + (9'

where
I = length of enclosure in meters
578 Chapter 9
. .~
Figure 9.40b 0.6m height stripline useful to 220 MHz.
h = height of enclosure in meters

W = width or depth of enclosure in meters
k, m, n = a positive integer 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Note: Not more than one of k, m, or n can be zero at the same time,
Reference 5 provides an approximationfor the maximum number of resonant modes that
can exist below a specific frequency:
N = 155f’V
where
f = frequency [GHz]
V = volume of cavity [mS]
A 2.59-m-high, 3.2-m-wide, and 6.25-m-longenclosure theoretically exhibits 68 resonant
modes over the 20-200-MHz frequency range. Measurements on the same-size enclosure de-
scribed in Ref. 9 identified 25 resonant frequencies, with the possibility that some resonance
peaks and troughs were masked by an overlapping resonance. The technique proposed in Ref.
9 to reduce the up to 48-dB variation in measured E field at resonance is to contain the field
within a wave trap. A coaxial resonator having a helical inner conductor forms a high “Q”
circuit of small physicaldimensions.A 7.62-cm section of copper tubing of 5.7-cm inside diame-
ter was constructed with field coupling to the resonator accomplished by an 20.3-cm-long an-
tenna soldered to the high-potential end of the inner conductor. The construction enabled the
resonator to b e tuned manually. The resonator was positioned on a 91.4-cm2 aluminum plate
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
connected to the enclosure’s metal framework. The antennawas oriented for maximum coupling
to the vertical E field component. The exactlocation of the resonator was found to be unimport-
ant as long as it was located further than 30.48 cm from the walls. Measurements were made
using a monopole transmitting antenna and a dipole receiving antenna in a shielded room with
and without the tuned resonator, and with the same test configuration using an open-field test
site. The resonator was tuned to the frequency of the transmitted fields during the test.
Figure 9.41 illustrates a massive reduction of 38 dB at 52 MHz in the resonance field
strength due to the tuned resonator, which results in a measurement only 3 dB above that of a
specific open-field test site. The maximum deviation between the tuned resonator in the shielded-
room measurement and the open-field measurement is 15 dB at 54 MHz.
It would appear that the tuned resonator technique holds the promise of a relatively easy
and inexpensive solution to the problem of room resonance. An automatic test setup may be
possible in which the scan of the EM1 receiver or spectrum analyzer is synchronized to the
tuning of the resonator, which may be driven by a stepper motor or similar device. A computer
could be used to control the spectrum analyzer sweep and a servo system, used to drive the
resonator and sense its position.
l . Computing wear-jeld anterlrw coupling, including rejections. in a shielded room.
Above approximately 50 MHz, near-field coupling between antennas that are physically close
(0.25-1 meter) can be represented by a mutual impedance. At frequencies up to 150 MHz the
coupling is predominantly capacitive, and above 200 MHz it is predominantly the radiation
mode coupling between the antennas. With the reflections in the shielded-room walls described
as images of the antennas, possessing mutual and self-impedance, Ref. 10 describes a method
of compensating for up to two reflectors (shielded-room surfaces). Alternatively, a computer
program such as GEMACS, described in Section 12.4.3.2, may be used to model the antenna
as a system of wires and, where applicable, plates, and the surfaces of the shielded room as
30
-
20
l-
3 -
a
z
5 10
>
E -
U
l-0
e
> /
B - /
//
*
-10-
-20 I
50 52 53 54 55
FREQUENCY - MHz
Figure 9.41 Comparison of measurements made in a shielded room with and without a tuned resonator
and on an opcn-field test site. (01970, IEEE.)
580 Chapter 9
ground planes. The composite E field at some distance from the transmitting antenna or the
current flow in the load of the receiving antenna may then be computed. It should be pointed
out that use of the GEMACS program in this type of application is not without cost in time
and effort.
8. Optoisolated, physically small antennas. A source of perturbation of the field within
a shielded room during radiated emission measurement is the antenna and the metallic connec-
tion of the antenna to the measuring equipment. By using small antennas in close proximity to
the source of emission, similar to the technique described in Section 9.2.7 but with the use of
electrically isolated electric field antennas, the perturbation of the electric field close to the EUT
is reduced and the ratio of direct to reflected waves incident on the antenna is increased. Figure
9.42 illustrates the optoisolated antenna setup described in Ref. 1.
9. Use of ferrite tiles and ubsorber loads plcrced at stmtegicnlly located positions to
damp room resonatzL’es.The advantage of this technique is that only a small number of ferrite
tiles and small amount of foam absorber material is required, which results in a less expensive
modification to the room.
The problem with the standardfoam absorber material is that it is placed on the conducting
surfaces of the shielded room. At the surface of the room the E field reduces to zero, and long,
typically 36”, absorber cones are required to obtain any attenuation at frequencies down to 200
MHz. The correct location for the foam absorber is closer into the room, and that is exactly the
location where blocks of absorber material (absorber loads) are placed. The magnetic field is
at a maximum on the surface of the room, and a ferrite tile, which is predominantly an H field
absorber, is ideally suited for mounting on the shielded-room wall. Shielded rooms (sernian-
echoic chambers) have been constructed in which all walls and ceiling are covered in ferrite
tiles, often with absorber cones placed on top, and although this approach is effective, it is very
costly. When retrofitting a self-supporting room with ferrite tiles it is advisable to check with
a structural engineer or the supplier of the room to provide the loading capability, because ferrite
Small
antenna\ \ - Source
l
1 U
‘
‘.
\ I Modulator
Fibre opticdata link

i
RF receiver
Demodulator
Figure 9.42 Optoisolated small antenna test configuration.

EM1 Measurements,
581
Testing
Requirements,
Control
and
tiles are extremely heavy and can add approximatelythree times to the weight of a panel. Most
rooms are self-supporting with spans of up to 10 feet. If ferrite tiles are added to small rooms,
then stiffeners on the walls or ceilings may be all that is required. For rooms with spans larger
than 10 feet, an external support made of columns and girders, from which the ceiling panels
are suspended, may be required. For the small amount of additional ferrite described in this
section, the only precaution may be to ensure that personnel do not climb on top of the self-
supporting room.
Reference 11 describes the addition of an absorber load to damp resonances in a room,
and Ref. 12 describes the addition of a very limited number of femte tiles. The absorber load
alone reduced resonance affectedfrom 2 3 0 dB downto 5 1 5 dB over the frequency rangefrom
50 MHz to 200 MHz. The effect of femte tiles was to reduce resonance effects to 10-12 dB
over the frequency range from 50 MHz to 230 MHz.
A 12’ by 12’ by 8’-high chamber was loaded with panels 2’ by 2’ covered with femte
tiles. One panel was placed oneach side wall, two on the end wall where the table was located,
one panel on the rear wall, which containeddoor, the and three panels on the ceiling. In addition,
two movable loads constructed of a woodencontainer 2’ by 1.3’ and 3.25’ high were filled with
absorber foam. Figure 9.43 illustrates one of the wall panels loaded withferrite and an absorber
load. The 12’’ absorber cones are constructed of microwave absorber, which will haveno appre-
ciable absorbing properties below 1 GHz andso are not expected to alter the test results below
Figure 9.43 Shielded room with ferrite panel and absorber load for damping.
582 Chapter 9
I II l00 1000
f (MHz)
Figure 9.44 Correlation between antenna-to-antenna measurements (horizontally oriented) on an open-

field test site and in the loaded shielded room. (Reproduced courtesy of EMC Consulting, Inc.)
1 GHz. Measurements were madeof the coupling between two antennas, oriented both vertically
and horizontally, on the open-field test site and then in the loaded shielded room.
Figure 9.44 illustrates the coupling from 20 MHz to1000 MHz with theantennas horizon-
tally oriented, and Figure 9.45 illustrates the coupling with the antennas vertically oriented. In
Figure 9.44 (horizontal), the only obvious resonances are: at 24 MHz, in which a 7-dB difference
exists between the open-field and room measurement; at 37 MHz, with a IO-dB difference; and
at 50 MHz, where the difference is 7 dB. At all other frequencies the correlation between the
open-field and roommeasurements is 4-6 dB. In Figure 9.45 (vertical), the worst-case resonance
effect is: 12 dB at 24 MHz; and 10 dB at 49 MHz. At other frequencies the correlation between
open-field and room measurements are remarkably close. The lowest frequency at which the
room acts as a resonant enclosure is 58 MHz, and therefore the effects at 24, 37, 49, and 50
MHz are most likely a TEM excitation of the room or possibly a loading effect on the antennas.
When compared to antenna coupling in an undampedroom, shown in Figure 9.34a. the improve-
ment is remarkable.
Figure 9.43 illustrates the room with femte tile and absorber loads.
10. Setnianeckoic and fully anechoic test chambers. Due to the problems in attempting
to isolate EUT emissions from the ambient onan open-area test site and the problems of antenna
calibration on a test site open to the weather, the use of a fully anechoic or semianechoic room
may gradually replace open-area test sites. A room to be used for commercial radiated emission
and immunity testing must meet the normalized site attenuation standards of ANSI C63.4-1992
and the fielduniformity requirements of IEC 1000-4-3 or ENV 50140. Using a room for antenna
calibration, by comparison, often requires more stringent control of reflections within the room
and typically extends above 1 GHz.
Before purchasing a room, the recommendation is that all future possible uses of the room
be explored as well as the requirement by the FCC for radiated emission measurements above
1 GHz.
Figure 9.45 Correlationbetweenantenna-to-antennameasurements (vertically oriented) on an open-

field test site and in the loaded shielded room. (Reproduced courtesy of EMC Consulting, Inc.)
A number of choices existas to the type of absorber material used on the walls and ceiling
of the room. The choices include: 1/4" to S/16"-thick ferrite tiles, grid ferrite tiles, ferrite tile
and dielectric combinations, sintered ferrite and ferrite composite combinations, carbon-loaded
foam pyramids or wedges, and carbon-loaded foam pyramids and wedges mounted on ferrite
tiles.
Ferrite tiles require the least space in a room. Flat tiles can be very effective at low fre-
quency, although the inclusion of a gap between the tiles as small as 0.2 mm can result in a 5 -
dB degradation in performance. The grid tile has only about 50% of the ferrite material active
per polarization and therefore requires twice the volume of a flat tile. The grid has a lower
effective permeability, which must be compensated for by increased thickness to obtain the same
low-frequency performance. Due to the lower permeability, the degradation in performance due
to gaps is lessthanseenwith a flat tile. The gridtile also has a lowerpermittivity,which
improves performance at higher frequency. According to one manufacturer, Toyo, a ferrite grid
absorber provides significantly more attenuation above 220 MHz than a flat tile. Toyo describes
measurements made on a room with internal dimensions of 8.7 m long X 6 m wide X 5.1 m
in height, which is the smallest room size recommended as a 3-m test site. The subject room
met the +-4-dB normalized site attenuation of ANSI C63.4 over the frequency range 30- 1000
MHz, with the transmitting antenna located on five different points on a 1S-m-diameter turnta-
ble, at 1 -m and 2-m heights for horizontal orientation of the antenna, and at 1 m and 1.5 m for
vertical orientation. The receiving antenna was scanned in height from 1 m to 4 m, with vertical
and horizontal orientation, as required in ANSI C63.4.
The room also met the IEC 1000-4-3 field uniformity requirements from 30 to 1000 MHz
with the antennas at a distance of 3 m. Sixteen points were measured at OS-m intervals, and
more than 12 of the points fell within the 0-6-dB window at each measured frequency.
The hybrid combination of ferrite tile and foam absorber can be very effective; however,
a word of warning: The correct combination of ferrite tile and dielectric absorber is very difficult
to design over the transition frequencies,30 MHz to 120 MHz, and a cancellation of performance
584 Chapter 9
can be seen. To avoidthispotentiallysevere loss in performance it is recommended that a

properly designed and tested hybrid be purchased.
The use of a multilayered structure made up of layers of different ferrite material has been
proposed (Ref. 13). with an improved, lower reflection, compared to flat single-layer tile. The
normalized site attenuation in a 19-m-long X 13-m-wide X 8.5-m-high anechoic chamber fitted
with this material was within the 24-dB requirement, and in a 7-111 X 3-m X 3-m room the
field uniformity requirement was met with improved performance compared to a single-layer
tile over the 800-1000-MHz frequency range.
The main problem with ferrite tile absorbers isthat the performance is not adequate above
1 GHz, although a tile with additional small sections of ferrite mounted “end on” has been
tested to 3 GHz.
In the ideal absorber, the impedance of the incident wave and the absorber are the same
as free space (377 R); the reflection is thereforeminimal, and the depth of the absorber is
sufficient to absorb all of the incident energy. In practice this is not the case. Carbon-loaded
absorber is usually manufactured in a pyramid or wedge shape, which behaves like a tapered
transition with an impedance to a normally incident wave of 377 R at the tip increasing gradually
over the height. The tapered absorber provides a lower level of reflection than a solid absorber,
and a lower amount of absorber material is required.
One problem in the foam absorber is that, despite being flame retardant, it is not completely
flameproof, although the use of flameproof material has been proposed. Another problem is
that, typically, very long pyramids are required. For example, in a chamber 9 m long, 6 m wide,
and 5.1 m high, a multilayer (Ni-Zn ferrite, 70 mm dielectric-Mn-Zn rubber femte) absorber
met the NSA requirements, whereas a 3-m-long pyramidal absorber failed the requirements.
Only with a 4-m pyramidal foam absorber were the 54-dB requirements met.
The recommended maximum reflectivity (level of reflection) of material used in a 3-m
test room is less than - 18 dB at normal incidence and less than - 12 dB at 45” over the full
frequency range, although there is no guarantee that lower levels of reflectivity may be required.
Rantec manufactures a range of absorber materials, and these include a 1.6-m-long polysty-
rene foam carbon-loaded material mounted on a ferrite tile. This combination provides a higher
reflectivity than flat andgrid tile from 30 to 300 MHz but a much lower reflectivity from
500 to 1000 MHz. The reflectivity of the Rantec combination, for normal incidence, is - 15 dB
at 20 MHz, -25 dB at 500 MHz, -30 dB at 1 GHz, and -35 dB at 10 GHz. By contrast, a
grid ferrite tile has a reflectivity of - 17 dB at 20 MHz, -27 dB at 100 MHz, -25 dB at 500
MHz, but only - 15 dB at 1 GHz. According to Rantec, the NSA performance of the combina-
tion absorber is within 5 3 dB from 30 to 80 MHz. Rantec also manufactures a combination
broadband ferrite tile and 0.41-m-long absorber, which is rated from 30 MHz to 40 GHz and
appears ideal for MIL-STD/DO- 160 radiated tests and the MIL-STD-462D/E recommended
room.
Grace N.V. manufactures the Eccosorb HX-96, which provides -25-dB reflectivity at 40
MHz and at least -30 dB up to gigahertz frequencies. The absorber is hollow, resistive, with
a truncated pyramidal shape. It consists of a thin lossy outer layer backed by a strong inner
support layer. Its total height is 2.5 m . According to the manufacturer: compared to conventional
solid resistive pyramidal absorbers of the same height, it is mechanically stronger and lighter
in weight and contains less combustible material. Because only the thin, 1.8-cm outer layer is
lossy, the risk of internal smoldering is reduced. Despite the thin layer of absorber, the perfor-
mance from 30 to 80 MHz is stated to be better than with conventional absorbers.
Room resonances are due to the physical parameters of the room; the resonances for a
rectangular cavity are described in this section under 6. Tuned resonrrtors. By making the walls
and ceilings of the room nonparallel (by varying degrees), the amount of pyramidal absorber
material required for the room can be reduced, by typically halving the length of the absorber.
Reference 14 discusses the analysis of a nonrectangular room.
A problem exists in the use of an anechoic chamber as a 3-m or 10-m emission test site
at low frequency. In a comparison of emission measurements made on an EUT measured on
an OATS and emissions in a semianechoic chamber, significant errors were seen at 50 MHz
and are predicted to exist over a IO-MHz to 60-MHz range. In measurements on a 10-m semi-
anechoic chamber 7.9 m high, 21.3 m long, and 1 1.6 m wide with 2.4-m-long absorber cones,
a deviation in the “standard” open site attenuation performance of 9.3 dB was seen at 45 MHz.
The problem is a poor absorber performance at low frequency. which most probably results in
a TEM excitation of the room.
One potential problem with carbon-loaded foam is degradation in both absorptive proper-
ties and fire-retardant capability due to water damage. How much if any modification to either
the fire-retardant properties or to theabsorptiveproperties of theabsorber occurs whenthe
absorber is soaked in water depends on a number of variables, which are described as follows.
Two different methods of adding the carbon and the fire-retardant material to the neoprene
latex polyurethane substrate exist. In the two-step process, used, for example, by Rantec, the
carbon is soaked into the material in a water-based solution and allowed to dry. The nonorganic
salts, which are used as the fire-retardant material, are then added, also in water solution, and
allowed to soak the material. By addingthefire-retardantmaterialseparately, the carbon is
locked in. In tests conducted on this type of absorber, when wall-mounted absorber was wetted
but not immersed in water, neither the fire retardant nor RF properties of the absorber were
compromised. In one test, when absorber was soaked in cold water for 2 hr and allowed to
drain naturally, the material was still fire retardant and retained its RF properties.
In the one-stepprocess,used, for example, by Cuming Corporation, thefire-retardant
properties and the carbon are both applied in a water-based solvent. Theoretically, when this
material is soaked in water, the carbon can migrate down through the material by gravity, re-
sulting in a nonuniform distribution of the absorptive properties. In an extreme case, the carbon
can leach out of the foam. The nonuniform distribution of the absorptive properties will, typi-
cally, affect only precise antenna measurements in the room and are unlikely to modify radiated
emission or radiated susceptibility test results.
Only anecdotal information exists on the performance of this one-step process material:
when the material was wetted it retained its fire-retardant and RF properties, but when soaked
the fire retardancy was compromised.
One other potential source of degradation is: if water soaks through concrete onto the
material, it can take salts and limefrom the concrete into the material and change the properties.
9.5.2 GTEM, TEM, and Other Cells

TEM-type cells were developed to allow a cost-effective method for radiated susceptibility test-
ing, and their use has been extended to radiated emission measurements and antenna calibration.
The cell is a less expensive alternative to a semianechoic chamber, and a number of methods
of correlation between the radiated emission results obtained using the GTEM and an OATS
have been presented.
9.5.2.1 TEM and Other Cells

The standard dual-port TEM cell, oftencalled c1 Cmwford cell, forms a rectangular two-conduc-
tor transmission-line structure with a central septum on which the EUT is mounted and with
tapered sections at each end. The transmission line is closed and is often called couxial, although
it does not have an axis of symmetry. The dual-port cell has an input measuring part and an
586 Chapter 9
output measuring port, whereas a single-portTEM has a matched load atthe end without a port.
The dual-port TEM tapered end sections match the middle section to the 50-R coaxial port
connectors. The single-port, or wideband, TEM has the shape of a pyramid on its side. The
termination is on the wide rectangular side and typically combines a low-frequency lumped
load that matches the characteristic impedance of the TEM cell with high-frequency absorber
material. The most common form of single-port cell is the GTEM cell, which is discussed in
Section 9.5.2.2.
The dual-port TEM cell has a limited bandwidth determined by the generation of higher-
order modes in the field. The maximum height of the EUT will limit the field uniformity in a
susceptibility/imn7unity test and change the way in which the EUT couples to the cell. A very
approximate maximum useful volume for immunity test in a cell is 0.333 times the distance
between the septum and upper surface times 0.333 times the cell width, although this may be
pushed to 0.5 X 0.5. A field uniformity of f 1 dB is possible in the classic TEM cell.
The cell is designed to generate a transverse electromagnetic wave with a perpendicular
E field and an H field at 90". The cell is a transmission line terminated in its characteristic
impedance, so the field impedance inside the cell is 377 R. Because the EUT is mounted, in
effect, on the center conductor of the transmission line, a current flows across the EUT. The
cell may therefore be used to measure the magnetic field shielding effectiveness of a small
enclosure by measuring the internal current, using a small surface current probe inside the enclo-
sure. Typically the cable connected to the current probe and to the measuring instrument located
outside of the cell must be extremely well shielded. This is achieved by containing the cable
within a copper tube that is soldered or connected via compression fittings to the enclosure and
the wall of the TEM cell. Thecurrent probe is then moved to a location outside of the enclosure,
and the ratio of measured external to internal current is equal to the magnetic field shielding
effectiveness of the enclosure.
The dual-port TEM cell generates higher-order modes than the TEM mode by the nature
of the geometry of the cell. When the effective height of the TEM cell is equal to a half a
wavelength, the first resonance of the cell occurs; this is the limitation on the usefulupper
frequency. In addition, when the EUT is placed on the septum, the current around the EUT is
perturbed, which also generates higher-order modes. In a standard TEM cell rated at 200 MHz
(useful upper frequency), a resonance in the empty cell was seen at 161 MHz with a change
in the measured 70 V/m field up to 80 V/m and down to 40 V/m. With an EUT in the cell,
the same resonance at 161 MHz was seen and an additional resonance at 190 MHz, at which
the 70-V/m field increased up to 120 V/m. Absorber can be placed at locations within the cell to
damp these modes, but this interferes with the generation of the required TEM mode. Alternative
damping techniques exist, such as cutting slots in the cell wall and backing these slots with
absorber and additional shielding aswell as a split-up septum.These dampingtechniques cannot
be used to upgrade existing cells but must be built into the new cell. With the use of such
damping and a split-up septum, a 0.437-m-wide, 0.284-m-high, and 1.8-m-long TEM cell can
be used up to 1 GHz. However, due to the regular shape of the single-port TEM cell, it has no
inherent limitation in bandwidth and would appear to be the obvious choice over the dual-port
TEM cell.
The TEM cell can be used to measure radiated emissions from an EUT or a PCB. The
emitted field from the EUT couples via the transmitting modes of the cell and thereby couples
a voltage at the port/s of the cell. Antenna calibration can be accomplished as described in
Section 9.5.2.2. The great advantage of the TEM cell for emission measurements is that it is
an effective shieldedenclosure that reduces the ambientinducedvoltages to extremelylow
levels, typically the noise floor of the measuring equipment. Measurements in a 3-m or 10-m
anechoic chamber or an OATS are made in the far field, whereas it is the near field that couples
predominantly to the TEM cell. If the radiation from the EUT is highly directional, then the
coupling to the TEM cell may not be a true measure of the radiation. Also, the radiation charac-
teristics of the EUT are different from those on an OATS, where the only conductive surface
in close proximity is the ground plane. The TEM cell measures power transmitted to the output
and not the maximum electric field. Acceptable emission measurements can be achieved; for
example, the emissions from a PCB located 0.317-0.65 cm from the septum of a TEM cell are
recorded in Ref. 15. These emissions are compared to measurements using the EMSCAWM
system and in an absorber-lined shielded room, with a close correlation.
Two very small, DC to 1 GHz and DC to 2.3 GHz, TEM cells with a patented septum
design is described by Fischer Custom Communications, Inc. for both emission and IEC 1000-
4-3 immunity testing. Less than 3.7 mW of input power is required to achieve a IO-V/m field
and 37 W to achieve 1000 V/m. The dimensions of the area for good field uniformity is 2”
(5.08 cm) X 2” (5.08 cm) X 0.5” (1.27 cm), and so the cell is ideal for the measurement of
ICs and small PCBs. Fisher also manufactures larger custom TEM cells with a lower useful
upper frequency.
Alternative types of test cell, such as the WTEM, TrigaTEM, and Triple TEM, exist but
have not proven field uniformity. One alternative,commerciallyavailable cell, calledthe
S-LINE, is manufactured by Rhode and Schwarz. Unlike the coaxial construction of the TEM
cell, the S-LINE consists of symmetrical, two-wire TEM lines in a shielded enclosure. The lines
are fed with the test signal and terminated with their characteristic impedance. A largerS-LINE
has 1.5-m X I-m X I-m dimensions andfulfills the requirements of IEC 1000-4-3 for field
uniformity over a 50-cm X 50-cm area. The cell is useful from 150 kHz to 1 GHz and can
generate a IO-V/m field with 20 W of input power at the center of the S-LINE. A smaller model
of the S-LINE, with 1 m X 0.7 m X 0.7 m, is also available, and software is available that
allows fully automatic testing.
9.5.2.2 GTEM Cells
The limitations as to test volume and operating frequency bandwidth of the TEMcell have been
to a large extent solved with the single-port gigahertz transverse electromagnetic (GTEM) cell,
which was patented in 1991. The asymmetrical septum is designed to match the flaredhapered
rectangular-cross-section waveguide. The inner conductor terminated
is into a hybrid broadband-
matched load. For frequencies up to about 40-90 MHz, distributed resistors are used; for fre-
quencies above this range, pyramidal foam absorbers are used. The overall field uniformity is
better than 2 3 dB from 30 MHz to 1000 MHz in a test area behind the large access door. The
maximum EUT height is approximately 0.33 times the distance from theground to the septum,
based on the earlier TEM cell research. However, there is no theoretical limit on the size of
the GTEM, only a practical one. GTEM cells are available with ground-to-septum heights of
0.5 m, 1.0 m, and 1.5 m. A 3.5-m version has been built but has proven to be expensive.
The main purpose in the use of the GTEM in radiated emission measurements is to replace
the traditional OATS, due to the problem of electromagnetic ambient, and to provide a less
expensive alternative to the semianechoic chamber.
The principle in the use of the GTEM for radiated emission measurements is the develop-
ment of a mathematical model implemented in software for the direct comparison of data taken
in a GTEM to data acquired on an OATS.
Three measurements are made, using the GTEM, with the EUT oriented in three orthogo-
nal positions, centered in the measurement volume of the GTEM. The three positions are as-
sumed in a manner such that the positive x-, y- and z-axes of the EUT are sequentially inter-
changed. The frequency,the three voltages measured at each frequency, the height of the EUT
under the septum, the height of the septum overthe center of the EUT, the measurement distance,
588 Chapter 9
and the height scan range used for the test antenna maximization search are inputsto the correla-
tion algorithm, which is described in Ref. 16 as follows.
At each frequency, the GTEM correlation algorithm executes the following computations:
Perfomx a root sum of squares summation of the three orthogonal voltages

Computes the total power emitted by the EUT as determined from the summation of the
three voltages and the TEM-mode equations for the GTEM
Computes the current excitation of an equivalent hertzian dipole when excited with that
input power
Places the hypothetical hertzian dipole at a specified height over a perfect ground plane
Computes the horizontally and verticallypolarized field strength at appropriateheight
intervals over the total operator-selected correlation algorithm height, 1-4 m
Selects the maximum field strength (larger) value of the horizontally or vertically polarized
field strengths over the height range selected
Presents this maximum value for comparison to the chosen EMC specification limit
The main problem seen with measurements in the GTEM and in the correlation to OATS
results is that mean values in thevariance is 6 dB, with 11-15-dB difference in individual
measurements. However, similar differences can be seen in comparing some OATS to other
OATS results; see Section 9.4. I . 1. This variation from OATS to OATS is particularly disap-
pointing. The main differences between the OATS and GTEM results is that only three faces
of the EUT are rotated and measured in the GTEM. A twelve position measurement consists
of a measurement on all six faces of the EUT in both polarizations. A further development is
a twelve plus four measurement, which can estimate the directivity of the EUT, from which an
estimate of the gain can be obtained and used to replace the value of the gain of the dipole in
the correlation algorithm.
A new development is a hyper-rotation GTEM, i n which the EUT is placed on a gimbaled
turntable within the GTEM, which itself can rotate about an axis, thus allowing for twoindepen-
dent degrees of motion between the EUT and the GTEM.
In addition, the effect of the ground planeon the antenna calibration i n the OATS measure-
ment should be included in the correlation algorithm, especially for low-gain antennas used at
the lower heights in the OATS 1-4-111 search. The other big problem is that cable manipulation
to maximize emissions is a requirement in the OATS test but is impractical in GTEM tests.
The EUT hyper-rotation in the GTEM was thought to compensate for cable manipulation, but
tests have proven that this is not the case. Measurements of an EUT on an OATS with and
without cable manipulation and i n a GTEM showed a 1- I I -dB change due to cable manipula-
tion.
For MIL-STD l-m correlation, a single-axis model has been proposed. A standard radiator
is installed in GTEM, and a single-axis voltage measurementis made overa range of frequencies.
The same standardradiator is located in a shieldedroom in a standardposition. An RE021
RE102 test would be performed on the radiator that provides field strength values over the same
range of frequencies. The GTEM voltage and E field levels will provide a calibration factor
that can be applied to the GTEM equivalent MIL-STD-461 RE02/RE102 measurenlent.
The GTEM is gradually gaining acceptance for measuremcnts to FCC and EU require-
ments. The FCC issued a public notice (September 1993) stating that GTEM measurement data
will be accepted under the following limited conditions:
GTEM results will be accepted when the GTEM measurements have demonstrated equiva-
lence to OATS test results.
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Control
and Testing 589
Acceptable comparison measurements must be filed with the Sampling and Measurement
Branch of the FCC with appropriate analysis that demonstrates the GTEM result
equivalence with a listed OATS meeting the NSA requirements.
The validity of calculated correlation coefficients must be supportedby statistical analysis.
In cases of disagreement, final emission tests will be performed on an OATS.
Measuringantennafactors in a GTEM would appear to result in a good (0.16 dB to
maximum 1.74 dB over 300 MHz to 1000 MHz) correlation to measurements made on ANSI
C63.5 range. One GTEM antennacalibration technique has a known voltage applied to the input
of the GTEM, with a measurement of the output voltage (V,)) from the antenna. The E field in
the GTEM is found from the following simple relationship: E field = input voltage (V,) divided
by the septum-to-floor spacing (h). Since AF = 20 log E/V,,, the antenna factor measured in a
GTEM is equal to 20 log (V,) - 20 log (V,,) + 20 log ( I / h ) .
9.6 MILITARY EM1 REQUIREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

9.6.1 MIL-STD-461: ElectromagneticEmissionandSusceptibility
Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Interference
MIL-STD-461 is a document that specifies EM1 requirements and test levels on military equip-
ment, although the space industry has also widely used the specifications on nonmilitary equip-
ment. Initially MIL-STD-461 applied to Navy, Air Force, and Army equipment. The next issue,
MIL-STD-461 A, provided notices that applied to individual services. Table 9.15 provides infor-
mation on which notices of MIL-STD-461 and -462 apply to either all or individual services.
With the adventof MIL-STD-461E, the test requirements, test methods, andtest setups contained
in MIL-STD-462 have been included in MIL-STD-461E.
Table 9.15 Services to Which Notices of MIL-STD-

461 and 462 Apply
Document Year Applicability
MIL-STD-461 1967 All Services
MIL-STD-461A 1968 All Services
Notice 1 1969 All Scrvices
Notice 2 1969 Air Force
Notice 3 I970 Air Force
Notice 4 1971 Army
Notice 5 1973 All Services
MIL-STD-461B 1980 All Services
MIL-STD-461 C 1986 All Services
MIL-STD-462 1967 All Services
Notice 2 1970 Air Force
Notice 3 l97 1 Amy
Notice 4 1980 Navy
Notice 5 1986 Navy
MIL-STD-461D 1993 All Services
MIL-STD-462D 1993 All Services
MIL-STD-461E 1999 All Services
590 Chapter 9
The majority of EM1 test requirements and test techniques for equipment and subsystems
applied by space agencies suchas NASA, ESA, and CSA are based on MIL-STD-461 and MIL-
STD-462. MIL-STD-461 specifies the EM1 requirements and limits for military equipment, and
MIL-STD-462 specifies the test techniques to be used. System-level requirements are contained
in MIL-STD-464, 18 March 1997, and MIL-1541A is the military standard for electromagnetic
compatibility requirements for space systems applied by the U.S. Air Force.
The goal of this section is to provide an overview of the tests but, more important, also
of the most common errors that occur in EM1 testing. These errors can result in damage to
equipment, subsystems, orflight systems, and it is imperative, to avoid damage delay and addi-
tional cost, that a thorough understanding of the correct test methods exist and that a detailed
test procedure be in place.
Although superseded by MIL-STD-461B, C, D, and E, MIL-STD-461A may still be ap-
plied, especially for reprocurement of equipment contained on old platforms. If the procuring
agency is satisfied that the earlier versions of MIL-STD-461, or a tailored version thereof, ade-
quately covers a specific electromagnetic ambient, then there is no good reason to replace them.
MIL-STD-461B and C arethe versions still applied widely, and MIL-STD-461 B and MIL-STD-
461E are the versions referred to in this chapter. Some of the differences between MIL-STD-
461B/C and D/E will also be discussed. The emission and susceptibility requirements in MIL-
STD-461 are designated in accordance with an alphanumeric coding system, where:
C = conducted
R = radiated
E = emission
S = susceptibility
UM = uniquerequirement(s)intended for amiscellaneous,general-purposepiece of
equipment or a subsystem
Table 9.16 lists the emissions andsusceptibilityrequirements contained in MIL-STD 461B
Part 1 .
MIL-STD 461B contains I O parts; parts 2- 10 apply to specific equipment and subsystem
classes, and part 1 contains general information. Table 9.17 lists the classes of equipment and
which part of MIL-STD-461 B is applicable. Different requirements are placed on the different
classes.
The individual classes of equipment are further divided into separate categories, and those
of classesA1 and A2 are shown in Tables 9.18 and 9.19, respectively. Which of the requirements
shown in Table 9.16 are applicable depends on the category of equipment, and this is shown
in Table 9.20 for categories of class A2 equipment.
CEOl and CEO3 requirements are placed on primary power sourced by the vehicle, ship,
spacecraft, etc., and on control lines using primary power.
Although MIL-STD-461 includes power to other equipment in the applicability for CEO1
and CE03, the requirement is invariably confined to primary power, which is passed on, from
one equipment or subsystem to another. When CEOl or CEO2 is applied to secondary power,
it is typically limited to power supplied to equipment procured under a different contract or
from a different manufacturer. Excessive noise on secondary power lines and signals is often
detected by interequipment/subsystem susceptibility and failure during radiated emission tests.
For MIL-STD-461E requirements, Table 9.21 describes the emission and susceptibility
tests and Table 9.22 summarizes the requirements for equipment and subsystems intended to
beinstalled in or on or launched from various military platforms or installations.When an
Table 9.16 Emissions and SusceptibilityRequirementsContained in MIL-STD

461B Part 1
Requirement Description
CEO 1 Conducted emissions, power, and interconnecting leads. low fre-
quency (up to 15 kHz)
CEO3 Conducted emissions, power, and interconnecting leads. 0.015-50
MHz
CEO6 Conducted emissions, antenna terminals, 10 kHz to 26 GHz
CEO7 Conducted emissions, power leads, spikes, time domain
CS0 1 Conducted susceptibility, power leads, 20 Hz to 50 kHz
CS02 Conducted susceptibility, power leads, 0.05-400 MHz
CS03 Intermodulation, 15 kHz to 10 GHz
CS04 Rejection of undesired signals, 20 Hz to 20 GHz
CS05 Cross-modulation, 20 Hz to 20 GHz
CS06 Conducted susceptibility, spikes, power leads
CS07 Conducted susceptibility, squelch circuits
CS09 Conducted susceptibility, structure (common-mode) current, 60
MHz to 100 kHz
RE0 1 Radiated emissions, magnetic field, 0.03-50 kHz
RE02 Radiated emissions, electric field, 14 kHz to 10 GHz
RE03 Radiated emissions, spurious and harmonics, radiated technique
RSOl Radiated susceptibility, magnetic field, 0.03-50 kHz
RS02 Radiated susceptibility, magnetic induction field, spikes, and power
frequencies
RS03 Radiated susceptibility, electric field, 14 kHz to 40 GHz
UM03 Radiated emissions, tactical and special-purpose vehicles, and
engine-driven equipment
UM04 Conducted emissions and radiated emissions and susceptibility
engine generators and associated components UPS and MEP
equipment
UM05 Conducted and radiated emissions, commercial electrical and electro-
mechanical equipment
equipment or subsystem is to be installed in more than one type of platform or installation, it

shall comply with the most stringent of the applicable requirements and limits. An A entry in
the table means the requirement is applicable. An L means the applicability of the requirement
is limited as specified in the appropriate requirement paragraphs of this standard; the limits are
contained herein. An S means the procuring activity must specify the applicability and limit
requirements in the procurement specification. Absence of an entry means the requirement is
not applicable.
If MIL-STD-461 requirements are placed on equipment, it is important to ascertain the
class, category, and location of the equipment and the procuring service, for on these depend
the test levels. The test levels can drive the design of equipment. For example, the radiated
susceptibility test levels (RS03) for class A4 surface ships contained in part 5 of MIL-STD
461B is 150 V/m from 14 kHz to above 10 GHz for areas exposed above decks, whereas the
limit is only 1 V/m below decks. The EM1 emission and susceptibility test levels for category
A2a equipment installed on spacecraft that are most frequently applied are provided as follows
from MIL-STD-461B part 3:
592 Chapter 9
CEO 1 30 Hz to 2 kHz 130 dBpA = 3.16 A reducing to 86 dBpA = 19.9 mA

at 15 kHz
CEO3 15 kHz 86 dBpA reducing to 20 dBpA at 2 MHz
2 MHz to 50 MHz 20 dBpA = 10 pA
CS01 30 Hz to 1.5 kHz 5 V rms or 10% of supply, whichever is less, = 2.8 V
rms for 28-V supply
1.5 kHz to 50 kHz Reduces linearly to 1 V rms or 1% of supply voltage,
whichever is greater at 50 kHz
CS02 50 kHz to 50 MHz 1 v (rms)
(400 MHz)
CS06 Spike 1 5200 v , t = 10 p 5 20%
Spike 2 ? l 0 0 V, t = 0.15 ps ? 20%
REO 1 0.03-50 kHz Dependent on location and AC or DC current
equipment
RE02 NB lowest limit 30 dBpV/m = 31.6 pV/m at 27 MHz
BB lowest limit 65 dBpV/m/MHz at 200 MHz (see Figure 1.4 for BB
RE02 curve)
RS02 Spike 1 200 v, t = 10 ps 2 20%
Spike 2 100 V, t = 0.15 ps -C 20%
Power frequency 3A
RS03 Frequency range: E field [volts/meter]
14 kHz to 30 10
MHz
30 MHz to IO 5
GHz
10 GHz to 40 20
GHz
CS06 requirements are relaxed for equipment and subsystems whose power inputs are
protected with varistors or similar transient protection devices so that if the equipment is not
susceptible to peak voltages equal to the maximum safe level of the device then the requirement
is met. The problem with the relaxation is the transient device may be damaged with the equip-
ment connected to the power line in the installation, assuming voltage transients at the specified
levels are present on the line and the source impedance is sufficiently low. If the maximum
transient voltage predicted for the line will never be as high as specified, then the requirement
should be relaxed to a realistic worst-case level. If the maximum transient voltage does exist,
then a realistic CS06 test for equipment with transient protection is to calculate or measure the
line impedance between the EUT and the closest source of transient noise and to use this imped-
ance in series with the specified transient voltage minus the breakdown voltage of the device
to predict the peak current through the device. The protection device may then be chosen to be
capable of withstanding the peak current, and the spike generator output voltage may be applied
to the inputof the EUT with a series resistor equal to the supply-line impedance. Thisrealistically
tests the effectiveness of the protection device and the susceptibility of the equipment.
A safety margin exists between the emission limits and the susceptibility test levels. This
safety margin ensures that, with a number of emitters colocated, the radiated ambient, which
is a composite of all the emissions, is below the radiated susceptibility test levels. Likewise,
the conducted emissions limit ensures that, when a numberof units of equipment or subsystems
share a power supply, the composite emission is below the susceptibility test levels. In many
instances the safety margin is excessive. For example, if we take the narrowband RE02 limit
Table 9.17 Classes of Equipment and the Applicable Part of MIL-STD 461B
Applicable
Class Description part
A Equipments and subsystems that must operate compatibly when installed

in critical areas
Al Aircraft (including associated ground support equipment) 2
A2 Spacecraft and launch vehicles (including associated ground support 3
equipment)
A3 Ground facilities (fixed and mobile, including tracked and wheeled vehi- 3
cles)
A4 Surface ships 5
A5 Submarines 6
B Equipment and subsystems that support the Class A equipment and sub- I
systems but that will not be physically located in critical ground areas.
Examples are electronic shop maintenance and test equipment used in
noncritical areas; aerospace ground equipment used away from
flightlines; theodolites, navaids, and similar equipment used in isolated
areas
C Miscellaneous, general-purpose equipment and subsystems not usually as-
sociated with a specific platform or installation. Specific items in this
class are:
C1 Tactical and special-purpose vehicles and engine-driven equipment 8
c2 Engine generators and associated components, unintermptible power sets 9
(UPS) and mobile electric power (MEP) equipment supplying power to
or used in critical areas
(2.3 Commercial electrical or electromechanical equipment 10
Table 9.18 Categories of Class A1 Equipment and Subsystems

Category Description
Ala Air-launched missiles
Alb Equipment installed on aircraft (internal or external to airframe)
Alc Aerospace ground equipment required for the checkout and launch of
the aircraft, including electronic test and support equipment
Ald Trainers and simulators
Ale Portable medical eqliipment used for aeromedical airlift
Alf Aerospace ground equipment used away from the flightline, such as en-
gine test stands and hydraulic test fixtures
Alg Jet engine accessories
Table 9.19 Categories of Class A2 Equipment and Subsystems

Category Description
A2a Equipment installed on spacecraft or launch vehicle
A2b Aerospace ground equipment required for the checkout and launch, in-
cluding electronic test and support equipment
A2c Trainers and simulators
594 Chapter 9
Table 9.20 Categories of Class A2 Equipment and Subsystems and Applicable

Pats of MIL-STD 461
Categories of class A2
Applicable equipmentlsubsystems
Requirement Limit
Paragraph
A2a A2c A2b curve
CEO 1 T 2 3-1
CEO3 Y Y Y 3 3-3 3-2,
CEO6 YL Yl 4
CEO7 Y Y Y 5
CS01 Y T Y 6 3-4
CS02 Y Y Y 7
CS03 y,. Y,. 8
CS04 Yl. YL 9 3-5
CS05 Y1. YI. 10
CS06 Y Y 11 3-6
CS07 Yl. YL 12
REO 1 T 13 3-7
RE02 Y Y Y 14 3-8, 3-9
RE03 YI y,. 15
RS02 Y Y 3-6 Y 16
RS03 Y Y Y 17
Y = Applicable, Y,.= Limited applicability, T = Applicable on a case-by-case basis.
at 27 MHz and the susceptibility test level, which is a narrowband CW field, we could allow
158,489 pieces of equipment 1 m apart, emitting coherently at the RE02 limit, and still achieve
a 6-dB safety margin between the RS03 test level and the radiated ambient. It is physically
impossible to locate 158,489 pieces of equipment 1 m from each other and highly improbable
that each pieceof equipment emitsat the limitand at the same frequency. Even when equipment
and cables are located in close proximity, the level of E field generated by any equipment that
has met RE02 requirements is likely to be mV/m and not V/m. For example, a safety margin
of approximately 8-70 dB (above 1 MHz), dependent on frequency and source, exists between
typical RE02 limits and RS03 test levels, assuming the equipment and cables are colocated 5
cm apart. One justification for imposing high radiated susceptibility test levelsis that equipment
may be in the proximity of transmitting antennas. The powerradiated by antennas at frequencies
that are required for the transmission are not included in the RE02 emission requirements. As
the location of aircraft, vehicles, and ships changes, so does the electromagnetic ambient, and
it is reasonable to specify high susceptibility test levels over the 14-kHz-40-GHz frequency
range. However, if stationary equipment is located within structures that provide a high level
of shielding, such as most aircraft, vehicles, or ships, or when the location of stationary equip-
ment and subsystems relative to transmitters and the frequency and power of the transmissions
are known, then the susceptibility test levels should be tailored accordingly. It is the intention
of MIL-STD-46 1 that these levels be tailored for the operational radiated electromagnetic envi-
ronment, and this includes both friendly and hostile emitters that equipment ora subsystem may
encounter during its life cycle. For example, if a spacecraft contains a transmitter at 1.5 GHz,
then the susceptibility test levels from typically 1.4-1.6 GHz may be increased, based on the
transmitted power and the location of the transmitting antenna relative to equipment on the
spacecraft. Test levels should be as realistic as possible, and with this intent MIL-STD-461
Table 9.21 Emissions and Susceptibility Requirements Contained in MIL-STD-

461E
Requirement Description
CElOl Conducted emissions, power leads, 30 Hz to 10 kHz

CE 102 Conducted emissions, power leads, 10 kHz to 10 MHz
CE106 Conducted emissions, antenna terminal, 10 kHz to 40 GHz
CSlOl Conducted susceptibility, power leads, 30 Hz to 150 kHz
CS 103 Conducted susceptibility, antenna port, intermodulation. 15 kHz to
10 GHz
CS104 Conducted susceptibility, antenna port, rejection of undesired sig-
nals, 30 Hz to 20 GHz
cs 105 Conducted susceptibility, antenna port, cross-modulation, 30
Hz to 20 GHz
CS109 Conducted susceptibility, structure current, 60 Hz to 100 kHz
cs114 Conducted susceptibility, bulk cable injection, 10 kHz to 200
MHz
cs115 Conducted susceptibility, bulk cable injection, impulse excitation
CSI I6 Conducted susceptibility, damped sinusoidal transients, cables and
power leads, 10 kHz to 100 MHz
RElOl Radiated emissions, magnetic field, 30 Hz to 100 kHz
RE102 Radiated emissions, electric field, 10 kHz to 18 GHz
RE 103 Radiated emissions, antenna spurious and harmonic outputs, 10
kHz to 40 GHz
RSlOl Radiated susceptibility, magnetic field, 30 Hz to 100 kHz
RS103 Radiated susceptibility, electric field, 2 MHz to 30 GHz
RS 105 Radiated susceptibility, transient electromagnetic field
encourages the procuring agency to tailor the levels based on the predicted ambient. This means
that any susceptibility test level considered appropriate may be specified. Likewise, the radiated
and conducted emission test levels, although dependent on the classification of the equipment,
may be tailored to match the environment. It is imperative to establish before the design begins
which test levels apply and to design accordingly, just as a good design accounts for other
environmental factors, such as vibration and thermal. MIL-STD-461 and -462 apply to units,
individual pieces of equipment, and subsystems, but not to systems.
The exact definition of subsystem or system is open to discussion; however, one definition
of a subsystem is one or more units of equipment that provide a function but not the complete
function of a system. When a number of units comprise a subsystem, which will be tested as
such, it is advisable to budget the specification test levels between the units, especially when
the units are procured from different manufacturers. The EMI-budgeted requirements can then
form part of the procurement specification. Budgeting must be done realistically; otherwise the
approach falls into disregard. As an example of budgeting let us assume a subsystem comprising
three units. One of the units is a transmitter at 1 GHz, the second is a piece of digital equipment,
and the fourth is an analog servo system driving a high-impedance transducer. In budgeting the
radiated emission limit, the I-GHz transmitter is the only device likely to radiate at 1 GHz and
harmonics thereof. Thus this unit will get a major share of the budget at 1 GHz and above, for
even though the transmitting antenna is excluded from the test setup, significant radiation at 1
GHz and above must be expected from cables and enclosure. For example, it would be realistic
to budget the narrowband radiated emission limits such that the 1-GHz transmitter level is 2
Table 9.22 MIL-STD-46 1E Requirement Matrix
- ~~ ~
Equipment and
subsystems installed in or
on or launched from the Requirement applicability
following platforms or
installations CElOl CE102 CE106 CSlOl CS103 CS104 CS105 CS109 CS114 CS115 CS116 RElOl RE102 RE103 RSlOl RS103 RS105
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Surface ships A L A S S S A L A A A L A A L
Submarines A A L A S S S L A L A A A L A A L
Aircraft. Army, including
flight line A A L A S S S A A A A A L A A L
Aircraft, Navy L A L A S S S A A A L A L L A L
Aircraft, Air Force A L A S S S A A A A L A
Space systems, including
launch vehicles A L A S S S A A A A L A
Ground, Army A L A S S S A A A A L L A
Ground, Navy A L A S S S A A A A L A A L
Ground, Air Force A L A S S S A A A A L A
A = applicable: L = limited as specified in the individual sections of this standard; S = procuring activity must specify i n procurement documentation. No entry means requirement
is not applicable.
dB down on the subsystemlimit and the other units are 20 dB down. Assuming the analog unit
does not contain a switching-power supply, it is unlikely to generate narrowband or broadband
conducted noise, whereas the digital equipment islikely to generate both narrowband and broad-
band conducted noise. Remember, narrowband noise is not necessarily limited to CW sources
but includes harmonically related emission with a PRF above a specific frequency. The l-GHz
transmitter probably contains a switching-power supply for efficiency and thus may generate
both broadbandandnarrowbandconducted noise. Areasonablebudget for abroadband
conductednoise is therefore 5 dB down on thesubsystemlimits for thedigital equipment,
8 dB down for the transmitter, and 26 dB for the analog equipment. Should any unit fail the
budgeted specification limit but meet the subsystem limit, the manufacturer would apply for a
waiver; and if the emissions from the remaining two units were insignificant at the same fre-
quency or frequencies, then the waiver would be granted. Budgeting ensures that a subsystem
will meet requirements and places a contractual requirement on unit manufacturers and subcon-
tractors.
It is a common occurrence for equipment to fail at least one or more of the MIL-STD-
461 requirements. Equipment that has not been designed with any consideration given to achiev-
ing EMC fails most frequently, and some equipment appears to have been designed to fail!
Some of the most difficult tests to pass are RE02, CSO1, and RS03. RE02 emission limits are
low and are readily exceeded. For example, with no more than 30 pA at 27 MHz flowing on
a cable located 5 cm above the ground plane, the typical RE02 test setup, the RE02 limit is
reached. CS01 test levels at 30 Hz and above often result in equipment susceptibility. Power-
line filters rarely provide significant attenuation at frequencies below 10 kHz, and regulated
power supplies attempt to regulate at frequencies from 30 Hz to 1 kHz. Over this frequency
range the phase shift in the supply control loop may cause the supply to oscillate at one or more
critical frequencies. Thus, power supplies should be designed, or chosen, with the CS01 test
requirements taken into consideration. RS03 levels can result in high current flow on cables,
especially at cable resonant frequencies. and less frequently may enter enclosures via aperture
or seam coupling.
MIL-STD-461C was introduced in 1989 and included test levels that covered the direct
and indirect effects of a nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP). Some of theadditions to MIL-
STD-461B contained in MIL-STD-461C are
CS10Conductedsusceptibility,damped sinusoidaltransients,pins, and terminals, 10

kHz to 100 MHz at a maximum current of 10A
CS1 1 Conductedsusceptibility,dampedsinusoidaltransients,cables, 10 kHz to 100
MHz at a maximum current of 10A
RS05 Radiatedsusceptibility,electromagnetic pulsefieldtransient 550 ns wide at
the 0.1 X peak field pulse level (peak field is 50 kVlm)
Some of the modifications made to MIL-STD-461B and contained in 461C are
In part 1, the filter capacitor limitation of 1.1 pF maximum for 60-Hz and 0.02 pF maxi-
mum for 400-Hz supplies is confined to US. Air Force equipment only.
REO1 Relaxed 36dB in the 30-kHz frequencyrange.

CEO7 Requirementslimited to 50-p-duration spikes.
CEO1 Measurementbandwidthlimited to powerfrequency + 20% for AC and 75 Hz
for DC leads.
598 Chapter 9
The major differences between MIL-STD-461BK and MIL-STD-461E are given in the
following sections, describing the different tests.
9.6.2MIL-STD-462: Measurement of Electromagnetic Interference
Characteristics
Up until MIL-STD-461E, the MIL-STD-462 document contained the test method to be used in
testing to MIL-STD-461 requirements. The intent in this section is not to reproduce the contents
of MIL-STD-462, which is freelyavailable.Instead,a test planandsample test procedures
based on MIL-STD-462 are presented. The test plan and procedures contain widely accepted
interpretations of MIL-STD-462 methods and describe common errors encountered in this type
of test.
In the typical MIL-STD-462 test configuration, the EUT is mounted on a copper or brass
ground plane that is at a heightof 1 meter above the floor and bonded to one wall of the shielded
room in which EM1 tests are conducted. This test configuration is acceptable for units installed
in a similar configuration. However, when units are mounted in a different configuration, for
example, one above the other on a conductive structure or open framework, then the typical
MIL-STD-462 test setup, in which units are located side by side, is not representative. Figure
9.46 shows a test setup in which units of equipment are mounted on a metal frame. The equip-
ment and frame comprisethe Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII), which was manufactured
by Canadian Astronautics for the Canadian Space Agency. The instrument is located at some
height above the spacecraft and electrically connected to the spacecraft via a bonding strap.The
wooden frame on which the instrument is mounted during EM1 tests places the instrument at
approximately the same height above the shielded-room floor as the instrument is above the
spacecraft. One unit of equipment that is physically separated from the instrument and that is
mounted directly on the spacecraft structure is placed on the ground plane as shown in Figure
9.47. Thus the test setup is as representative of the actual spacecraft configuration as possible
and ensures that the influence of the metal structure, proximity of units to each other, and inter-
connection cable lengths are accounted for.
When equipment is rack mounted, the racks are placed on the floor of the shielded room
and colocated asclose tothe actual configuration as possible. Interconnection cables aretypically
looped down and placed 5 cm above the floor of the room. In radiated emission and susceptibility
tests, the antenna is located 1 m from the side of the equipment from which maximum emissions
are detected or that is predicted to be most susceptible. Tests may have to be repeated when
more than one side of the equipment meets these criteria. In the test setup shown in Figure 9.47,
the equipment mounted on the ground plane was testedfor radiated emissions and susceptibility
separate from the instrument on the wooden frame.
The EUT transmitting antennas are excluded from both broadband and narrowband emis-
sion tests. The EUTantennas should be replacedby dummy loadslocated outside of the shielded
room. The CEO6 test is intended for measurement of conducted emissions on antenna terminals.
Therefore, receiving antennas connected to the EUT are typically excluded from radiated emis-
sion measurements and should definitely be excludedfrom radiated susceptibility measurements.
Receiving antennas are excluded from radiated susceptibility tests because the receiver will fail
at in-band susceptibility frequencies. Also, damage may occur to the front end of the receiver
due to the high incidentfield. If antennas can not be removed cover with absorber. The conducted
susceptibility tests CSO3, CS04, and CS05 are applicable to receiving equipment and subsystems
and are designed to test for out-of-band response, intermodulation products, and cross-modula-
tion. Transmitters (without antenna) are not specifically excluded from RE02 requirements at
the frequency or band of frequencies at which the transmitter operates, but may be excluded at
the discretion of the procuring agency.
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Testing
Control
and 599
Figure 9.46 Wind Imaging Interferometer OI

I)instrument. (Reproducedcourtesy of the Canadian
Space Agency.)
Figure 9.47 RE02 and RS03 test setup for the WINDTI instrument.
600 Chapter 9
9.6.3TestPlanandTestProcedures
The test plan should outline techniques, procedures, and instrumentation used in verifying that
the equipment/subsystem complies withtheEMC requirements. The testplan describes the
purpose of the test and how the operation of the equipment is chosen to ensure a maximum
emission and susceptibility mode of operation. The test procedure details the means of imple-
mentation of the tests to be performed in order to demonstrate compliance with the applicable
EMC requirements.
9.6.3.1Test Plan
The performance-monitoring and functional test equipment and method should be described in
detail in the qualification test plan. However, wherethe qualification testplan describes an
invasive form of test (e.g., monitoring of voltage, waveform, or data within the EUT), these
tests are not applicable during EM1 testing. Instead, a test set or fixture is often used to perform
an operational test of the EUT during EM1 testing.
The test set should provide stimulus to the EUT where required (e.g., data bus control
lines). It should be isolated from the ambient electromagnetic fields during radiated susceptibility
tests and should not be a source of radiated emission from the enclosures during radiated emis-
sion tests. This isolation and suppression of emissions is typically achieved by locating all func-
tional test equipment outside of the shielded room during EMC tests.
The load represented by the test set should simulate the actual load on the EUT as closely
as possible. Where a difference exists between the test setinterface circuits and that used within
the actual load, the voltage induced during EMCradiated susceptibility tests should be measured
at the test setinputs. The level of induced voltageshould then be compared to the noise threshold
of the actual interface circuits to establish EMC.
Where thecircuits are identical, the levelof immunity will bedetermined simply by correct
operation of the EUT as determined by the test set. The time required to complete tests on all
control lines, data buses, etc. by the test set must be known in order to limit the speed of the
frequency scan during radiated emission tests, etc. Where possible, the test set should be de-
signed to replace the need for manual operation of switches, etc.
It is usually not feasible to operate control levers or switches remotely, because the pres-
ence ofan operator close to the EUT introduces large errors into the radiated emission and
radiated susceptibility tests, the control levers should remain in one position during radiated
emission and radiated susceptibility EM1 tests. However, some procuring agencies require the
operation of switches during EMC tests, regardless of the errors introduced.
Radiated emissions from interface cables caused by common-mode noise generated within
the test set should be reduced to the extent feasible. Installation of filter connector adapters on
power and signal connectors on the test set is an effective approach in reducing both common-
and differential-mode noise.
A background radiated emission measurement should be made with the EUT powered
down and the test set powered up in order to characterize any radiated emissions from the
interface cables caused by the test setup.
9.6.3.2TestProcedures
Test procedures should contain, as a minimum, the following:
List of contents
Applicable documents
Purpose of test
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Table of frequencies and repetition rate of broadband frequencies at which interference

may be expected
Test sample excitation and performance monitoring
Test cables
Dummy loads
Power supplies
Grounding and bonding during tests
Procedures for each parameter test stating:
(a) Applicability
(b) Test setup, including detailed drawings
(c) Test points
(d) Limits and frequency range
(e) Operating procedures for the test sample operating and monitoring equipment
(f) Test sample operating modes
(g) P a d f a i l criteria for susceptibility tests
(h) Transfer impedance of probes
(i) Antenna factors
Test Result Sheets, including:
(a) Procedure step
(b) Specification for limits
(c) Parameter
(d) Test data
(e) Initial of person responsible for test
(f) Quality assurance signature
9.6.4 General TestGuidelines

a. All test equipment will be certified as calibrated, with verification that the calibration
is still current. This information will be entered on the Test Equipment Sheet. The
test equipment serial numbers and calibration information shall be entered on this
sheet.
b. Where a monopole antenna is used for either radiated emission or radiated suscepti-
bility tests (14 kHz to 20-30 MHz), the antenna counterpoise (ground plane) should
be bonded to the ground plane on the table. If the EUT is too large and is mounted
on the floor of the shielded room, then the monopole is used uncoupled. Where the
monopole has been calibrated coupled and uncoupled (coupled is when two test an-
tenna ground planes are connected together by a counterpoise, and uncoupled is
without the counterpoise), care must be taken to use the uncoupled calibration.
C. The test antenna shall be remote from the measuring equipment. The distance shall
be determined by two factors:
d. Far enough away to reduce interaction betweenthe antenna and measurement equip-
ment.
e. The distance shall be limited by excessive attenuation in the cable length. Ideally,
the measuring equipment shall be located outside of the shielded room.
f. When performing radiated emission measurements, no point of the measuring an-
tenna shall be less than l m from the walls of the shielded enclosure or obstruction.
g. For susceptibility measurements, no point of the field-generating and the field-mea-
suring antennas shall be less than 1 m from the walls of the enclosure.
h. MIL-STD-461E requires that the enclosures be sufficiently large such that the EUT
602 Chapter 9
arrangement requirements and antenna-positioning requirements described in the in-

dividual test methods are satisfied.
1. Care should be taken to ensure that a11 accessory equipment used, such as spectrum
monitors, oscilloscopes, earphones, and other equipment used in conjunction with
EM1 analyzers, does not affect measurement integrity.
j. The side ofthe equipment emitting the highest level of radiation shall be determined,
and that side shall face the receiving antenna.
k. Ambient levels measured during testing with the EUT de-energized shall be at least
6 dB belowtheapplicablelimits of MIL-STD-461. Ambientconditionsshallbe
determined prior to the beginning of measurements on the energized EUT and re-
peated during the progress of the test if there is reason to believe ambient levels
have changed.If these conditions cannot be met and the offending sources are outside
of the control of the test engineer (i.e., noisy functional test equipment or, despite
filtering, noisy power supplies), the test may proceed, provided it can be demon-
strated that the EUT provides negligible contributions to the emissions over the fre-
quency range in question.
1. Typical product assurance provisions demand that the assigned Quality Assurance
Engineer shall witness the tests and determine, in conjunction with the Test Conduc-
tor,whether or not a failure has occurred. Any failureshallbesubject to a Test
Observation Record. Prior to the Start of testing, a test readiness review shall be held
to determine test readiness and compliance. The system shall be visually inspected
and approved as a production-representative unit.
m. The measuring equipment should be monitored tirst for spurious emissions. False
data caused by such spurious recordings should be identified on X-Y recordings of
photos from oscilloscopes.
n. If a high-level signal is present at a frequency outside of the frequency span examined
by the EM1 receiver or spectrum analyzer, false measurements may be made as a
result of overload and compression of the front end of the receiver, spectrum ana-
lyzer, or preamp (where used). To check for the presence of overload and compres-
sion, either bypass the preamp (where used) or insert a 3-20-dB attenuator at the
input of the measuring instrument and ensure that the peak emission recorded falls
by the appropriate dB value. The spectrum analyzer/receiver input attenuator may
be adjusted to achieve the same attenuation. NB: Where the signal is close to the
noise floor, a 3-6-dB attenuator may be more appropriate than the 20 dB.
0. Prior to performing tests, the measurement equipment shall have been switched on
for a period of time adequate to allow parameter stabilization.If the operation manual
does not specify a period of time, the minimum warmup time shall be 1 hour.
P. Broadband and narrowband swept measurelnents are made with the peak detector
function. Spot frequency measurements Inay be made using an rms detector, pro-
vided the signal characteristics are known and errors can be calculated. The follow-
ing is fromMIL-STD-461E: Apeakdetectorshall be used for all frequency-
domain emission and susceptibility measurements.This device detects the peak value
of themodulation envelope in the receiverbandpass.Measurementreceiversare
calibrated in terms of an equivalent root mean square (rms) value of a sinewave
that producesthe s a n e peakvalue.Whenothermeasurementdevices,such as
oscilloscopes, nonselective voltmeters, or broadband field strength sensors, are used
for susceptibilitytesting,correctionfactorsshallbeapplied for test signals to
adjust the reading to equivalent rms values under the peak of the modulation enve-
lope.
q. All measurement equipment shall be operated as prescribed by the applicable instruc-

tion manuals unless specified herein. For test repeatability, all test parameters used
to configure the test shall be recorded in the EM1 test report. These parameters shall
include measurement bandwidths, video bandwidths, sweep speeds, etc.
The general test guidelines and precautions that are generally applicable or that are con-
tained in MIL-STD-461E are:
a. Ccllibration of ttlerrsuring equipment und ontennas. Test equipment and accessories
required for measurement in accordance with this standard shall be calibrated under
an approved program in accordance with MIL-STD 45622.In particular, measurement
antennas, current probes, field sensors, and other devices used in the measurement
loop shall be calibrated at least every 2 years unless otherwise specifiedby the procur-
ing activity, or when damage is apparent. Antenna factors and current probe transfer
impedances shall be determined on an individual basis for each device.
b. MeLlsurenlent sptetn rest. At the start of each emission test, the complete test system
(including measurement receivers, cables, attenuators, couplers, and so forth) shall
be verified by injecting a known signal, as stated in the individual test method, while
monitoring system output for the proper indication.
c. Atztenm @tors. Factors for electric field test antennas shall be determined in accor-
dance with SAE ARP-958
Requirements that are specific to MIL-STD-461E are:
a. Escess personnel crnd equipment. The test areashall be keptfree of unnecessary
personnel, equipment, cable racks, and desks. Only the equipment essential to the
test being performed shall be in the test area or enclosure. Only personnel actively
involved in the test shall be permitted in the enclosure.
b. RF hazards. Some tests in this standard will result in electromagnetic fields, which
are potentially dangerous to personnel. The permissible exposure levels in ANSI
C95.1, in the United States, and safety code 6, in Canada, shall not be exceeded in
areas where personnel are present. Safety procedures and devices shall be used to
prevent accidental exposure of personnel to RF hazards.
c. Shock hazard. Some of the tests require potentially hazardous voltages to be present.
Extreme caution must be taken by all personnel to ensure that all safety precautions
are observed.
d. Federnl Communiccrtions Conlmission (FCC) and Industry Cmadtr restrictions.
Some of the tests require high-level signals to be generated that could interfere with
normal FCC- or Industry Canada-approved frequency assignments. All such testing
should be conducted in a shielded enclosure. Some open-site testing may be feasible
if prior FCC or Industry Canada coordination is obtained.
e. EUT test conjigurations. The EUT shall be configured as shown in the general test
setups. These setups shall be maintained during all testing unless other direction is
given for a particular test method.
f. Bonding of EUT. Only the provisions included in the design of the EUT shall be
used to bond units such as equipment case and mounting bases together or to the
ground plane. When bonding straps are requiredto complete the test setup, they shall
be identical to those specified in the installation drawings.
g. Shock and vibration isolrrtors. EUTs shall be secured to mounting bases having shock
or vibration isolators if such mounting bases are used in the installation. The bonding
strapsfurnishedwith the mountingbaseshallbeconnected to the ground plane.
604 Chapter 9
When mounting bases do not have bonding straps, bonding straps shall not be used
in the test setup.
h. Interconnectingleadsandcables. Individualleadsshallbegrouped into cables in
the same manner as in the actual installation. Total interconnecting cable lengths in
the setup shall be the same as in the actual platform installation. If a cable is longer
than 10 meters, at least 10 metersshallbeincluded.When cable lengthsare not
specified for the installation, cables shall be sufficiently long to satisfy the following
conditions specified: At least 2 meters (except for cablesthat are shorter in the actual
installation) of each interconnecting cable shall be run parallel to the front boundary
of the setup. Remaining cable lengths shall be routed to the back of the setup and
shall be placed in a zigzagged arrangement. When the setupincludes more than one
cable, individual cables shall be separatedby 2 centimeters measured from their outer
circumference. For benchtop setups using ground planes, the cable closest to the
front boundary shall be placed 10 centimeters from the front edge of the ground
plane. All cables shall be supported 5 centimeters above the ground plane.
i. Input power leads. Two meters of inputpowerleads(includingreturns)shallbe
routed parallel to the front edge of the setup in the same manner as the interconnecting
leads. The power leads shall be connected to the LISNs (see 4.6). Power leads that
are part of an interconnecting cable shall be separated out at the EUT connectorand
routed to the LISNs. Afterthe2-meterexposedlength,the power leadsshall be
terminated at the LISNs in as short a distance as possible. The total length of power
lead from the EUT electrical connector to the LISNs shall not exceed 2.5 meters.
All power leads shall be supported 5 centimeters above the ground plane.
j. Construction and arrungement of EUT cubles. Electrical cable assemblies shall simu-
late actual installation and usage. Shielded cables orshielded leads (including power
leads and wire grounds) within cables shall be used only if they have been specified
in installation drawings. Cables shall be checked against installation requirements to
verify proper construction techniques, such as use of twisted pairs, shielding, and
shield terminations. Details on the cable construction used for testing shall be in-
cluded in the EMITP.
k. Operation sf EUT. During emission measurements, the EUT shall be placed in an
operating mode that produces maximum emissions. During susceptibility testing, the
EUT shall be placed in its most susceptible operating mode. For EUTs with several
available modes (including software-controlled operational modes), a sufficient num-
ber shall be tested for emissionsand susceptibility such that all circuitry is evaluated.
The rationale for modes selected shall be included in the EMITP.
1. Computer-controlledreceivers. Adescription of theoperationsbeingdirectedby
software for computer-controlled receivers shall be included in the EMITP required
by MIL-STD-461. Verification techniques used to demonstrate proper performance
of the software shall also be included.
m. Orientation of EUTs. EUTs shall be oriented such that surfaces that produce maxi-
mum radiated emissions and respond most readily to radiated signals face the mea-
surement antennas. Bench-mounted EUTs shall be located 10 t- 2 cm from the front
edge of the ground plane, subject to allowances for providing adequate room for
cable arrangement as specified in (j).
n. Susceptibility monitoring. The EUT shall be monitored during susceptibility testing
for indications of degradation or malfunction. This monitoring is normally accom-
plished through the use of built-in test (BIT), visual displays, aural outputs, andother
measurements of signal outputs andinterfaces.Monitoring of EUT performance
through installation of special circuitry in the EUT is permissible; however, these

modifications shall not influence test results.
0. Use of rneasurement equipment. Measurement equipment shall be as specified in the
individual test methods of MIL-STD-46 1 E. Any frequency selective measurement
receiver may be used for performing the testing described in this standard, provided
that the receiver characteristics (that is, sensitivity, selection of bandwidths, detector
functions, dynamic range, and frequency of operation) meet the constraints specified
in this standard and are sufficient to demonstrate compliance with the applicable
limits of MIL-STD-461. Typical instrumentation characteristics may be found in
ANSI C63.2.
p. Scflety grounds. When external terminals, connector pins, or equipment grounding
conductors in power cables are available for ground connections and are used in the
actual installation, they shall be connected to the ground plane. Arrangements and
length to be in accordance with “Interconnecting leads and cables.”
9.6.4.1 Emission Tests

a. Operating frequencies ,fi)r turicible RF equipment. Measurements shall be performed
with the EUT tuned to not less than three frequencies within each tuning band, tuning
unit, or range of fixed channels, consisting of one midband frequency and a frequency
within -C5% from each band or range of channels.
b. Operating frequencies f o r spread spectrum equipment. Operating frequency require-
ments for two major types of spread spectrum equipment shall be as follows:
i. Frequency hopping: Measurements shall be performed with the EUT utilizing a
hop set that contains 30% of the total possible frequencies. The hop set shall be
divided equally into three segments at the low end, middle, and high end of the
EUT’s operational frequency range.
ii. Direct sequence. Measurements shall be performed with the EUT processing data
at the highest possible data transfer rate.
9.6.4.2 Susceptibility Tests

Frequency .scanning. For susceptibility measurements, the entire frequency range for each appli-
cable test shall be scanned. For swept frequency susceptibility testing, frequency scan rates and
frequency step sizes of signal sources shall not exceed the values listed in Table 9.23. The rates
and step sizes are specified in terms of a multiplier of the tuned frequency ~ , of) the signal
source. Analog scans refer to signal sources, which are continuously tuned. Stepped scans refer
to signal sources that are sequentially tuned to discrete frequencies. Stepped scans shall dwell
Table 9.23 Susceptibility Scanning from MIL-STD-46 1E
Analog scans, Stepped scans,

Frequency range maximum scan rates maximum step size
30 Hz-1 MHz O.O333J;,/s 0.05L
1 MHz - 30 MHz O.O0667f,/s O.OI.f,,
30 MHz - 1 GHz O.O0333f;/s O.OOSf,,
1 GHz - 8 GHz 0.000667jJs o.ooy;,
8 GHz - 40 GHz 0.000333f,,ls 0.0005f;.
606 Chapter 9
at each tuned frequency for a minimum of 1 second. Scanrates and step sizes shall be decreased
when necessary to permit observation of a response.
a. Modulation of susceptibilitysignals. Susceptibilitytest signals above 10 kHz shall
be pulse modulated at a l-kHz rate with a 50% duty cycle unless otherwise specified
in an individual test method of this standard.
b. Thresholds of susceptibility. When susceptibility indications are noted in EUT opera-
tion, a threshold level shall be determined where the susceptible conditionis no longer
present. Thresholds of susceptibility shall be determined as follows:
i. When a susceptibility condition is detected, reduce the interference signal until
the EUT recovers.
ii. Reduce the interference signal by an additional 6 dB.
...
111. Gradually increase the interference signal until the susceptibilityconditionre-
occurs. The resulting level is the threshold of susceptibility.
9.6.5 Typical EM1 Receiver or Spectrum Analyzer Bandwidths for MIL-

STD-461A-C
The receiver bandwidths used with the typical EM1 measurement system for measurement of
narrow and broadband emissions are shown in Table 9.24. These are based on measurements
made of the EM1 receiver system noise floor and on the worst-case emission requirements.
Resolution bandwidths may be changed where necessary, for example, when the measuring
equipment bandwidths are different or when the measuring equipment noise floor is close to or
above the limit.
The change from recommendedbandwidth shall be no greater than a factor of 0.5-2, and
the broadband bandwidth shall be from 5 to I O times the narrowband bandwidth.
9.6.5.1 Determination of Either Narrowband (NB) or Broadband (BB)
Emissions
Use the tuning test described in Section 9.2.2 to determine if the emission is narrowband or
broadband. If the results of the test are inconclusive, use one or more of the alternative tests.
Clarification or final arbitration on the decision should be provided by the EMC engineer or
the procuring agency.
Conversion of broadband measured values to the normalized broadband valuesof dBpV/
m/MHz and dBpV/MHz: The reference bandwidth of broadband measurements is1 MHz. Broad-
Table 9.24 EM1 Receiver NB and BB Bandwidths

Frequency range Broadband Narrowband
Radiated
20 Hz to 5 kHz 3 Hz to 10 Hz 30 to 100 Hz
5 kHz to 50 kHz 30 Hz to 100 Hz200Hz to 1 kHz
50 kHz to 1 MHz 200Hz to 1 kHz 9 kHz to 10 kHz
1 MHz to 200 MHz 9 kHz to 10 kHz 100 kHz
200 MHz to 40 GHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
Conducted
10 Hz to 50 Hz -
20 Hz to 20 kHz
20 kHz to 2.5 MHz 200 Hz to 1 kHz 1 kHz to 10 kHz
2.5 MHz to 100 MHz 1 kHz to 9kHz 10 kHz to 50 kHz
band measurements at other bandwidths must be converted to the reference bandwidth. To con-
vert from the measurement bandwidth to the reference bandwidths, add the following to the
measured coherent BB value:
where RBI,)is the reference bandwidth and M,,, is the measurement bandwidth.
As an example: The measurement is a voltage of 25 dBpV at a bandwidth of 10 kHz.
1 MHz
20 log ~ = 40 dB
10 kHz
The corrected measurement is therefore 25 dBpV + 40 dB = 65 dBpV/MHz.
If the measured increase in level is approximately 10 dB for an increase factor of 10, then
the noise is noncoherent (random) BB noise. For non-coherent BB noise, the conversion is:
This conversion for noncoherent BB noise is made by reputable test facilities and is a well-
accepted procedure. However, this is not contained in MIL-STD 462 and should be agreed to
by the procuring agency or EMC authority.
9.6.5.2 MIL-STD 461E Bandwidths and General Emission Guidelines
a. Bandwidth correction factors. No bandwidth correction factors shall be applied to test

data due to the use of larger bandwidths.
b. Emission idenr$cation. All emissions, regardless of characteristics, shall be measured
with the measurement receiver bandwidths specified in Table 9.21 and compared
against the limits in MIL-STD 641E. Identification of emissions with regard to nar-
rowband or broadband categorization is not applicable.
c. Frequency scanning. For emission measurements, the entire frequency range for each
applicable test shall be scanned. Minimum measurement time for analog measurement
receivers during emission testing shall be as specified in Table 9.25. Synthesized mea-
surement receivers shall step in one-half bandwidth increments or less, and the mea-
surement dwell time shall be as specified in Table 9.25.
Table 9.25 MIL-STD-46 1E Bandwidth and Measurement Time

Minimum
measurement
time, analog
6-dB measurement
Frequency range bandwidth Dwell time receiver
30 Hz to 1 kHz 10 Hz 0.15 s 0.015 s/Hz
1 kHz to 10 kHz 100 Hz 0.015 s 0.15 s/kHz
10 kHz to 250 kHz 1 kHz 0.015 s 0.015 s/kHz
250 kHz to 30 MHz 10 kHz 0.015 s 1.5 s/MHz
30 MHz to 1 GHz 100 kHz 0.015 s 0.15 s/MHz
Above 1 GHz 1 MHz 0.015 s 15 s/GHz
608 Chapter 9
d. Emissionckltapreserztntion. Amplitude-versus-frequency profiles of emissiondata

shall be automatically and continuously plotted. The applicable limit shall be dis-
played on the plot. Manually gathered data is not acceptable except for plot verifica-
tion. The plotted data for emissions measurementsshall provide a minimum frequency
resolution of 1% or twicethemeasurementreceiverbandwidth,whichever is less
stringent, and minimum amplitude resolution of 1 dB. The foregoing resolution re-
quirements shall be maintained in the reported results of the EMITR.
9.6.6 Measurement to Very Low-Level Radiated Emissions Limits,

Typically in Notches for Receivers
When radiated emission specification limits arevery low, typically 25 dBpV/m/MHz for broad-
band and 5 dBpV/m for narrowband, the noise floor, using standard EM1 measuring antennas
and preamplifiers, may not be sufficiently low. In some cases the noise floor of the measuring
system using standard equipment is well above the specification limit, andeven the noise voltage
from a 5 0 4 resistor into a 5042 conjugate load may be higher than the signal developed at
the output of the typical receiving antenna. These low-level limits are typically over a narrow
band of frequencies corresponding to a receiver bandwidth.
In evaluating the noise floor of the measurement system it is important to realize that
the receiver/spectrum analyzer measures peak levels, which are displayed as rms values. Most
spectrum analyzer and receiver manufacturers specify an rms noise floor for their equipment,
measured using video or digitalaveraging. The peakvalue,theoretically, may be infinitely
higher; however, in measurements on three different manufactures’ spectrum analyzers, the peak
measured noise, displayed as an rms value, was between 10 dB and 12 dB above the digital or
video bandwidth-averaged noise floor. Hewlett-Packard independently confinned the approxi-
mate 12-dB difference between peak and average.
Another problem in evaluating the noise floor of the measuring system is that the preampli-
fier noise figure may be specified but the noise referenced to the input of the preamp is not
given. Very often this is significantly lower than a 5042 resistor, and to use this 5 0 4 value
results in an error in the noise figure calculation.
In measuring low-level narrowband emissions, the use of averaging will reduce the noise
floor without affecting the narrowband emissions. But this is not allowable for broadband emis-
sions measurements, for the emissions will also be reduced. Figure 9.48 illustrates how averaging
can bring a narrowband emission out of the noise. The noise floor can also be reduced by
reducing the resolution bandwidth. But this is not allowable for broadband measurements, and
often the resolution bandwidth is dictated by the bandwidth of a receiver that is installed on
the EUT, which is the reason the notch is imposed.
The broadband specification uses a 1-MHz reference impulse bandwidth, whereas many
spectrum analyzers use a 3-dB resolution bandwidth. For example, a Hewlett-Packard spectrum
analyzer requires a correction of 4 dB at a I-MHz measurement bandwidth to correct from the
3-dB resolution bandwidth to the impulse bandwidth. This correction is subtracted from the
measured emission level and also from the measured system noise floor.
Another factor when measuring broadband emissions in the notch is the random nature
of the measuring system noise floor. If only coherent broadband emissions are of concern, then
the emissions can be viewed during the troughs and not the peaks of the noise floor display.
The measurement bandwidth used for broadband emissions also affects the measurement
of coherent noise. Figure 9.49 illustrates how increasing the measurement bandwidth can bring
coherentbroadband emissions out of the noise. But this does not help for quasi-broadband
(noncoherent) emissions.Figure 9.49 illustrates, for simplicity, that thecoherentbroadband
Narrowband
emission
Noise floor, averaged
Noise floor
I
I Narrowband
emission
Figure 9.48 Use of averaging to bring a narrowband emission out of the measuring system noise floor.
IMHZ
1OOkHz
I OkHZ
Figure 9.49 Effect of the measurement bandwidth on coherent and noncoherent signals, assuming for
simplicity that the coherent noise does not ride on top of the noncoherent (measuring system) noise.
610 Chapter 9
noise does not ride on top of the noncoherent noise but is buried beneath it. Although this is
often true, it is not always the case.
Using a typical high-end receiver, the noise floor, using a 1-MHz bandwidth, was mea-
sured at 29 dByV at 2 GHz. Adding a 34-dB preamp at the front end of the receiver increased
the measured noise floor by 11 dB to 40 dByV. A typical double-ridged guide horn antenna
has an antenna factor of 26.6 dB at 2 GHz, and let us assume that the broadband limit is 25
dBpVImIMHz and the measurement bandwidth is at 1 MHz. The input to the preamp is then
25 dBpV/m/MHz (limit) - 26.6 dB (AF) = - 1.6 dBpV. And at the input of the receiver it
is - 1.6 dBpV + 34 dB (preamp gain) = 32.4 dByV, i.e., 7.6 dB below the noise floor of the
system. A 3- or IO-MHz bandwidth will bring coherent noise further out of the noise floor, but
only if the coherent noise covers a 3- 10-MHz frequency range.
One antenna that will typically achieve a sufficiently high signal-to-noise ratio for most
measurement systems at 2 GHz is a 1.7-2.6-GHz standard-gain horn, which has a gain of at
least 20 dB and an AF of 16 dB. When used in conjunction with an HP8566B spectrum analyzer
and a low-noise 50-dB preamp, and applying the 4-dB correction for the 1-MHz resolution
bandwidth to 1-MHz impulse bandwidth, the noise floor will be below the BB limit. For example,
the measured noise floor of the spectrum analyzer with 50-dB preamplifier and a 1-MHz band-
width is 55 dBpV - 4 dB (resolution bandwidth correction) = 51 dByV. The signal level at
the spectrum analyzer input with 25 dBpV/m/MHz incident on the antenna is: 25 dBpV/m/
+
MHz - 16dB (AF) 50 dB (preamp gain) = 59 dBpV, i.e., 8 dB above the noise floor.
Realistically it may be necessary to relax the requirement that the noise floor be at least
6 dB below the limit level for these extremely low-level RE02 notches.
9.6.7 MIL-STD-EM1Measurements
The tests most frequently performed are described next.
9.6.7.1 Description of CEO1 and CEO3 Tests
Purpose: These tests are designed to measure conducted emissions on all power lines.
This test is applicable to primary power, that is, the input AC or DC power supplied to
the equipment or subsystem. The test is not usually applicable to power lines that interconnect
equipment or secondary power, although primary power supplied to other equipment may be
included in the requirement. Control circuits that use EUT power and grounds and neutrals that
are not grounded internally to the subsystem or equipment are included.
CEO1 are narrowband emission limits only, and separate narrowband and broadband limits
are imposed for CE03. Signal leads are typically exempt, and when applied the limits are devel-
oped on a case-by-case basis.
Test setup
The CEOI, CEO3 30 Hz to 50 MHz test setup is shown in Figure 9.50. All primary power and
control leads are tested.
Test equipment required
1. Shielded current probe or probes covering the 30-Hz to 50-MHz frequency range
2. EM1 receiver or spectrum analyzer
3. Broadband preamplifier or preamplifiers with at least 20 dB of gain
4. 10-pF feedthrough capacitors with a characterized impedance over the frequency
range of interest
5. Oscilloscope
611
EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements, and Testing
Functional t-1 equipmcnt
I, [,ow impedance hond t o ground plane t

2. I OuF RF feedthrough capacitors
3 . 5 anstandoffs .
4 UC hond impedance helwecn the ground plane
and the shiclded rcwm mll < 2.5in 0h1>
5. Current probe
6 COh4M 2 Chassis comicction 10 ground planc c 2 Sm Ohin
Figure 9.50 CEOI, CEO3 conducted emission test setup.
The following points provide an overview of the CEO1, CEO3 step-by-step procedure:
1. The equipment test mode, in which maximum emissions are generated, are detected
in a "quick scan" test. When more than one test mode results in emissions at different
frequencies, the CEO1, CEO3 test should be repeated in each test mode.
2. Measure the noise pickup on the current probe with the AC and DC power supplies
located outside of the shielded room, switched on but with the power supply discon-
nected from the EUT. This is a measure of the background and the power-supply-
generated noise. The ambient emissions must be 6 dB below the conducted emission
limits.
3 . With the current probe around first the supply and then the return, measure the emis-
sions using the narrowband bandwidth of the receiver/spectrum analyzer.
4. Repeat Step 3 using the broadband measuring bandwidth for the CEO3 broadband
measurement. Change current probes as required to cover the full 3 0 - H ~to 50-MHz
frequency range.
9.6.7.2 MIL-STD 461E,CE101, and CE103
The general test setup is similar to CEO1 and CE03, with the exception of the use of the MIL-
STD 462 LISN. Note the MIL-STD 461E LISN is different than either the low-frequency or
high-frequency LISN described in MIL-STD 462 Notice 3.
For CElOl and CE102, a check on the measurement system is required, the test setup for
this is shown in Figures 9.51 and Figure 9.53, respectively. The CElOl measurement test setup
is shown in Figure 9.52, and the CE102 in Figure 9.54.
612 Chapter 9
Signal
Generator
Amplifier
(As Required)
I
Oscilloscope R
1 Data RecorderH
Current Probe
Measurement
Receiver
7p
Figure 9.51 CElOl measurementsystemchecksetup.
The most common errors incurred in conducted emission measurements with a current
probe are as follow.
1. Leaving the current probe around the DC or AC power cable when switching on or
off the power. The resultant current spike through the probe can generate very high
voltages, and thereis a danger of damage to the front endof the measuring instrument.
ALWAYS DISCONNECT THE CURRENT PROBE FROM THE INSTRUMENT
WHEN POWERING UP OR DOWN!
2. The currentprobeshouldbecalibratedinatestfixture that raisesthebody of the
probe from contact with the return (ground plane) of the test fixture. It is important
in measurements to ensure that the body of the current probe is not in contact with
the ground plane and if possible is at the same height above it as used in the test
fixture.
3. The measuring instrument must be grounded to the ground plane with use of an isola-
tion transformer on the AC power to keep ground currents, typically at harmonics of
the AC power supply, from corrupting the measurement level.
4. It is not mandatory to make the measurement in a shielded room, but if this is the
chosen location the power-line filters at the entry point to the room will effectively
prevent the external ambient from corrupting the measured level. If measurements
must be made outside of the shielded room, the conducted ambient noise, typically
from computers, impressed on the AC power line or coupled from the AC input to
the output of a DC supply can put the EUT out of specification, despite the presence
of the 10-pF feedthrough capacitors or a LISN. The solution is to add a power-line
filter at the input of the AC or DC power, before the IO-pF feedthrough capacitors
or the LISN.
50Q. Termmallon on
Signal Output Port
(One lor Each LISN)
K,
LlSN
Power
-
EUT
Leads
LlSN
rl %1II Current Probe

5cm-W .c
!
Measurement
Recetver
I Data Recorder
I
Figure 9.52 CElOl measurement setup.
Coaxlal
"T"Connector
Power
Input
(Off)
Signal
Generator
J
I
/
I
I
I
Signal
OUtOUt 10 kHz and 100 kHz
Port Calibration Only
Measurement
20 dB Attenuator
Recelver
Recording
Figure 9.53 CE102 measurementsystemchecksetup.

614 Chapter 9
50 R
Terminalion Power
Power Cable
Power
Input
LISN
EUT
Signal Lead
output
Port
m
Measurement
20 dB Attenuator
Receiver
Recording
Device
Figure 9.54 CE102 measurement setup.
The second problem with measurements outside of a shielded room is that the radiated
ambient, typically from TV and radio, couples to the power cable. The current probe measures
this ambient-induced current, which may put the EUT out of specification. If the level of noise
from the EUT is low either side of the ambient emission, when examined with a narrow fre-
quency span and narrow bandwidth, then the emission can be attributed to the ambient, and
many procuring agencies or equipment customers will accept the test results. Check first, how-
ever! With an unacceptably high ambient, either locate the supply outside of the shielded room
and bring the power through the room filters, or add a filter between the DC output from the
supply and the IO-pF capacitors or LISN.
5 . Poor or nonexistent grounding of the EUT, LISN, or 10-pF capacitors to the ground
plane. This will reduce common-mode currents, and may allow an EUT to pass when
the EUT is out of specification.
6. Incorrect characterization of narrowband and broadband emissions. The most com-
mon problem is toapply the coherent BB noise correction to noise that can be demon-
strated to be noncoherent in converting to the reference l MHz bandwidth.
7. Use of incorrect measurement bandwidth, missing a repeat measurementon the power
or return, exceeding calibration frequency range of probe. All of these problems can
be avoided by use of a checklist of the tests with a tick box to ensure notest is missed.
8. The application of all emissions,regardless of characterization, to both thenar-
rowband and broadband limits.
9. Software-controlled measurements have a numberof potential problems. The majority
of these programs do not allow multiple sweeps using peak or maximum hold, but
insteadtake data over a single sweep, asnapshot in effect. Emissions oftenvary
significantly in amplitude from one sweep to the next. With a snapshot of the data,
there is no guaranteethat the worst-case emissions havebeen captured. The argument
is made that this has become an industry standard, but it seldom results in worst-
case emission measurements. A much more serious problem with many computer
measurement programs is a very flawed analysis of broadband and narrowband emis-
sions; when confronted, many manufacturers admit to the deficiency in their program.
Typically, only one of the four test methods is applied, and even that method can
lead to a wrong characterization of the emission.
9.6.7.3 Description of MIL-STD 461 B/C RE02 Electric Field Tests

Purpose: These tests are designed to measure radiated emissions from the equipment or subsys-
tem and all interface cables.
These tests are divided into measurement of narrowband radiated emissions from 14 kHz
to 18 GHz and broadband radiated emissions from 14 kHz to 10 GHz (some procuring agencies
extend the requirement to 18 GHz).
RE02 Test Setup

The RE02 narrowband and broadband radiated emission test setup for the EUT is shown in
Figure 9.55. This is the typical MIL-STD-462 test setup. The exposed cable is located 5 cm
above the ground plane at a distance of 10 2 2 cm from the front of the ground plane. The
cables after the exposed 2-m length may be shielded either by an expandable braid that is taped
to the ground plane with electrically conductive adhesive copper tape or simply by copper tape
placed over the cables and contacting the ground plane on either side of the cables (NB: Before
taping the cables into position the orientation of the subsystem must be decided to ensure that the
area of maximum emission is facing the antenna, as described in the step-by-step test procedure).
Maximum coupling between the subsystem and the monopole (rod) antenna will be en-
sured by the extension of the counterpoise of the antenna to the ground plane, as shown in
Figure 9.55.
Figure 9.55 RE02 radiated emission test setup.

616 Chapter 9
Test equipment required
1. Antennae covering the range of 14 kHz to 18 GHz. The antennas will typically be
of the following types:
Frequency Antenna type

14 kHz to 20 MHz Active or passive rod
20 MHz to 200 MHz Biconical
200 MHz to 1 GHz Log periodic (double-ridged guide for MIL-STD-461DE)
1 GHz to 18 GHz Double-ridged guide
2. EM1 receiver and/or spectrum analyzer with a noise floor no higher than 75 pV over
the bandwidth being used.
3. Broadband preamplifier or preamplifierls with at least 20 dB of gain and a noise floor
no higher than 10 dB.
4. 10-pF RF feedthroughcapacitors.
Use of electric or magnetic field probes tolocate sources of emission.

Electric or magnetic field probes are available, as described in Section 2.6, and used typically
with a preamplifier and spectrum analyzer. These probes may be used to monitor the cables
and sides of units to determine the sources of maximum emission. Thisinformation is necessary
to determine EUTorientation. A second use for the probes is to locate sources of out-of-specifi-
cation emissions. The probesmay be hand-held and positioned 7-15 cm from cables, enclosure
walls, apertures, etc.
The probes may be calibrated, although the absolute value of H field measured by the
probes is not required. The calibration curve does, however, provide an indication of the fre-
quency response of the probe. This may be used as described in the followingexample. Assume
an emission detected at 70 MHz, using a balanced loop antenna, with a second emission 6 dB
higher at 80 MHz. The balanced loop sensitivity is 0.4 mV/mA/m at 70 MHz and 1.1 mV/
mA/m at 80 MHz (i.e., 8.8 dB higher). Therefore, the 70-MHz emission is 2.8 dB above the
80-MHz emission after correction for probe sensitivity.
R E 0 2 test method and preparation

The test setup should be in compliance with Figure 9.55. Where RE02 measurements of the
applicablelevelsare routine with the test equipment available, the followingcalculation of
system sensitivity may be omitted.
Where the limits are lower than previously measured or unfamiliar equipment is used, it
should be ascertained if the sensitivity of the antennas and measuring equipment ensures that
the radiated emission level is 6 dB above the noise floor of the measuring equipment.
Compare the antenna factor of each antenna to be used with the narrowband radiated
emission level over the frequency range of interest. At the frequency or frequencies where the
antenna factor is high or the limit is low, make the following calculations:
V,,,(dBpV) = dBpV/m - AF (dB)
where
V,, = input voltage to receiving equipment
dBpV/m = specification limit at the frequency under consideration

AF (dB) = antenna factor in decibels = 20 log,, AF
AF = numeric antenna factor at the frequency of interest
Using V,,, ensure that the measuring instrument has sufficient sensitivity, or the noise floor
is sufficiently low, at the bandwidths specified in Table 9.19. When this is not the case, either
a broadband low-noise preamplifier or a more sensitive or lower-noise measuring instrument
should be used. This calculation must be repeated for each antenna used and for thebroadband
specification limit, again selecting an appropriate bandwidth from Table 9.19. An example of
a typical calculation follows.
A narrowband limit at 40 MHz is 24 dBpV/m. The antenna factor of the antenna used
in 3.83, which is 11.67 dB. Therefore,
V,, = 24 dBpV/m - 1 1.67 dB = 12.3 dBpV = 4.12 pV

The narrowband bandwidth to be used is 10 kHz (refer to Table 9.20 at 40 MHz). At 40 MHz
the noise floor of the measuring instrument is -80 dBm, which is equivalent to 23 pV into 50
R (the input impedance of the instrument). V,, is thus 15 dB (20 log V,,/noise floor) below the
noise floor, and the systemsensitivity,therefore, is not adequate and apreamplifierwitha
minimum gain of 21 dB must be used. For conversion to broadband unit, add the broadband
correction given by
1 MHz
20 log ~
RBW
where RHWis the resolution bandwidth used in the measurement in MHz.

The frequency to which the receiver is tuned will be swept over the frequency range of
the antenna in use. The sweep timewill be selected to ensurethat broadband emissiorzs occurring
at the lowest pulse repetition rate of the system are measured. A maximum EM1 receiver scan
rate will therefore be imposed. The maximum EM1 receiver scan rate is determined by both the
EM1 receiver bandwidth and the lowest PRF to be intercepted.
Narrowband emissions are either from CW sources or sources at high PRF, and thus the
maximum scan rate limitation is not applicable. The scan rate in hertz per second is given by
EM1 receiver
bandwidth [Hz]
-
scan rate =
lowest
expected PRF [sec]
An example for a 50-kHz broadband bandwidth is
50 kHz - 1 1 .l kHz/s
scan rate = ___
4.5 S
The slowest sweeptime available on a typical spectrum analyzer is 1500 seconds, thus
the maximum frequency span that can be swept in 1500 seconds is given by
scanrate X sweeptime = 1 1.1 kHz/s X 1500 S = 16.6 MHz
The 2.5-MHz to 30-MHz frequency range must therefore be divided into two sections. The
approximate time required for the broadband test to cover this frequency range is 41 minutes.
At high frequencies, the limit on scan rate often results in inordinately long test times, and an
alternative method must be used.
618 Chapter 9
Two approaches can be used to facilitate the broadbandRE02 test. One is either to program
the spectrum analyzer via the front panel or touse a computer toautomatically change frequency
and plot the results. The other approach is to use a fast sweeptime and to record the frequency
range of interest for a specified numberof minutes, using peak(maximum) hold on the spectrum
analyzer. The probability of detecting the harmonically relatedemissions occurring at a 1 -minute
or faster repetition rate is thus high. The sweeptime of the spectrum analyzer for narrowband
tests may be short, limited only by the spectrum analyzer. When the sweeptime is too short,
the spectrum analyzer displays an out-of-calibration condition. When the EUT has morethan one
mode of operation, any of which may result in significant emissions, the radiated and conducted
emission measurements must be repeated for each mode.
Expected fieyuencyof emissions

The frequencies at which emissions are expected should be tabulated and examined carefully
during emission measurements. For example, broadband and narrowband harmonically related
emissions are expected at clock, converter, and logic frequencies and harmonics thereof.
RE02 step-by-step test procedure

The following three points provide an overview of the RE02 step-by-step procedure.
1. Check for background emissions over the entire frequency band of interest (i.e., 14
kHz <f > 18 GHz). Above 20 MHz, checkwith both vertical and horizontal polariza-
tions of the antenna.
2. Find the side of the EUT that has the highest emissions (check all test modes).
3. Measurepeakemissions for all test modes.
NOTE:
For 14 kHz <,f > 18 GHz, measure peak emissions using the appropriate narrowband
bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer, and compare the measured peak emissions to the
limits.
For 14 kHz < f > I O GHz, measure peak emissions using the appropriate broadband
bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer, and comparethe measured peak emissions to the
limits.
For emissions exceedingthelimits, determine whether they arebroadband or nar-
rowband by one or more of the methods outlined in Section 9.2.2.
0 For f > 20 MHz, peak emissions mustbemeasuredusingverticalandhorizontal
antenna orientations.
For 1 GHz to 18 GHz, measurepeakemissionswith the antennalocated 1 m from
the center of the interconnection cables as well as 1 m in front of the EUT.
When the passive or active rod antenna is used, connect the counterpoise of the antenna
to the ground plane on which the EUT is mounted using a sheet of copper-clad PCB. The PCB
may be electrically bonded to the ground plane and counterpoise by use of conductive adhesive
tape. The MIL-STD-462 test setup does not show the counterpoise connected to the ground
plane, unlike the DO-160 test setup. Bonding the counterpoise to the ground plane results in a
smoother AF, especially at higher frequencies.
MIL-STD 461E RE102 does require that the rod antenna counterpoise be used and be
electrically bonded to the ground plane. MIL-STD 461E alsorequires a test of the measurement
path using a signal generator and requires the use of multiple antenna positions above 200 MHz
and specific antenna heights of 120 cm above the ground plane for the biconical and double-
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
ridge guide (horn). The measurement bandwidths and dwell times for RE102 are contained in
Table 9.25.
9.6.7.4Common Errors in RE02/RE102 Measurements

The most common errors incurred in radiated emission measurements follow.
1. Ambient inside the shielded room too high due to RF common-mode current flow on
interconnection and power cable. This is typically sourced by functional test equip-
ment or electrical ground support equipment (EGSE) located outside of the shielded
room. The solution is always to use D-type connectors oninterface connections either
at the test equipment/EGSE or at the cable entry into the shielded room. By using
D-type connectors, if a problem is seen, a filtered D-type connector adapter (male
and female connectors back to back with filter components in between) should be
tried. If filter connectors cannot be used on interconnection cables, then the shields
of cables should be terminated to the shielded-room wall at the entry through a wave-
guide and brass wool should be used to connect the shield to the interior of the wave-
guideand to fill theaperture. It is afallacy to assume that awaveguideaperture
performs as a waveguide below cutoff when cables are passed through the aperture.
RF current flow on these cables will couple fromthe outside ambient intothe shielded
room on the cables coming through the waveguide. Even nonconductive hose con-
taining tap water will couple RF currents into the room due to the conductivity of
the tap water. To keepthe RF currentsout of the shielded room, they must be shunted
to the room wall at the point of entry.
2. Incorrect characterization of narrowband and broadband emissions. The most com-
mon problem is to apply the coherent BB noise correction to noise that can be demon-
strated to be noncoherent in converting to the reference 1-MHz bandwidth.
3. Use of incorrect measurement bandwidth, missing a repeat measurement with a differ-
ent antenna polarization, exceeding calibration frequency range of antenna. All of
these problems can be avoided by use of a checklist of the tests (which includes
frequency range, antenna polarization, use of preamplifier, etc.), with tick boxes to
ensure no test is missed.
4. Transmitting antennason the EUT connected to broadband power amplifiers are
sources of broadbandnoiseas well astheintendedtransmittingfrequency. These
transmitting antennas are excluded from the RE02 and RE102 tests.Transmitting
antennas must be replaced with dummy loads, and the load connector must have a
low transfer impedance to reduce radiation from the load itself. If out-of-band emis-
sions from the transmitter are a problem, these should be measured in a conducted
test; they are not part of tests of radiated emission E field to MIL-STD requirements.
5. The application of all emissions, regardless of characterization, to boththenar-
rowband and broadband limits. (Apply only BB emissions to the BB limit and NB
emissions to the NB limit.)
6. Nonrepresentative test setup, use of a different type of cable than used in the final
version, nonrepresentative EUT, addition of aluminum foil, copper tape, or braid over
cables that will not normally be shielded.
7. The argument that cable emissions are not the concern of themanufacturer of the
EUT when the cable harness is supplied by the customer. Regardless of the type of
cable, shielded or unshielded, it is the EUT that places noise on the cables, and it is
the manufacturer of the EUT who must reduce emissionsat source. If a manufacturer
believes that emission requirements will not be met with a customer-supplied un-
620 Chapter 9
shielded cable, he should apply for a deviation prior to testing. The customer may
allow the deviation, require the EUT to meet the requirement, or change the cable to
a shielded type
8. Software-controlled measurements have a number of potential problems. The majority
of these programs do not allow multiple sweeps using peak or maximum hold, but
instead take data over a single sweep, a snapshot in effect. Emissions often vary in
amplitude significantly from one sweep tothe next. With a snapshot of the data, there
is no guarantee that the worst-case emissions have been captured. The argument is
made that this has become an industry standard, but it seldom results in worst-case
emission measurements. A much more serious problem with many computer-measure-
ment programs is a very flawed analysis of broadband and narrowband emissions;
when confronted, many manufacturers admit to the deficiency in their program. Typi-
cally, only one of the four test methods is applied and any one of the methods can
lead to a wrong characterization of the emission.
9.6.7.5 Description of MIL-STD 461B/C REO1, RE04, and MIL-STD 461 E

RE1 01Magnetic Field Tests
Purpose: These tests are to verify that the magnetic field emissions from the EUT and
its associ-
ated cabling do not exceed specified requirements.
The REOl test covers the 30-Hz to 30-kHz frequency range, the RE04 test covers the 30-
Hz to 50-kHz frequency range, and the RElOl covers the 30-Hz to 100-kHz frequency range.
For both the REOl and RElOl tests, the receiving loop is specified in both the original
MIL-STD 462 and MIL-STD 461E as follows:
Diameter 13.3 cm
Number of turns 36
Wire 7-41 Litz (7 strand, No. 41 AWG)
Shielding electrostatic
MIL-STD 461Erequires a calibrationof the measurement equipment using a signal gener-

ator. In both REOl and RElOl the loop sensor is located 7 cm from and moved over the EUT
face or cable being probed. Orient the plane of the loop sensor parallel to the EUT faces and
parallel to the axis of the cables. The exact distance of 7 cm from the EUT or cable is very
important, for small errors in distance can result in large deviations in measurement. To ensure
the 7-cm distance is maintained it is recommended that a 7-cm Styrofoam block or a short
length of dowel be strapped to the loop antenna.
In the MIL-STD 461 RE04 test,themagnetic field sensor,whichmustbe capable of
measuring -40 dBnT at 25 Hz, is located 1 m from the EUT and cables. The axisof the antenna
is pointed toward the EUT. A calibrator is required to check the magnetic field sensor. The
calibrator is required to generate known magnetic fields at a minimum of 10 frequencies over
the 20-Hz to 50-kHz range. If a calibrator is not available and the magnetic field sensor has
been calibrated within the last two years, then this would normally be acceptable.
9.6.7.6 RS03 RadiatedSusceptibilityTest

Purpose: The test is for susceptibility of the equipment or subsystem and interconnection cables
to incident E fields and plane waves. The test setup issimilar to that for RE02with the receiving
antenna replaced with a transmitting antenna.
Test equipment
1. Antennae covering the range of 14 kHz to 10 GHz and capable of generating the
specified E fields will typically be of the following types:
Frequency Antenna type

14 kHz to 20 MHz Passive rod or long wire
or S tripline
14 kHz to 200 MHz E field generating
20 MHz to 200 MHz Biconical
200 MHz to 1 GHz Log-periodic
1 GHz to I8 GHz Double-ridged guide
2. Power amplifiers operating over the frequency range from 14 kHz to 18 GHz. The
power rating of the amplifiers must be sufficiently high to generate the specified E
fields from the antennas in use.
3. E field sensors, with remote read capability or one of the following calibrated anten-
nas, may be used to monitor the level of E field:
Frequency Antenna
14 kHz to 40 MHz I-m rod
40 MHz to 300 MHz Tunable dipole
20-1000 MHz Bow tie
300 MHz to 800 MHz Resonant 5-20-cm rod
800 MHz to 3 GHz 25-cm conical log spiral
3-8 GHz 15-cm X 2.8-cm conical log spiral
8-18 GHz 6.2-cm X I-cm conical log spiral
Due to the high levels monitored by the antennas, preamplifiers are typically not
required.
4. Signal generators covering the frequency range from 14 kHz to 18 GHz with either
internal or external modulation capability.
5. Audio frequency signal generator used to modulate the carrier frequency generator
in (4).
Description of RS03 test

The instrument is exposed to fields generated by antennas over the frequency range from 14
kHz to 10 GHz. The EUT should demonstrate correct performance when exposed to the specified
level of E field. The signal source should be amplitude modulated at a frequency at which the
signal or power interfaces are predicted to be most susceptible.
The power and interface cables are exposed to the incident E field over a length of 2 m.
The exposed cable is located 5 cm above the ground plane at a distance of 10 cm from the front
of the ground plane.
622 Chapter 9
Interface cables connected to other equipment in the room should be dropped to the metal
floor after the 2-m exposed length. The cables on the floor should be as far away from the
transmitting antenna as feasible and may be either covered with copper conductive adhesive
tape connected on both sides of the cables to the metal section of the floor, or contained in
expandable braid that is connected to the metal floor section.
The cables, which are arranged on the ground plane, may be shielded, after the 2-m ex-
posed length, either by an expandable braid that is taped to the ground plane with electrically
conductive adhesive copper tape or simply by copper tape placed over the cables and contacting
the ground plane on either side of the cables.
The antennas are located at a distance of 1 m from the face of the EUT. When small-
aperture antennas (1-18-GHz frequency range) are used, the position of the antenna should be
moved from directly in front of the EUT to directly in front of the interconnection cables.
MIL-STD 461E requires RS103 tests to be conducted from only as low as 2 MHz to 18
GHz and optionally up to 40 GHz.
Circularly polarized fields are not allowed.
There is no implied relationship between RS 103 and the RE102 limits. RE102 limits are
placed primarily to protect antenna-connected receivers, while RS 103simulates fields resulting
from antenna transmissions.
MIL-STD 461E specifies specific locations for the transmit antennas and for the electric
field sensors.
When a receive antenna is used, it is placed in the test setup boundary, and first the signal
path is checked out by use of a signal generator.
The procedure for calibrating the E field using a receive antenna is:
Connect the receive antenna.

Set the signal source to l-kHz pulse modulation, 50% duty cycle.
Using an appropriate transmit antenna and amplifier, establish an electric field at the test
start frequency.
Gradually increase the electric field level until it reaches the applicable limit.
Scan the test frequency range and record the required input power levels to the transmit
antenna to maintain the required field.
Repeat this procedure whenever the test setup is modified or an antenna is changed.
For testing, remove thereceive antenna and reposition theEUT. This calibration technique
does lead to errors due to the proximity of the ground plane to the receive antenna, but it does
eliminate the error due to the proximity of the EUT to the receiving antenna.
The location of the power amplifier and the input lead from the signal
generator are critical.
For a monopole antenna, the power amplifier should be located under the counterpoise of the
antenna and connected to the antenna with as short a cable as feasible.
When a long-wire antenna is used, and when driven without load, it should also be con-
nected to the power amplifier, via a transformer where required, with as shorta cable as feasible.
For all antennas, with the possible exception of the monopole, the power amplifier should be
located outside the shielded room to avoid feedback from the radiated fieldonto the input cable
of the power amplifier.
MIL-STD-462 requires that the incident E field be measured at the EUT location. How-
ever, when using physically large antennas to measure the generated E field, the proximity of
the antenna to the EUT and ground plane invalidates the AF of the antenna. Even the use of
field sensors located close to the ground plane will result in a measurement very different from
the E field generated far away from the ground plane. The recommendation is that the E field
EM1 Measurements,
Requirements,
Control
and Testing 623
value be monitored 1 m from the transmitting antenna, and not at the EUT position, where the
presence of the ground plane can result in E fields ranging from close to cancellation to E fields
greater than 6 dB above the level without ground plane. When this measurement technique is
described in the test plan and test procedure, the procuring agency often accepts the deviation
from MIL-STD-462 recommended procedure.
When the power amplifier is located outside of the room, the potential exists for coupling
between the antenna feed cable and test equipment cables. Here, ferrite beads on the antenna
and/or test cables may alleviate the problem or the use of double braid shielded cables. Above
30 MHz, tests are made with both horizontally and vertically polarized fields.
The major problem with the RS03 test setup is that the field incident on the EUT will
vary due to shielded-room resonances and reflections. As shown in Section 9.5. I , the variation
may be as high as 50 dB. The E field incident on the measuring antenna will also vary, and
the AF of the measuring antenna will deviate from the published curve due to proximity effects.
If the input signal to the power amplifieris adjusted to maintain the specified E field, as measured
by the receiving antenna, the magnitude of the E field at the EUT may be anything from almost
zero V/m to potentially destructive levels.
One technique that minimizes the possibility of subjecting the EUT to very high levels
of E field is to sweep the test frequency over the range of interest and to move the location of
the receiving antenna after each sweep. Because the dips and peaks in the measured E field are
caused primarily by reflections, they tend to average out as the antenna location is moved. A
common test method is to generate as high an E field as possible, limited only by the power
amplifier and antenna. If the equipment is susceptible, then the magnitude of the E field at the
susceptibility frequency is adjusted to the specified E field. The potential danger is that the
equipment is damaged by the test levels generated. Automated tests often use the output from
an E field probe to control the output level of the power amplifier driving the antenna. The
problem with this technique is that at those frequencies at which cancellation of the fields at
the probe location occurs, the power amplifier output is at maximum, and again potentially
damaging levels of E field are generated. The E field generated by a transmitting antenna at
l-m distance is given by the following equation:
where
W = input power
G = gain of the antenna at the frequency of interest
r = distance from the antenna [m]
h = wavelength [m]
When the input impedanceof the antenna is assumed to be a constant50 Q and thedistance
a constant 1 m, the following simplified equation may be used:
In common with other susceptibility tests, the maximum sweep rate should be limited by
the ground support equipment (GSE) or functional test equipment test cycle time, that is, the
624 Chapter 9
time required to test the EUT and determine if it is susceptible. A guideline for the limit on
sweep rate is to sweep the carrier frequency over the frequency range of interest, usually limited
by theantenna, stopping at threefrequenciesper decade forthe test cycle duration. Sweep
between the held frequencies in a duration equal to the test cycle time. When the test cycle
time is much over 1 minute, inordinately long test times are required and the dwell and sweep
durations should be limited to 1 minute. The susceptibility test method should be outlined in
the test plan and approved by the procuring agency prior to commencement of tests. If degraded
performance is observed duringthe test, theE field should be decreased to determine the thresh-
old of susceptibility.Receiving antennas areexcludedfromradiatedsusceptibility tests and
should be replaced by a shielded dummy load.
The MIL-STD-461E susceptibility scan rates are provided in Table 9.23
SAFETY WARNING: Where power amplifiersgreater than 3 W are used,the test equipment
is capable of generating E fields of 200 V/m or higher.E fields above27.5 V/m are considered
hazardous. Therefore,do not remain in the shielded room with the signal generator pow-
ered up and connected to the power amplifier and antenna.
9.6.7.7 MostCommon Errors Incurred in Radiated Susceptibility
Measurements
1. A consensus on the passtfail criteria has not been reached; i.e., a few white spots on
a display or some minor distortion may be acceptable, whereas multiple images or
major distortion is almost certainly unacceptable. Similarly, some bit error rate in
data communication may be acceptable, and this must be agreed on prior to com-
mencement of susceptibility tests.
2 . Failing to log the test start and stop times when data is analyzed offline, after the test
is complete. The data must also be time tagged to allow comparison with the test
times.
3. Inclusion of receiving antennas that are part of the EUT in the test chamber. These
antennas and associated receivers should not be part of the susceptibility test. A danger
is that thereceiverfront end may bedestroyed by thepowerinduced due to the
incident susceptibility test field at in-band or close-to-in-band frequencies. If antennas
cannot be disconnected, typicallywhenthe EUT is a flight modelsatellite,then
wooden forms covered in absorber loads may be required to cover the antenna. In
addition, frequencies at either side of the receiver in-band frequencies should not be
radiated in the test.
4. Allowing personnel to view displays, indicator lights, or meters on the EUT in the
test chamber during a radiated susceptibility test. Due to the potential danger, a set
of mirrors can be set up and use made of the waveguide below cutoff to view the
EUT display panel. With no cables penetrating the waveguide it will function as a
waveguide below cutoff, and the field coupled out of the shielded enclosure will be
negligible.
5. Coupling betweenthesignalgeneratorinput cable and the power amplifieroutput
cable, or between the test field and the input cable to the power amplifier, when this
is located in the test chamber. This coupling can result in positive feedback and the
generation of very high E fields. Because the frequency of this oscillation may be
very different than the test frequency, always monitor the radiated field with a wide
frequency span.
6. Nonrepresentative test setup, use of a different type of cable than used in the final
version, nonrepresentative EUT, addition of aluminum foil, coppertape, or braid over
cables that will not normally be shielded.
7. The argument that cable induced levels are not the concern of the manufacturer of
the EUT when the cable harness is supplied by the customer. Regardless of the type
of cable, shielded or unshielded, it is the EUT that must demonstrate immunity to
cable induced levels, and it is the manufacturer of the EUT who must reduce build
immunity into the circuit. If a manufacturer believes that susceptibility requirements
will not be met with a customer-supplied unshielded cable, it should apply fora devia-
tion prior to testing. The customer may allow the deviation, require the EUT to meet
the requirement, or change the cable to a shielded type.
8. Missing a repeat measurement with a different antenna polarization, exceeding cali-
bration frequency range of antenna or power amplifier.
All of these problems can be avoided by use of a checklist of the tests, with tick boxes
to ensure no test is missed.
9.6.7.8 Description of MIL-STD 461 B/C RSOl and MIL-STD 461 E RS101
The RSOl test is specified from 30 Hz to 30 kHz, and the RSlOl from 30 Hz to 100 kHz. The
test setup is shown in Figure 9.56.
The radiating loop for RSOl has the specification:
12-cn1 diameter
10 turns of AWG-16 capable of producing 5 X IO" tesla/ampere at 5 cm from the face
(plane) of the loop
The radiating loop for MIL-STD 461D RS 101 has the specification:
12-cm diameter
20 turns of AWG-12 capable of producing 9.5 X lo7 pT/ampere at a distance of S cm
from the plane of the loop.
In addition, MIL-STD 461E specifies a loop sensor as follows:
Diameter 4 cm
Number of turns 5 1
Wire 7-41 Litz
Shielding electrostatic
The MIL-STD 462 method, for the limits in MIL-STD 461B/C, is to position the plane
of the radiating loop S cm from the plane of the test sample. Flux densities approximately 20-
30 dB greater than the applicable limit at the test frequencies shall be applied. At the point
Figure 9.56 RSOl lneasurement test setup.

626 Chapter 9
Power
Input
Signal
Source
Measurement
Receiver
Actual and
Simulated Loads
and Signals
Figure 9.57 RSlOl measurementtestsetup.
where the applied field produces the maximum effect, reduce the field until the performance of
the EUT is not affected, and record the magnitude of the field.
The MIL-STD 461E test method issimilar, for the plane of the radiating loop is positioned
5 cm from the plane of the EUT's surface, but the initial test requirement is to apply a level
at least 10 dB above the applicable limit but not toexceed 183 dBpT. At locations of susceptibil-
ity, apply the specified field and move theloop to search for possible locations of susceptibility
at the specified magnetic field level.
MIL-STD 461E requires a calibration using the radiating loop and the sensor loop.
The RSlOl test setup is shown in Figure 9.57.
For calibration of the RSOl and RSlOl test setups the following test equipment and proce-
dure are required:
Equipment check list
For the RSOl test:
1. H field loop as described in MIL-STD-461. The loop is made of 10 turns of #16AWG
on a 4.27-in. (12-cm) diameter. The loop shall be capable of generating a magnetic
flux density of 5 X lo-' tesla/ampere at a distance of 5 cm from the face of the loop.
2. 13.3-cm shielded loop H field antenna, as described in MIL-STD-462 REO1, 30 Hz
to 30 kHz, 1997, and MIL-STD-461E, REIOl, 30 Hz to 100 kHz, 1993.
3. Low-frequency power amplifier at least 100 W from 30 Hz to 100 kHz.
4. l-R 50-W resistor.
5. An oscilloscope used for differential measurements (channel A + B or A - B) used
over the 30-Hz to 50-kHz frequency range or the differential probe with X 10 attenua-
tor, or an AC voltmeter.
For the RS 101 test:

1. H field loop, made of 20 turns of #l2 AWG on a 12-cm diameter. The loop shall be
capable of generating 9.5 X l o 7 pT/ampere of appliedcurrent (9.5 X tesla/
ampere) at a distance of 5 cm from the plane of the loop.
2 . Loop sensor made of 51 turns of 7-41 Litz (7 Strand, No. 41 AWG) electrostatically
shielded.
3. Low-frequencycurrentprobe (30 Hz to 100 kHz).
4.Low-frequencypreamplifier(may not be required).
5. Low-frequency (20 Hz-IO0 kHz) spectrum analyzer or EM1 receiver.
6. Low-frequencysignalgenerator (1 Hz-500 kHz).
RSlOl Setup and Operation
Antenna checkout:
For the RSlOl transmitting antenna: Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 9.58. Set
the signal source to a frequency of 1 kHz, and adjust theoutput toprovide a magnetic
flux density of 110 dB above one picotesla. This level is achieved when 3.33 mA
(10.4 dBmA) flows through the transmitting loop. This current is set by measuring
with the current probe. The voltage measured by the current probe for the 10.4-
dBmA is given by:
VdBmV = 10.4 dBmA + Z,(dBR)
For example, with Z, = -50 dBR, the value of V dBm with I = 10.4 dBmA is -39.6
dBmV = 20.4 dBpV = -86 dBm. With Z, = + 18 dBR, the value of V dBm with
I = 10.4 dBmA is 28.4 dBmV = -18 dBm.
If the signal level out of the current probe is not at least IO dB above the noise floor of
the measuring equipment, use the low-frequency preamp between the current probe
and spectrum analyzer.
Measure the voltage output from the loop sensor.
Verify that the output on measurement receiver B is 42 dBpV ? 3 dB.
The setup in Figure 9.58 can be used for calibration of the receiving loop, in which case
tra~smitting
\ 5c1n
l2
\
/
Signal
Source current
receiving
probe
,
Measuretnent
Rccrivcr I,
Measurement
Receivcl-
Figure 9.58 RSlOl antenna test setup for checkout and calibration.
628 Chapter 9
the frequency is swept over the full frequency range of 30 Hz to 100 kHz, and the
receiving loop output is measured and recorded.
RSOl Setup m d Operotion

Antenna checkout:
For the RSOl transmitting antenna. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 9.59. Set
the signal source toa frequency of 100 Hz, and adjust the outputto provide a voltage
of 1 V rms (2.829 V pk-pk) across the l-ohm resistor. Measure the voltage output
from the loop sensor using the preamplifier and oscilloscope.
The loop output voltage is given by the voltage measured across the scope (pk-pk con-
verted to rms) divided by the gain of the preamplifier.
Convert this voltage to dByV. At 100 Hz the measured level should be approximately 43
dBpV. Adjust the frequency to 1 kHz, measure the voltage across the l-ohm resistor,
and adjust, as required, to 1 V rms. The measured output from theloop, after correct-
ing for the precalibration procedure for the receiving loop. The only difference is
that for calibration the frequencyis swept overthe 30-Hz to 30-kHz frequency range,
and the output of the receiving loop is monitored and recorded.
Signal
Gcncmtor
10T #I6AWG
12c11,
Power
Amplifier
Oscilloscope
I A ' B
9.6.7.9 Description of MIL-STD 461 B/C RS02

Purpose: This test is to determine the susceptibility to induced AC power frequency and transient
magnetic induction fields.
The test is divided into a cable test and a case test, although the case test is seldom a
requirement.
In the cable test, a 2-m lengthof induction cable is wrapped around the cable, and a spike,
having the characteristics of the CS06 spike and developed by the CS06 spike generator, is
applied to the cable under test. The spike voltage is up to 400 V at 5 ps and up to 200 V at
10 ps. A second test applies a current of 20 A at the power frequency. If AC power is not used
on the aircraft, vehicle, or spacecraft, then the AC power test should not be a requirement.
In the spike test at 100 V and 10 p , the measured current induced in a shielded cable
is approximately 30 A. The shield of the cable will attenuate the cable internally generated
common-mode voltage to a certain level.
A shielded cable will not attenuate the voltage induced in the 20-A power test, where the
frequency is typically 50-400 Hz, and the signal interface must be immune to the common-
mode voltage induced at these frequencies, typicallyby use of a differential or quasi-differential
interface for analog and baseband video.
9.6.7.10Description of CS01 and CS02 Tests

Purpose: These tests are designed to measure the susceptibility of AC and DC power leads to
audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF) ripple voltage and transient voltage.
The AF and RF ripple is applied directly to the AC and DC power leads.
Conducted susceptibility power lines (CSOl and CS02): This test is conducted over the
frequency range from 30 Hz to 400 MHz.
If degraded performance is observed during the test, the signal should be decreased to
determine the threshold of interference.
The input of the EUTmay present a capacitanceto the susceptibility test signal. Generation
of the test levels may be impossible when the input capacitance is large, even when high-power
amplifiers are used. Too high an RF power developed in the EUT input circuits may result in
damage. Consequently, the following alternative test limits are widely accepted and should be
incorporated into the test plan and procedure.
The CSOl requirement is also met when the power source, shown in test setup CSO1,
adjusted to dissipate 40 W into an 0.5-R load, cannot develop the required voltage at the EUT
input connections and the test sample is not susceptible to the output of the signal source.
The CS02requirement is also met when a 3-W source of 5042 impedance cannot develop
the required voltage at the input power connector, and the test sample is not susceptible to the
output of the signal source.
The CSOl injection transformer has a secondary inductance of approximately 1.5 mH.
When the transformer is connected into the test circuit with the power amplifier powered down
or disconnected, this inductance is in series with the power line and presents a high source
impedance to the EUT. Many DC-DC converters or switching-power supplies are unstable with
a high source impedance; therefore never connect the transformer without the power amplifier
powered up. However, with the power amplifier connected prior to powering up the EUT, as
the EUT is switched on the in-rush current can develop a large voltage across the secondary
of the transformer. This isstepped up and isapplied to the output of the power amplifier, possibly
resulting in damage. To avoid both problems, short out the secondary of the transformer until
the EUT is powered up and the power amplifier is connected and powered up. REMEMBER
630 Chapter 9
T O REMOVE THE SHORT BEFORE AN INPUT SIGNAL IS APPLIED TO THE POWER

AMPLIFIER.
Any switching spikes generated by the EUT arecoupleddirectly to the output of the
power amplifier via the 0.1-pF capacitor in the CS02 test. If these spikes are high, use a low-
value series resistor between the output of the power amplifier and the capacitor. Connect bidi-
rectional transorbs, or unidirectional transorbs with diodes, or diodes with voltage ratings above
the maximum peak voltage developed by the power amplifier. The 20-50-pH inductor is re-
quired to ensure that if the required test level cannot be developed it is not due to the low output
impedance of the power supply. In sometest facilities the correct test level is never developed;
instead, the 3-W calibration level into 50 l2 is routinely applied. However, this approach may
result in a serious undertest of the EUT.
If, for example, an EUT powered by a 400-Hz, 440-V AC power supply is tested for
CS02, a current of typically 1.1 A flows at 400 Hz into the power amplifier output via the l-pF
coupling capacitor. A simple bandstop filter tuned to 400 Hz can be designed and constructed
and can reduce the current to 0.4 mA at 400 Hz.
Test setup
The CSOl test setup is shown in Figure 9.60 and the CS02 in Figure 9.61. The coupled noise
should be applied to one power bus at a time, with the input voltage level set at the tzonritzal
power-line voltage unless otherwise specified.
CSOl and CS02 test eyuiptnerzt required
1. Signal generator or generators to cover the frequency range from 30 Hz to 400 MHz
2. Power amplifier minimum 50 W continuous from 30 Hz to 50 kHz (CSOl)
3. Power amplifier minimum 3 W continuous from 50 kHz to 400 MHz (CSO2)
4. 10-pFRF feedthrough capacitors
Figure 9.60 CS01 conducted susceptibility test setup, 30 Hz to 50 kHz.

5ouH
Oscilloscope
Voltmeter
I -fie value of C shall be chosen such that Xc < 5 Ohms

over the test freqency range
2. Conned the coupling capacitor and the oscilloscope
within 5cm of the p o w e r socket
mounted on EUT
Figure 9.61 CS02 conducted susceptibility test setup and connection diagram, 50 kHz to 400 MHz.
5. l-pF to 0.1-pF rated at 1 .S times the peak voltage, or use S or y capacitors for AC
power rated at the AC power-line voltage (CS021
6. Isolationtransformer rated at least 50 W from 30 Hz to 50 kHzwith,typically, a
primary resistance of 2 R and a secondary resistance of 0.5 R, turns ratio 2/1 (CSO1).
The MIL-STD 461E CS 101 test is similar except for the use of a LISN and a 10-pF
capacitor across the line, on the EUT side of the LISN.
A calibration of the test signal across a 0.542 resistor is required prior to testing.
The CS01 transformer must be capable of conducting the DC current required to power
the EUT without saturation. The output of the power amplifier may be protected from RF and
transients that may be generated by the EUT, should a failure occur in the instrument during
CS01 tests, by the 0.1-pF and 50-pH network shown in setup CSO1, Figure 9.60.
MIL-STD 461E does not specify a differential mode (CS02-type) test above the CS101
upper frequency limit of SO kHz.
MIL-STD-461E adds a structure current test, CS109, shown in Figure 9.62, and a bulk
cable injection test, CS1 14, shown in Figure 9.63.
9.6.7.11 Description of CS06 Test

The transient pulse identifiedi n MIL-STD-461 (A, B, or C) applies. The test should be conducted
at the nominal power-line voltage. The transient should be applied at a repetition rate of 60 pps
for a duration of 5 minutes and have a pulse width of 10 ps. The test should be applied to the
input power leads of the equipment under test. Under these conditions, the instrument should
suffer no degradation, malfunctions, or deviation from specified performance.
632 Chapter 9
AC DC
Power Power
Input Input
EUT
. T ?
Ground Isolation j
Terminal Transformer ;
Conductors must be
Probe Coupllng
Transformer
I I
Measurement
Receiver
Amplifier
Signal
Generator
Figure 9.62 CS109 structurecurrent test.
The waveshape is specified into a 5 4 2 resistive load. When the spike generator is applied
to the input of the EUT, the peak voltage ( E ) and the duration of the spike may be modified
by the EUT input filters or input capacitance. When E is lower than specified with the spike
generator set to maximum output voltage, and the equipment is not susceptible to the applied
voltage, ensure that the spike generator set at maximum outputcan generate at leastthe specified
voltage into a 5 4 2 resistive load. When the foregoing is true, the EUT should be deemed to
have passed the EMC test requirement.
CS06 test setup
The proposed test setup is shown in Figure 9.64. An alternative test setup for AC power
lines is given in MIL-STD-462 CS06-1, in which the spike generatoris connected to an isolation
transformer in series with the input power lead. However, many spike generators can function
safely when placed across the supply as shown in Figure 9.64.
Test equipmen/
1. 50-pH inductor. The inductormust be capable of handlingtheAC or DC power
current without saturation and with a reduction in inductance to no less than 20 pH.
2. 10 pF RF capacitor.
3. Spike generatorwiththe following specifications:
a.Pulsewidth = 10 ps
b. Pulserepetitionrate = 60 pps
c. Voltage output = not less than the specified voltage into 5 Q
d. Output control = adjustable from 0 to thespecifiedvoltage
e.Externaltrigger = 60 pps
f. Calibrated differential/input oscilloscopewith at least IO-MHz bandwidth, ade-
Power
Input
4 Measurement
Reyver I
Directional Amplifier
Coupler
Interconnecting
Cables
I
Actual or Simulated
Loads and Signals
I Measurement
Recgelver I I Signal
Generator
1
Figure 9.63 CS114 bulk cable injection test
quate sweep rates, and an input voltage rating of the spike voltage + E , where E
is the power ripple voltage
After testing with a positivespike, the test should be repeated with a negative spike. Adjust
the output voltage from the spike generator to the specified voltage, and trigger the oscilloscope
from the channel used to view the spike, using AC and normal trigger coupling. At the low
repetition rates used, an oscilloscope hood or storage oscilloscope may be required for the spike
to be visible. Maintain the spike for the cycle time of the GSE or functional test equipment or
Figure 9.64 CS06 conducted susceptibility test setup for spike and power.
634 Chapter 9
5 minutes,whichever is longer.When testing on an AC supply, the spike positionshallbe

moved over a full 180" of the AC waveform, either side of the zero crossing point.
MIL-STD 461E does not impose a differential-mode transient test, like CS06, but does
require a bulk cable injection (common-mode) transient test CS1 15. The injection method is
by injection probe, and the setup is similar to CS1 14.
9.6.7.12 Most Common Errors Incurred in Conducted Susceptibility

Measurements
1. A consensus on the pasdfail criteria has not been reached; i.e. a few white spots
on a display or some minor distortion may be acceptable, whereas multiple images
or major distortion is almost certainly unacceptable. Similarly, some bit error rate
in data communication may be acceptable, and this must be agreed on prior to corn-
mencement of susceptibility tests.
2 . Failing to log the test start and stop times when data is analyzed offline, after the
test is complete. The data must also be time tagged to allow comparison with the
test times.
3. Incorrect measurement of the injected signal. The measurement point tnust be across
the power input to the EUT. It must not be across the injection transformer primary
or secondary or directly at the output of the power amplifier. Only if the power
return is connected to the ground plane trt the EUT can one of the generator output
terminals be connected to the ground plane.
4. I n the CS06 test and the CS02 test, use of long cables connecting the signal into
the EUT. The long cables canreduce the high-frequencysignal and degrade the
CS06 pulse shape. Inject the signal as close to the EUT as possible, and monitor at
the injection point, using a differential input to the scope.
5. Nonrepresentative EUT, different power-supply or input power-line filter.
6. Not applying the relaxed CS06 requirements for equiplnent that contains transient
suppressors.
7. Oscillation of the power supply due to inclusion of the CS01 injection transformer
with the power amplifier powered down or disconnected (see test method).
8. Injection of the in-rush current spike into the power amplifier via the injection trans-
fornler (see test method).
9. Setting up the CS02 level across a 50-R resistor. This should be attempted only if
the required level cannot be developed at the input of the EUT. Some automated
systems set up the test level acrossthe 50-R resistorand then apply this to the
EUT without monitoring the test level across the EUT, and this can result in severe
undertesting or perhaps dangerous overtesting. For example, with 1 V peak specified
as the test level, the power developed across the SO-R resistor is 0.1 W. If when
the test level is applied to the EUT, I V peak is not developed, then the open loop
test system does not attempt to increase the output test level. On the other hand, if
the test level is monitoredduringautomated test measurements in a closedloop
system, any spikes generated by the EUT can affect the test level. For example, in
one case the output dropped to 0 V and at other frequencies was at least 6 dB below
the specified level. The best method is to monitor the output level on an oscilloscope
and to manually control the amplitude.
10. Injection of some fraction of the AC power-line voltage into the power amplifier
or, in the case of a closed loop system, into the monitoring port, via the coupling
capacitor in the CS02 test (see the test method for a solution).
9.7 RTCA/DO-160REQUIREMENTS
The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) imposes environmental and test
procedures on airborne equipment. These contain power quality and EM1 requirements and test
methods. The latest version of the requirements document is DO-160D.
The category of the equipment for power quality is either A, B, E, or Z, determined by
the type of aircraft electrical system. The EM1 category is either A, B, or Z. A is equipment
for which interference-free operation is desirable, B is equipment forwhich interference should
be controlled to a tolerable level, and Z is equipment intended for interference-free operation.
The RF susceptibility categories are W, Y, V, U, and T, where the W and Y test levels are
applicable to locations where equipment and interconnecting wiringis installed in severe electro-
magnetic environments, such as nonmetallic aircraft or exposed area in metallic aircraft. Cate-
gory V is defined for moderate environments, such as open areas in an aircraft composed princi-
pally of metal. Category U is defined as partially protected environments, such as avionics bays
in all-metallic aircraft. Category T is defined as well-protected enclosed areas, such as an en-
closed avionics bay in an all-metallic aircraft. The test limits are different for each category of
equipment. The test methods and limits are very similar to those contained in the military stan-
dards discussed in Section 9.6, with some minor variations. One such variation is that the 10-
ps voltage spike is specified at 600 V minimum open-circuit voltage with a 5042 source imped-
ance forcategory A, and for category aBvoltage transient is specified at a much loweramplitude
with a 25-ps rise time to peak voltage and 100-ps width from the peak down to the 50% ampli-
tude level, using a low-source-impedance generator. A repetitive spike 10 ps wide at an ampli-
tude twice the nns AC power voltage is also applied from a low-impedance source to category
B equipment. If the MIL-STD CS06 spikegenerator has a 600-V capability, then it can be used
for the class A spike with an additional 5 0 4 series resistor. The CS06 spike generator can also
be used with series injection for the 10-ps-wide pulse. Interconnection cables are subjected to
audio frequency magnetic fields from 400 Hz to 15 kHz (Category Z) and audio frequency and
transient E fields (categories A, B, and Z), induced by wrapping a wire around the cable. For
the audio frequency test on category Z equipment, a power source with 30-A capability at 400
Hz reducing down to 0.8 A at 15 kHz is necessary. This would require a large 1.7-kW variable-
frequency supply or an impossible 3.6-kW audio power amplifier. Instead, a 500-W, or higher,
variable-frequency AC supply used with a 15:1 step-down transformer may be used to generate
the high AC currents. In the interconnecting cable spike test for categories A, B, and Z, a 50-
1000-ps-duration burst of spikes with a repetition rate of 0.2-10 ps at a peak voltage of 600
V is specified. The recommended method of generating the test field is the unsuppressed “chat-
tering” relay circuit. An E field wrapped-wire-cable test is also specified with a frequency of
380-420 Hz and a maximum voltage of 1800 V/m for category Z equipment and 360 V for
category A equipment. Current probes are used to inductively couple RF into cables from 10
kHz to 400 MHz. Theinjection level is specified in decibels above1 microamp and is determined
by the category of the equipment. The recommended test setup requires the use of a monitor
probe to monitor the injected current during the test.
An audio frequency conducted susceptibility test from 750 Hz to 15 kHz, similar to CSOl,
is specified. If the audio power amplifier cannot develop the specified level, then the test condi-
tions will be adequately met by the use of a power amplifier with a maximum output of 30 W.
The impedance of the output transformer used to inject the signal shall be 0.6 Q 2 50%.
Both narrowband and broadband conducted emissions on power lines are measured using
the monitor port on the LISN for categories A, B, and Z. For categories A and Z, a current
probe that measures the current flow into the impedance of the LISN may be used. For category
Aand Z equipment, RF current flow on intersysteminterconnecting cable bundlesshall be
636 Chapter 9
measured using the current probe. The DO-l60 S-pH LISN has the same requirements as the
MIL-STD 5-pH LISN. The LISN may be manufactured and calibrated or bought out. Both
narrowband and broadband conducted emission limits are imposed.
Radiated emission measurements are made from 150 kHz to 12 1S MHz for categories A
and Z and from 190 kHz to 1215 MHz for category B equipment. Both narrowband and broad-
band limits are imposed, and recommended measurement bandwidths are provided in the docu-
ment. Different limits are applied to the three different categories. Radiation from antennas is
excluded in the test setup, just as it is in MIL-STD-461/2 testing. In addition, when testing a
transmitter, the selectedfrequencyand ?50% of the band of frequenciesbetweenadjacent
channels are excluded. An additional control on signals conducted out of antenna terminals is
intended but not specified.
Radiated susceptibility testing from 15 kHz to 35 MHz is accomplished by generating a
magnetic field from a loop located at approximately 2 cm from, and moved over, equipment
and cables. An E field is generated from 30 MHz to 12 15 MHz for categories T, U, and V and
from 30 MHz to 18 GHz for categories W and Y. The antenna is located 0.9 m from the edge
of the ground plane on which the EUT is mounted, with the EUT and interconnect power cables
located 0.1 m in from the front edge of the ground plane. In accordance with DO- 160C and D,
the antenna shall be located with its lowest point at a height of 0.3 m above the ground plane.
Antennas shall be positioned and aimed to establish the field strengths at the EUT and intercon-
necting wiring. When the beam width of the antenna does not totally cover the EUT and wiring,
multiple scans shall be performed. Apertures in the EUT shall be exposed directly to the trans-
mittingantenna.Horizontaland vertical orientations are requiredforpolarized antennas, al-
though this is typically taken as excluding the monopole antenna, long-wire, parallel-plate, or
TEM cell, all of which may be used. Parallel-plate or TEMcells matching networks and calibra-
tion methods shall be described. Amplitude modulation of the CW source is required from 30
MHz to the upper frequency using a square wave at greater than 90% modulation and l-kHz
frequency. Consideration should be given for other modulations associated with the EUT, such
as clock, data,IF, internal processing, or modulation frequencies. The use of field sensors located
on the ground plane is proposed, which, as mentioned in Section 9.6.7.6, is prone to error. DO-
160 recommends that the field sensors be connected to a control circuit, located outside of the
room, using a fiber-optic link. Absorber is required on the surfaces of the shielded enclosure,
and the EUT power is connected via the LISNS.
If the power input (DO-l60 Section 16) tests are to be performed, then a frequency modu-
lation of the AC power source is required. The surge current requirement necessitates variacs
and transformers as well as relays and timers. The AC ripple on the DC power is less stringent
than typical CS01 requirements, and the same test equipment may be used.
One of the major differences between MIL-STD and DO-I60 requirements is that DO-
160C and D impose indirect lightning tests on equipment to test for its capability to withstand
effects of lightning-induced electrical transients. Direct lightning tests are intended to test exter-
nally mountedelectricalandelectronicequipment for thecapability to withstandthedirect
effects of a severe lightning strike. Externally mounted equipment refers to all equipment that
is mounted externally to the main skin of the aircraft and includes equipment covered only by
a dielectric skin that is an integral part of the equipment. If the dielectric skin is specific to the
aircraft and not integral to the equipment, then the equipment is subject to tests specified by
the aircraft manufacturer. These lightning tests may be severe, and the test levels are determined
by theinternalaircraftenvironmentsas well asformetallicandnonmetallicaircraft. These
environments range from Level 1, which is well protected, to Level 2, partially protected, to level
3, moderately protected, to Levels 4 and 5 , which are characterized as severe electromagnetic
environments. Each level has a setof waveforms associated with it,with the open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current characteristics of the waveform specified. The waveform are idealized
and are described as an exponentiallexponential transient in which both the rising edge and the
falling edge are in the form of an exponential. The second waveform is a damped sinusoid with
a specified frequency, a peak voltage, and current reducing to a specified level after four cycles.
Two groups of indirect test maybespecified. The PIN test is designed to test for damage
tolerance by injecting directly into the pins of the EUT connector, usually between each pin
and case ground. For equipment electrically isolated from case and local airframe grounds, a
dielectric withstand or hi-pot test is adequate. The second group of tests is the cable bundle
tests, which are used to determine if functioning equipment will experience upset or component
damage when exposed to a cable induced transient. An alternative injection method is ground
injection, where the injection point may be at the EUT case ground or into the case of support
equipment. In any of the induced tests, a current-measuring transformer is placed around the
cable bundle to measure the bulk (C/M) cable current. When equipment has shielded cables
that are not connected to available support equipment, a connector may be mounted on a small
metal enclosure, the cable plugged into the enclosure, and a direct injection made between the
ground plane, to which the EUT is bonded, and the small connectorized enclosure. The injection
method is not so important as ensuring that the current flows on the cable bundle or the correct
voltage is applied between the ground plane and the cable. The level of common-mode current
induced in the center conductorsof shielded cables and some possible transient protection com-
ponents for different circuits are described in Section 5.4.
The exponentiaUexponentia1 waveforms are ( l ) and (4) 6.4-ps rise time falling in 70 ps
to 50% amplitude, (2) a 100-ns rise time falling to 0% amplitude after 6.4 ps, and ( 5 ) a 50-ps
rise time falling in 500 ps to 50% amplitude. The waveforms are specified with an open-circuit
voltage and short-circuit current. For pin injection testing, waveform (4) ranges from 50 VI10
A to 1600 V1320 A and waveform ( 5 ) from 50 V150 A to 1600 V11600 A, depending on the
specified level ( 1 -5). Pin injection also specifies a damped sinusoid,waveform (3), at the aircraft
resonancefrequency, or 1 MHz if the resonantfrequency is unknown. Waveform (3) varies
from 100 V/4 A to 3200 V1128 A, depending on the specified level. Forpin injection, waveforms
(1) and (2) are specified from 50 V/100 A to 1600 V13200 A,waveform ( 3 ) , thedamped
sinusoid, from 100 V/20 A to 3200 VI640 A, and waveforms (4) and (5) from 50 V/300 A to
1600 V/lO,OOO A.
Direct lightning injection tests are conducted with the EUT bonded to a ground plane in
accordance with the installation requirement. A high-voltage test is performed on equipment
that is covered by a dielectric in which an electrode is at a specified distance from the EUT.
Two test methods are described. One has a voltage waveform applied to the test electrode with
a rise time of 1.2 ps and a fall time to 50% in 50 ps. The total gap lengths, between the electrode
and the EUT, can range from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm with voltage ranges of 250 kV to 1500 kV.
One alternative test methodhas a linearlyincreasingvoltageapplied to the electrode at an
average N l d f of 10,000 kV/ps until the gap breaks down. In this alternative method. the gap
can be from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm and the voltage from 750 kV to 2400 kV.
A high-current-arc entry test is specified in which an arc is initiated and enters the EUT.
Several components of the current waveform are specified, with only some of the components
applicable, depending on the category of the equipment. The peak current in component A is
specified at 200 kA for 500ps, followed by component B with a peak amplitude of 2 kA. Compo-
nent C is a continuing current of between 200 A and 800 A, followed by a restrike current
component D with a 10044 peak. An alternative conducted entry test has the current illjected
through the ground plane on which the test object is mounted, representative of the lightning
current distribution in an aircraft during a lightning strike. As a minimum, a surface current
density of 50 kA/m should be applied. Although the ground plane injected test may appear
638 Chapter 9
trivial, in reality magnetic fields of hundreds of thousands of amps per meter and E fields of
hundreds of thousands of volts per meter can b e generated, depending o n the location of the
EUT.
REFERENCES
1. News from Rohde and Schwartz, No. 151 (1996/II).
2. Compliance Engineering.
3. E. Bronaugh, D.R. Kerns. IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility. A new isolated
antenna system for electromagnetic emissions measurements in shielded enclosures. Proceedings of
the IEEE, International symposium on EMC. Atlanta, GA, 1978.
4. A.C. Marvin. IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compat. The use of screened (shielded) rooms for the identi-
fication of radiated mechanisms and the measurement of free-space emissions from electrically small
sources. Nov. 1984, EMC-26(4).
5. Private communication wiih Ken Javor, EMC Engineer.
6. B. Audone, L. Bolla, G. Costa, A. Manara, H. Pues. IEEE EMC Symposium Record, 1993. Design
and engineering of a large shielded semi-anechoic chamber meeting the volumetric NSA require-
ments at 3-m and 10-m transmission length.
7. Wolfgang Bittinger. IEEE EMC Symposium Record, 1993. Properties of open strip lines for EMC
measurements.
8. H.A. Mendez. A new Approach to Electromagnetic Field-Strength Measurements in Shielded Enclo-
sures. 1968 Wescon Technical Papers Session 19. Los Angeles, August 20-23, 1968.
9. W.C. Dolle, G.N. Van Stewenberg. IEEE EMC Symposium Record, July 1970. Effects of shielded
enclosure resonances on measurement accuracy.
10. A.C. Marvin. EMC Symposium. Near-field antenna coupling theory in a shielded room: the mutual
impedance model. 3rd Symposium and Technical Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility. Rot-
terdam, The Netherlands, May 1-3, 1979.
11. A.C. Marvin, A.L. Marvin. Method of Damping Resonances in a Screened Room in the Frequency
Range 30 to 200 MHz. EMC Technology, July/August, 1991.
12. A.C. Marvin, L. Dawson.
13. Y. Naito, T. Mizumoto, M. Takahashi, S. Kunieda. IEEE EMC Symposium Record, 1994. Anechoic
chamber having multi-layer electromagnetic wave absorber of sintered ferrite and ferrite composite
membranes.
14. Bruce Archambault, Kent Chamberlin. IEEE EMC Symposium Record, 1994. Modeling and mea-
surements of an alternative construction technique to reduce shielded room resonance effects.
15. J.P. Muccioli, T.M. North, K.P. Slattery. IEEE EMC Record, 1996. Investigation of the theoretical
basis for using a I-GHz TEM cell to evaluate the radiated emissions from integrated circuits.
16. J.D. Osburn, E.L. Bronaugh. Advances in GTEM to OATS correlation models. IEEE EMC Sympo-
sium Record, 1993.
10
Systems EMC and Antenna Coupling
10.1. SYSTEM-LEVELEMC
A significant amount of the subject matter dealt with in preceding chapters is equally applicable
to equipment, subsystems, and systems. Consider the case of cable-to-cable or cable-to-equip-
ment coupling that may occur between equipment, subsystems, or systems. In this chapter,
system-level EMC is emphasized,although many of the topics are equally applicable to subsys-
tems and equipment. For example, antenna-to-antenna or antenna-to-cable coupling can occur
within a subsystem as well as between systems.
The foregoing observations are perhaps obvious, although not always remembered. For
example, consider a room containing a system made of a number of pieces of equipment all
connected to the same potentially noisy power supply. A decision to incorporate a main power-
line filter at the location where the supply enters the room can be defended basedon the reduced
radiation from thepower-line cabling withintheroom,caused by supplynoise,and on the
elimination of, or reduction in, filters in the individual equipment. The design or selection of
the main filter may be achieved using the methods described in Chapter 5, although these and
the case study were applied at the equipment level. For the system-level main filter, the source
of noise on the load side of the filter is a composite of the individual equipment noise sources,
as is the total load impedance presented by the equipment. When filter components exist in
equipment, these must be included in the evaluation of the main power-line filter. The analysis
of the performance of the main system-level filter is likely to be more complex than that required
for an equipment filter and may be practical only by use of a circuit modeling program such
as SPICE. The foregoing is only one example of a great number of EMC design approaches,
including shielding, that may be applied equallyto circuits, equipment, subsystems, and systems.
10.1 .l.MIL-STDSystem-LevelRequirements
10.1.l . l . General
MIL-STD-461/2 apply to equipmentand subsystems only. MIL-STD-464 is a document applica-
ble to all agencies of the Department of Defense in the United States that contains system-
level EMC requirements. The associated data item descriptions (DIDs) are: DI-EMCS-81540,
Electromagnetic Environmental Effects Integration and Analysis Report; DI-EMCS-815 1, Elec-
tromagnetic Environmental Effects Verification Procedures; and DI-8 1542, ElectromagneticEf-
fects Verification Report.
Document MIL-STD-1541A is an EMC requirements document for space systems and is
applicable only to the U.S. Air Force, although it is used by other agencies, such as NASA.
The purpose of system-level requirements is to ensure that the integrated system design
will be electromagnetically compatible with all of the characteristics and modes of operation
of the system. The requirements include control of lightning protection, static electricity, and
639
640 Chapter 10
bonding and grounding. Control is achieved by a system electromagnetic compatibility program

that is governed by an electromagnetic compatibility board. An EMC test is required on the
system, as described in this section.
The electromagneticcompatibilityprogram (EMCP) includes the necessary approach,
Planning, technical criteria, and management controls. In MIL-STD-1541 the EMCP requires
an EMC control-and-test plan that must be approvedby the electromagnetic compatibility boxd.
The system and all associated subsystems/equipment are to be designed for EMCin accor-
dance with the EMC control plan. A system design program shall be implemented that covers
the following areas:
Subsystem/equipment criticality categories,
Degradation criteria.
Interference and susceptibility control.
Wiring and cable.
Electrical power.
Bonding and grounding.
Lightning protection.
Static electricity.
Personnel hazards.
EM hazards to explosives and ordnance.
External environments.
Suppression components.
S y s t e m are categorized based on the impact of EMI, or susceptibility malfunction, or
degradation of performance.
The system-level EMC control plan is similar to the subsystem and equipment control
plan, described in Section 12.1.1, with the following additions:
Methods and requirements for ensuring that sources of interference (subsystems/equip-
ment) do not cause EM1 in other subsystems or experience EM1 from other sources
in the system
Predicted problem areas and proposed methods of approach for solution of problems not
resolved by compliance with MIL-STD-461
Design criteria and required tests for lightning protection
Radiation characteristics from system antennas, including fundamental and spurious en-
ergy, and antenna-to-antenna coupling.
The system-level EM1 tests are seldom as extensive as those described in MIL-STD-462.
10.1.l .2. MIL-STD-464
This standard establishes electromagnetic environmental effects (E’) interface requiI-elnents and
verification criteria for airborne, sea, space, and ground systems, including associated ordnance.
MIL-STD-464 supersedes MIL-STD-IS ISA, MIL-E-605 lD, MIL-B-5087B, and MIL-STD-
1385B. The general requirements are that the system shall be electromagnetically compatible
among all subsystems and equipment within the system and with the envirOnInentS caused by
electro111agl1etic effects external to the system. Verification shall be accomplished as specified
herein 011 productiollrepresentativesystems.Safety-critical functions shall be verified to be
electron1agnetically compatible within the system and with external environments prior to use
in those environments. Verification shall address all life cycle aspects of the system, including
(as applicable) normal in-service operation, checkout, storage, transportation, handling, packag-
ing, loading, unloading, launch, and the normal operating procedures associated with each as-
pect.
Systems EMC and Antenna Coupling 641
Margins shall be provided based on system operational performance requirements, toler-

ances in system hardware, and uncertainties involved in verification of system-level design re-
quirements. Safety-critical and mission-critical system functions shall have a margin of at least
6 dB. Ordnance shall have a margin of at least 16.5 dB of maximum no-fire stimulus (MNFS)
for safety assurances and 6 dB of MNFS for other applications. Compliance shall be verified
by test, analysis, or a combination thereof.
Shipborrrd internal electromqnetic environment (EME). For ship applications, electric

fields (peak V/m-rms) below deck from intentional onboard transmitters shall not
exceed the following levels:
a. Surfaceships
( 1) Metallic: 10 V/m from 10 kHz to 18 GHz.
( 2 ) Nonmetallic: 10 V/m from 10 kHz to 2 MHz, 50 V/m from 2 MHz to 1
GHz, and 10 V/m from 1 GHz to 18 GHz
b. Submarines: 5 V/m from 10 kHz to 1 GHz
Compliance shall be verified by test of electric fields generated below deckwith all anten-
nas (above and below decks) radiating.
Pawerline transients. For Navy aircraft and Army aircraft applications, electrical transients
of lessthan 50 microsecondsindurationshall not exceed +50% or - 150% of
the nominal DC voltage or ?50% of the nominal AC line-to-neutral rms voltage.
Compliance shall be verified by test.
Multipuction. For space applications, equipment and subsystems shall befree of multipac-
tion effects. Compliance shall be verified by test and analysis.
Intersystem EMC. The system shall be electromagnetically compatible with its defined
external EME such that its system operational performance requirements are met.
For systems capable of shipboard operation, Table 10.la shall be used. For space
andlaunchvehiclesystemsapplications, Table 10.lb shallbe used. Forground
systems, Table 1 0 . 1 ~shall be used. For all other applications and if the procuring
activity has not defined the EME, Table 10.ld shall be used. Intersystem EMC cov-
ers compatibility with, but is not limited to, EMEs from like platforms (such as
aircraft in formation flying, ship with escort ships, and shelter-to-shelter in ground
systems), friendly emitters, and hostile emitters. Compliance shall be verified by
system-, subsystem-, and equipment-level tests, analysis, or a combination thereof.
Lightning. The system shall meet its operational performance requirements for both direct
and indirect effects of lightning. Ordnance shall meet its operational performance
requirements after experiencing a near strike in an exposed condition and a direct
strike in a stored condition. Ordnance shall remain safe during and after experiencing
a directstrike in an exposed condition.MIL-STD 464 provides a figure for the
direct-effects lightning environment and figures and a table for the indirect-effects
lightning environment from a direct strike. In addition, a table is provided for the
near-lightning-strike environment. Complianceshall be verified by system-, subsys-
tem-, equipment-, and component-(such as structural coupons and radomes) level
tests, analysis, or a combination thereof.
Electromrrgnetic pulse (EMP).The system shall meet its operational performance require-
ments after being subjected to the EMP environment. If an EMP environment is
not defined by the procuring activity, a figure in MIL-STD-464 shall be used. This
requirement is not applicable unless otherwise specified by the procuring activity.
Compliance shall be verified by system-, subsystem-,andequipment-leveltests,
analysis, or a combination thereof.
642 Chapter 10
Table 10.la External EME for Systems Capable of

Shipboard Operations (Including Topside Equipment
and Aircraft Operating for Ships) and Ordnance
Environment (V/m-rms)
Frequency (Hz) Peak Average
~~
10 k-150 M 200 200

150 M-225 M 3,120 270
225 M-400 M 2,830 240
400 M-700 M 4,000 750
700 M-790 M 3,500 240
790 M- 1000 M 3,500 610
1 G-2 G 5,670 1,000
2 G-2.7 G 2 1,270 850
2.7 G-3.6 G 27,460 1,230
3.6 G-4 G 21,270 850
4 G-5.4 G 15,000 610
5.4 G-5.9 G 15,000 1,230
5.9 G-6 G 15,000 610
6 G-7.9 G 12,650 670
7.9 G-8 G 12,650 810
8 G-l4 G 2 1,270 1,270
14 G-l8 G 2 1,270 614
18 G-40 G 5,000 750
Nondevelopmental items (NDI) and commercial items. NDI and commercial items shall
meet EM1 interface control requirements suitable for ensuring that system opera-
tional performance requirements are met.Compliance shall beverified by test, analy-
sis, or a combination thereof.
Electrostrrtic charge control. The system shall control and dissipate the build-up of electro-
static charges caused by precipitation static (p-static) effects, fluid flow, air flow,
space andlaunchvehiclecharging, andother charge-generatingmechanisms to
avoid fuel ignition and ordnance hazards, to protect personnel from shock hazards,
and to prevent performance degradation or damage toelectronics. Compliance shall
be verified by test, analysis, inspections, or a combination thereof.
Precipitation stcltic (p-stark). The system shall control p-static interference to antenna-
Table 10.1b External EME for Space and

Launch Vehicle Systems
Environment
(V/m-r~ns)
Frequency (Hz) Average

Peak
10 k-100 M 20 20
100 M-l G 100 100
1 G-l0 G 200 200
10 G-40 G 20 20
Table 10.1C External EME for Ground

Systems
Environment
(V/m-rms)

10 k-2 M 25 25
2 M-250 M 50 50
250 M-l G 1500 50
1 G-l0 G 2500 50
10 G-40 G 1500 50
connected receivers onboard the system or on the host platform such that system
operational performance requirements are met. Compliance shall be verified by test,
analysis, inspections, or a combination thereof. For Navy aircraft and Army aircraft
applications,p-staticprotectionshallbe verified by testing that applies charging
levels representative of conditions in the operational environment.
Electromagnetic radiation hcczccrds (EMRADHAZ). The system design shall protect per-
sonnel, fuels, and ordnance from hazardous effects of electromagnetic radiation.
Compliance shall be verified by test, analysis, inspections, or a combination thereof.
Haznrds of Electromagnetic Radiation to Personnel (HERP). The system shall comply
with current national criteria for the protection of personnel against the effect of
electromagnetic radiation. DOD policy is currently in DoDI 6055.11. Compliance
shall be verified by test, analysis, or combination thereof.
Hazards of electromagnetic radiation to fuel (HERF). Fuels shall not be inadvertently
ignited by radiated EMEs. The EME includes onboard emitters and the external
Table 10.ld Baseline External EME for All Other

Applications
Environment (V/m-rms)
10 k-100 k 50 50
100 k-500 k 60 60
500 k-2 M 70 70
2 M-30 M 200 200
30 M-100 M 30 30
100 M-200 M 150 33
200 M-400 M 70 70
400 M-700 M 4020 935
700M-1000M 1700 170
1 G-2 G 5000 990
2 G-4 G 6680 840
4 G-6 G 6850 3 10
6 G-8 G 3600 670
8 G-l2 G 3500 1270
12 G-l8 G 3500 360
18 G-40 G 2100 750
644 Chapter 10
EME. Compliance shall be verified by test, analysis, inspection, or a combination

thereof.
Hazards of electromagnetic radiation to ordrznrzce (HERO). Ordnance with electrically
initiated devices (EIDs) shall not be inadvertently ignited during, or experience de-
graded performance characteristics after, exposure to the external radiated EME of
Table 10.la for either direct-RF-inducedactuation or coupling to theassociated
firing circuits. Compliance shall be verified by system-, subsystem-, and equipment-
level tests and analysis. For EMEs in theHF bandderived from near-field conditions,
verification by test shall use transmitting antennas representativeof the types present
in the installation.
Electrical bonding. The system, subsystems, and equipment shall include the necessary
electrical bonding to meet the E 3 requirements of this standard. Compliance shall
be verified by test, analysis, inspections, or a combination thereof, for the particular
bonding provision.
Power current return path. For systems using structure for power returncurrents, bonding
provisions shall be provided for current return paths for the electrical power sources
such that the total voltage drops between the point of regulation for the power system
and the electrical loads are within the tolerances of the applicable power quality
standard. Compliance shall be verified by analysis of electrical current paths, electri-
cal current levels, and bonding impedance control levels.
Antenna installations. Antennas shall be bonded to obtain required antenna patterns and
meet the performance requirements for the antenna. Compliance shall be verified
by test, analysis, inspections, or a combination thereof.
Shock and fault protection. Bonding of all exposed electrically conductive items subject
to fault condition potentials shall be provided to control shock hazard voltages and
allow proper operation of circuit protection devices. Compliance shall be verified
by test, analysis, or a combination thereof.
External grounds. The system and associated subsystems shall provide external grounding
provisions to controlelectricalcurrent flow andstaticchargingforprotection of
personnel from shock, prevention of inadvertentignition of ordnance,fuel,and
flammable vapors, and protection of hardware from damage. Compliance shall be
verified by test, analysis, inspections, or a combination thereof.
Aircrqji grourzding jacks. Grounding jacks shall be attached to the system to permit con-
nection of grounding cables for fueling, stores management, servicing, and mainte-
nance operations and while parked.I S 0 46 contains requirements for interface com-
patibility. Grounding jacks shall be attached to the system ground reference so that
the resistance between the mating plug and the system ground reference does not
exceed 1.0 ohms DC. The following grounding jacks are required.
Tempest. National security information shall not be compromised by emanations

from classified information processing equipment. Compliance shall be veri-
fied by test,analysis,inspections, or acombinationthereof. (NSTISSAM
TEMPEST/ 1-92 and NACSEM 5 1 12 provide testing methodology for veri-
fying compliance with TEMPEST requirements.)
Emissiorz control (EMCON). For Army applications, Navy applications, and other
systems applications capable of shipboard operation, unintentionalelectro-
magnetic radiated emissions shall not exceed - 110 dBm/m' at 1 nautical mile
(- 105 dBm/m' at 1 kilometer) in any directionfromthesystem over the
frequency range from 500 kHz to 40 GHz. Unless otherwise specified by the
procuring activity, EMCON shall be activated by a single control function for

aircraft. Compliance shall be verified by test and inspection.
Electronic protection (EP). For Army aircraft and Navy aircraft applications, inten-
tional and unintentional electromagnetic radiated emissions in excess of the
EMCON limits shall preclude the classification and identification of the sys-
tem such that system operational performance requirements are met. Unless
otherwise specified by the procuring activity, EP shall be activated by a single
control function. Compliance shall be verified by test, analysis, inspections,
or a combination thereof.
10.1. l .3. MIL-STD-1541A (USAF) Electromagnetic Compatibility Requirements
for Space Systems
This standard establishes the electromagnetic compatibility requirements for space systems, in-
cluding frequency management and the related requirements for the electrical and electronic
equipment used in space systems. It also includes requirements designed to establish an effective
ground reference for the installed equipment anddesigned to inhibit adverse electrostaticeffects.
MIL-l 541Adefines minimum performance requirements and identifies requirementsfor system
and equipment engineering to achieve EMC and test and analysis to demonstrate compliance
with the standard
Lightning. Vehicle and equipment designs shall prevent overstress or damage induced by
a lightning strike to the nearest facility-lightning-protective device, by a lightning
strike just outside the zone of protection, or by a lightning strike near or above
underground cables that are a part of the system.
Triboelectric charging. Disturbances in the performance of launch vehicles, which may
arise from electrostatic charging of external surfaces by impact of atmospheric parti-
cles and which may lead to corona or streamer discharges and sparking, shall be
prevented by bonding all conductive parts and by controlling the charge accumula-
tion on external dielectric surfaces.
Magnetospheric charging. Disturbances in the performance of space vehicles, which may
arise from differential charging of external surfaces and internal components by
space plasma and which may lead to electrical discharges, shall be minimized by
bonding all conductive parts and by controlling the charge accumulation on external
dielectric surfaces and in bulk dielectrics.
System and equipment designs shall provide electromagnetic interference safety margins
in accordance with the worst-case potential criticality of the effects of interference
induced anomalies. The following categories shall be used:
a. Category I: Serious injury or loss of life, damage to property, or major loss or
delay of mission capability
b. Category 11: Degradation of mission capability, including any loss of autono-
mous operational capability
c. Category 111: Loss of functions not essential to mission
Electromagnetic interference safety margins shall incorporate allowances for the effects
of failures of redundant items, variations in characteristics due to aging and between like
units. Other system requirements are as follows:
a.Category I: 12 dBfor qualification, 6dB foracceptance
b. Category 11: 6 dB
c.Category 111: 0 dB
646 Chapter 10
Category I and I1 safety margins shall be increased by 6 dB if the only practicable method
of verification is entirely by analysis based on estimated emission or susceptibility charac-
teristics.
Degradation criteria. Safety margins shall be related to definite degradation criteria, de-
pending upon whether the appropriate requirement is freedom from overstress or
damage due to continuous or aperiodic interference, autonomous recovery to the
state prior to the occurrence of aperiodic interference, or continuousoperation within
specification limits.
Superposition. The specified safety margins shall be obtained with the combined effects
of conducted and radiated broadband and narrowband emissions.
System Requirements Evaluation
System analyses shall be performed to validate reductions in the requirements of this standard,
to define certain requirements that are commonly peculiar to a system (such as those pertaining
to signal and control circuits), and to identify the need for requirements that must be more
restrictive or severe than those in the standard. The resulting program-peculiar requirements are
subject to the approval of the contracting officer.
Intersystem analysis. Global compatibility with the radiation of all communications-elec-
tronics activities, whether earth- or space-based, shall be evaluated using the tech-
niques described inthe NTIA manualand Report R-3046-AF orequivalent. Intersys-
tem compatibility analysis for conductive interfaces shall be done using the methods
specified by this MIL-STD- 154 1A for intrasystem analysis.
Znrrasystem analysis. Electromagnetic compatibility calculations entail finding the peak
response of the potentially susceptible circuits in the time domain to several or more
extraneous emissions that may be coupled through one or more transfer functions.
For steady-state conditions, analyses based on the direct and inverse Fourier trans-
forms, plus the convolution theorem,are appropriate and shallbe used. Either ampli-
tude or power spectral density functions may be used.
Frequency and time domain. Steady-state emissions shall be stated in the frequency do-
main for the same frequency ranges as for the corresponding requirements of MIL-
STD-461, as modified by this standard. Oscillatory load-switching transients shall
be defined in both the time and frequency domains; nonoscillatory transients may
be defined only in the time domain.
Reference requirements. The evaluation shall include all the emission and susceptibility
requirements specified in MIL-STD-461, as modified by this standard, for the classes
of equipment under consideration. It shall include theapplicable technical standards
specified in the NTIA manual.
Interference coupling modes. The analyses shall incorporate mathematical models to ac-
count for the following:
a. Transverse and common-mode effects in signalandpowercircuits,including
the effects of power source voltage ripple
b. Coupling between circuits in interconnecting cables
c. Bilateral coupling between the system antennas and circuits in interconnecting
cables
d. Bilateral coupling between the system antennas, between the equipment enclo-
sures, and between antennas and enclosures
susceptibility requirements. Susceptibility requirements shall be shown to be sufficient to

provide the required integrated safety margins for the applicable frequency range
and point safety margins at all frequencies in that range.
Simplijications. Circuits within an interconnecting cable may be represented by only one
of each distinct signal classification, as determined by similarity of signal character-
istics and the terminations.
hltrnsystem cmnlysis program. MIL-STD-1541A has been structured to make best use of
the developments that have been realized from the DOD Intrasystem Analysis Pro-
gram. These benefits include improved analytical methods and programs for com-
puter analysis. The analysis programs described in RADC-TR-74-342 and RADC-
TR-82-20 are suitable and well documented.
Annlytical methods. The methodspresented in the applicable and the referenced documents
are representative of the current art pertaining to the topics covered. Accordingly,
they may be used as criteria for determining the adequacy and acceptability of any
methods used.
Signal and control itztetfkce circuits. Emission and susceptibility requirements for signal
andcontrolcircuitsshallbedevelopedandspecified as program-peculiarlimits.
Values suitable for the signal levels and impedances characteristic of the applicable
circuits shall be established.
Lightning arlalysis. Susceptibility to lightning and lightning protection shall be addressed
in the analysis.
Mqnetospheric chorgitzg atdysis. Magnetospheric charging susceptibility and protection
shall be addressed in the analysis. The program described in NASA CR-135259
shall be used. NASA TP2361 shall be used as a guide in determining applicable
design requirements.
Triboelectric chrrrging atlalysis. For launch vehicles, triboelectric charging shall be ad-
dressed.
Nonstandard Limits
Changes' in the detailed emission and susceptibility limits of this standard shall be justified by
analysis.
Consolidated Equipment Requirements
A single set of compatibility requirements shall be established for each piece of equipment. If
more than one set is needed (e.g., for items that operate only in orbit, as contrasted with those
that also operate in the launch and ascent environments), the differences shall be covered by a
special classification method similar to that used in MIL-STD-461. Emission and susceptibility
requirements shall be stateddirectly and explicitly.Susceptibilityrequirementsshall not be
specified indirectly in terms of an operating environment.
Existing Designs and Modifications
To the extent they are complete and suitable, prior analyses and test data shall be used to satisfy
the requirements of this standard for new applications or modifications of existing items. The
additional system and component analyses and tests shall be centered on defining similarities
and differences and evaluating compatibility for the new situation.
648 Chapter 10
Government Furnished Equipment
The systememissionandsusceptibilitycharacteristicsshallbesuch that compatibility,with

safety margins, is secured if the government-furnished equipment satisfies the requirements of
MIL-STD-461 as supplemented and modified by the equipment.
The detailed intersystem vehicle requirements cover: structural materials, electrical ground
network, electrical power subsystem referencing, bonding, lightning protection.
Requirements relating to communications by satellites include: surface finish for control
of electrostatic charging, interconnecting cables, vehicle electrostatic susceptibility, power bus
impedance and transient recovery time, electrical power quality, voltage ripple, spikes, surges,
load switching and load faults, power subsystem faults.
The equipmentrequirements cover: interface safety margins, ground powersources, MIL-
STD-461 performance criteria, limits and applicability, electrical power quality and faults, elec-
trostatic susceptibility.
Test and evaluation includes: verification methods, measuring instruments, system verifi-
cation (radiated susceptibility, partitioning, lightning, superposition effects).
System qualification tests (selection of test points, category I and I1 functions, category
111 functions, test conditions, acceptance criteria.
MIL-STD-1541 contains a limit on maximum radiated field strength of 0.01 W/cm’ for
human safety.
Some additional limits not contained in MIL-STD-461 are applied to equipment/subsys-
tems in MIL-STD- 154 1, MIL-STD- 154 1 recommendsthat the system be used to test the system
and proposes that one or more of the following general test approaches shall be used at the
system level:
Inject interference at critical system points at a 6-dB-higher level than exists while moni-
toring other system/subsystem points for improper responses.
Measure the susceptibility of critical systendsubsystem circuits for comparison toexisting
interference levels, to determine if a 6-dB margin exists.
Sensitize the system/subsystem to render it 6 dB more susceptible to interference while
monitoring for improper responses.
MIL-STD- 1541 also contains system design criteria and requirements.
10.2.ANTENNA-COUPLED EM1
Antenna-to-antenna coupled EM1 is becoming more prevalent with the increased number of
transmitting and receiving antennas located on vehicles, ships, and aircraft. With the advent of
portable and mobile satellite communications systems the potential for civilian antenna-coupled
EM1 is increased. With the satellite Trucker terminal, the potential sources of interference are
CB transmitters collocated on the truck and radar or other high-power transmitters the truck
may pass by.
When choosing a site for installation of a receiving system, the suitability of the electro-
magnetic ambient at the location should be assessed.An ambient site surveyor prediction should
be made for the site, as described in Section 10.3.
10.2.1.Antenna-to-AntennaCoupling
A fundamental potential EM1 situation occurs when the frequency of a transmitter is within
20% of the tuned frequency of a receiving system. Theminimum frequency separation is approx-
imately lo%, at which greater than 20 dB of cosite isolation is often required. A second EM1
situation can arise when one or more out-of-band frequencies result in a spurious response in
the receiver.
The distance between the location of the transmitting and receiving antennas are critical
factors in determining if an EM1 situation can occur.
In assessing a potential EM1 situation for antennas located kilometers apart, the first step
is to verify the existence of line-of-sight coupling, based on the Earth’s radius.
Where line-of-sight coupling exists, the propagation loss correction for non-line-of-sight
(NLS) = 0 dB.
A wave propagates in four principal modes: direct wave, which applies to line-of-sight
coupling, the reflected wuve from the intervening surface between the transmit and receive anten-
nas, surjclce wuve, and the skywave. The skywave is the wave bounced off of the ionized layers
in the upper atmosphere. There are daily and seasonal variations in the height of the reflecting
layers and also a critical frequency above which vertically directed waves are not reflected by
the layers. The surface wave is caused by ground currents set up by the energy as it enters the
ground. Below 3 MHz the surface wave predominates, between 3 MHz and 300 MHz the re-
flected wave, direct wave, and skywave all contribute, and above 300 MHz the direct wave
predominates. The computer program LINCAL (Link Communications Analysis Algorithm),
described in Ref. 1, calculates propagation losses with the frequency, transmitter power levels,
distance, etc. as inputs.
When a computer program is not available, the following approximate calculations can
be made:
When the line of sight is blocked by terrain, calculate the distance from the transmitting
antenna to the terrain, R,,,, the additional factor to beadded into the propagation for
NLS is 40 log R,,,IR, where R is the distance between the transmitting and receiving
antennas.
The power output and gain of the transmitter at the fundamental and spurious emissions
must be known. Where spuriousemission levels are unknown, they can be assumed
to be approximately 60 dB below the fundamental.The receiver spurious susceptibil-
ity level if unknown may, very approximately, be taken as 80 dB above the funda-
mental susceptibility.
When a frequency misalignment exists between the transmitter fundamental and spurious
emissions and the receiver-tuned frequency, then corrections for the receiver and
antenna out-of-band responses must be made to the simple in-band antenna-to-an-
tenna coupling prediction.
The first step in the antenna-to-antenna coupling prediction is to calculate the powergener-
ated by the transmitting antenna and the coupling path. The term isolation describes the recipro-
cal of coupling and isoften used to characterize a path that deliberately or incidentally contains
structures that reflect,diffract, or absorbtheelectromagnetic field. The field radiated by an
antenna is dependent on the input power, the frequency, and the gain of the antenna at that
frequency, as described in Section 2.3.
Typicalin-bandgains of antennas are provided in Table 10.2. It mustbe emphasized
that these gains are for thedirection of intentionalradiationand are readily available from
manufacturers. The power radiated from the sidelobes and from the rear of an antenna is more
difficult to ascertain if the radiation pattern is unknown. Although worst case, a gain of 0 dB
for nonaligned antennas and those with low gain, such as monopole and loops, may be used in
the preliminary antenna-to-antenna coupling analysis.
650 Chapter 10
Table 10.2 Typical In-Band Gains of Various Types of

Antennas
G < 10dB 10 dB 2 G 5 25 dB G > 25 dB
~
Lineur Array Array

Cylindrical Yagi Mattress
Biconical Broadside
Curtain
Dipoles
Folded dipoles Apertirre
Asymmetrical End-fire curtain Horns
Sleeve Travelling wave Reflector
Monopole Rhombic Lens
Collinear array Surface and leaky wave
Apertune, slot Aperture

Helix Horn
Corner rejector
Log-periodic
Conical log-spiral
When antennas are colocated on the same surface in relatively close proximity (i.e., not
kilometers apart), the basic line-of-sight antenna-coupling equations apply, with corrections for
reflections. The level of reflected field depends on the angle of incidence of the field and the
conductivity or permittivity of the reflecting surface. Case Study 10.1 describes the hazardous
zone around a transmitting parabolic reflector antenna and considers the reflection from a high-
conductivity and a high-permittivity surface. Case Study 10.1 provides the approach and calcula-
tions entailed in predicting field enhancement due to reflections.
When antennas are colocated on the same surface but with an intervening superstructure,
fuselage, or wings, some level of isolation between the antennas exists.
Examples of the level of isolation achieved, are shown in Figure 10.1 for a KC-135 aircraft
over the front edge of the wing, in Figure 10.2 over the rear edge of the wing, and in Figure
150
Measured
-Predicted - ~ -----.
-m0 I-
w _________-__-------
del I
0 5 10 15 18
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 10.1 Isolation over front edge of aircraft wing (near root). (01985, IEEE.)
150
Measured
Predicted ------- .
"_""
""
""
l
L
r
50
0 5 10 15 18
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 10.3 Isolation from the top to the bottom of the aircraft fuselage. (01985, IEEE.)
10.3 from the top to the bottom of the fuselage. Figures 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3 also show the
results of measurements made on the KC-l35 aircraft using identical broadband horn transmit
and receive antennas at the locations described in the figures and pointed at each other for
maximum coupling. The higher the level of isolation, the lower the coupled field. The IEMCAP
and AAPG computerprograms, which use the surfaceshading model for edgediffraction analy-
sis, were used to predict the isolation shown in Figures 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3. A maximum devia-
tion between predicted and measured values was seen with the antennas located on either side
of the circular fuselage and equaled 35 dBat 18 GHz (Figure 10.3). Similar measurements made
around the fuselage of an F - l 6 aircraft showed approximately 35-dB deviation between mea-
sured and predicted at 18 GHz. At 2 GHz, the deviation is an acceptable 8 dB, and the computer
codes are useful at this and lower frequencies.
Figure 10.4 illustrates three examples of antenna-to-antenna coupling: (1) where both an-
tennas are located off the surface of the vehicle; (2) one on, one off; and (3) both antennas on
0 5 10 15 18
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 10.2 Isolation over back edge of aircraft wing (near root). (0 1985, IEEE.)
652 Chapter 10
EOTH ANTENNAS OFF OF

THESURFACE
(SCATTERING SOLUTION)
ONE ANTENNA ON AND

ONE Off OF SURFACE
(RADIATION SOLUTIOM
BOTH ANTENNAS
ON THE SURFACE
(COUPUNC SOLUTIOM
Figure 10.4 Three modes of antenna-to-antenna coupling and GTD solutions. (01987, IEEE.)
the surface. The coupling between antennas on a circular or elliptical cylinder is dependent on
the exact location of the antennas. The coupling between monopole antennas placed at one-
quarter of the distance around a cylinder with a 3’9” diameter is shown in Figure 10.5. The
coupling between a horn placed 5 feet from an elliptical cylinder is shown in Figure 10.6.
Figures 10.5 and 10.6 are based on measured data. Figure 10.5 illustrates the coupling
gain, expressed in decibels, for two monopole antennas located on a 3’9” diameter circular
cylinder. The antennas areat the same position down the length of the cylinder and are located
at points one-quarter the distance around the cylinder, as shown in Figure 10.5. Figure 10.6
illustrates the coupling gain for horns located on a sphere (case B) and with one horn on the
sphere and one horn in free space (case A). The gain of the antenna is removed from the plots,
which are of isotropic antenna gain, that is, the shading factor of the cylinder.
In addition to measured data, Ref. 3 describes the use of the Geometrical Theory of Dif-
fraction (GTD) IntrasystemElectromagneticCompatibilityAnalysis (IEMCAP) and Aircraft
Inter-Antenna Propagation with Graphics (AAPG) computer codesto predict the coupling. The
IEMCAP and AAPG codes use a simple formula forfuselage or structure shading, whereas the
GTD codes use a more rigorous electromagnetic solution. IEMCAP prediction shows up to 35
dB less coupling, that is, higher isolation, than the GTD codes and if used might predict false
EMC. Further information on the coupling paths measured data and EM1 antenna-to-antenna
computer predictions is available from Ref. 3.
So far we have assumed that the antennae are operating in band (i.e., over the designed
frequency range). In the case where the transmitting or receiving antenna is operating out of
-20 c
-60
g -80
.-G
m
U
p -100
.--
a Cross-section
through cylinder
120
-140 I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1 I
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 10.5 Coupling between two monopoles on the surface of a 3’9’”diameter circular cylinder. (0
1987, IEEE.)
-20 l
-40
Cross-section
-60 through the sphere
g
U
-80
.-c antennas
a
U
F -100
.--
-140 I I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 10.6 Coupling between horns on and off a cylinder. (Q 1987, IEEE.)
654 Chapter 10
Table 10.3 Polarization Mismatch Factors for Antennas with Gain Greater
Than and Less Than 10 dB
Antenna gain Polarization

TransmittingReceiving Horz./Vert. Circular
<IO dB <IO dB 0.025 0.5
>l0 dB <IO dB 0.025 0.5
<l0 dB >IO dB 0.025 0.5
>IO dB >IO dB 0.010 0.5
band, thegain of the transmitting antenna is changed, as the is effective aperture of the receiving
antenna.
The gain of the antenna as a function of the effective area A,. and wavelength is given in
Eq. (2.36). Equation (2.47) provides the effective height ofan antenna as a function of the
effective area, antenna impedance, wave impedance, and radiation resistance of the antenna.
The effective area of the antenna, defined as the ratio of the received power to the incident
power, changes at frequencies either side of the design frequency of the antenna. The equation
for effective area is multiplied by the polarization mismatch factor p and the antenna impedance
mismatch factor q to obtain its out-of-band value. p has a value shown in Table 10.3 for vertical
or horizontal and circular polarization mismatches between a transmitting antenna with a gain
of less than 10 dB and greater than 10 dB and a receiving antenna with a gain of less than I O
dB and greater than 10 dB.
The effects of q, the antenna impedance mismatch, for a l-GHz dipole or loop antenna
with an average polarization mismatchp of 0.5 are shownin Figure 10.7. At below-band frequen-
cies, A, is proportional to f ? . At above-band frequencies, A,, is equal to (c2/8xf2),where c is
the velocity of a wave in free space, in cm/s (300 X 1Ox cm/s), and f is in Hz. References 4
and 5 provide further information on antenna out-of-band response.
For a dipole or monopole antenna, the effective area may be found from the effective
height; alternatively, the receiving characteristics of the antenna from the effective height may
loo, 1
1 l0
FREOUENCY (GHz)
Figure 10.7 Effectiveaperture trends. (01987, IEEE.)

be used. Use of Eq. (2.47) for the effective height will include the out-of-band mismatch correc-
tions, such as: the antenna and load impedance mismatch, and the radiation resistance and wave
impedance mismatch.
A number of potential sources of EM1 exist in an environment where a large number of
transmittersarein close proximity to the receiving antenna location. Some of the potential
sources of EM1 are:
Harmonic interference, where a harmonic of a transmitter is at the intended receive fre-
quency
IF interference, where the transmitter is at the receiver IF frequency
Image interference, where the transmitter is at the receiver frequency minus twice the
receiver IF frequency
Cross-modulation interference, where a high-level transmission close to the receiver fre-
quency is not sufficiently attenuated by the input filter (here, compression and spuri-
ous responses can occur in the receiver)
Adjacent channel interference from a transmitter close enough to lie within the receiver
IF bandwidth and the receiver bandwidth
Passive intermodulation interference (PIM) causedby the nonlinearity of metal-insulation-
metal (MIM) ormetal-oxide-metal (MOM) interfaces (commonly known as therusly
bolt effect)
PIM may occur in any metal structure in proximity to the receiving antenna, such as the
antenna structure, railings, towers, fences. Where these structures are constructed of ferrous
material, PIM may occur as a result of the curvature of the B/H curveof the material. Antennas
that include ferrous materials in the antenna itself or in the support structure may exhibit PIM.
The power level of the reradiated signal has been reported in Ref. 6 at approximately 40
dB below the incident power level. Thus any two sources of emissions of sufficient power may
cause intermodulation products, which are reradiated and detected by the antennas as a signal.
Third-harmonic and third-order intermodulation products are the most likely to cause problems
(i.e., 3f, 2fl 2 fit 2f1 2 f,).
Transmitter spurious emission interference. This includes harmonically related, both to
the fundamental and master oscillator etc., and broadband noise emissions. Where
an amplifier is used to simultaneously amplify a number of signals, transmitter-
generated intermodulation products may exist.
Receiver intermodulation products. Nonlinearities in the frontend of the system may gen-
erate intermodulation products from signals that are not sufficiently attenuated by
the filter (i.e., those frequencies for which cross-modulation may be a problem).
The response of a receiver to an out-of-band signal or the input level at which cross-
modulation occurs is a characteristic of the receiver. The noise floor of the receiver and dynamic
range may be found from the receiver specification. The manufacturer may have information
on theout-of-bandresponse of thereceiverwhenthis is not contained in thespecification.
Alternatively, tests may be conductedon a sample receiver to characterize the important parame-
ters.
Case Study 10.2 illustrates a typical ambient site survey in which a number of transmitters
are potential sources of EM1 to a ground-based satellite communications receiver. An example
of PIM is provided, as well as some of the solutions to the problem. Connectors and other
connections used at RF can contribute to PIM. Hermetically sealed connectors using kovar are
knowngenerators of intermodulationproducts.Nickelplatingandstainlesssteelshould be
avoided in the manufacture of connectors and antenna parts, whereas silver-plated brass is one
656 Chapter 10
of the best materials. Other sources of PIM are: microdischarge between microcracks and across
voids in metals, dirt, and metal particles on metal surfaces, high current density at contacts.
The recommendations are to use a high-conductivity, low-corrosion plating with a known and
controlled thickness and smoothness. Make sure all antenna and connector surfaces are thor-
oughly cleaned, forthumbprints have resulted in unacceptable levels of PIM on antennasurfaces
when the PIM requirements are stringent. Poor test methods and metal-backed microwave ab-
sorber used in the test setup have resulted in inaccurate measurement of PIM.
The computer programs DECAL/PECAL described in Refs. 6-8 and in Chapter 12 of
this book may be used to calculate the following interference at the receiver due to incident
power from a transmitter:
Receiver adjacent signal: the undesired power at the transmitter tuned frequency.
Broadband transmitter noise
Narrowband spurious emissions
Spurious response. The power at the tuned frequency of the undesired transmitter when
this frequency is close to one of the spurious responses, including image, of the
receiver
Receiver intermodulation: The undesired power resulting from the mixing of two or three
undesired transmitter signals in the receiver
Transmitter intermodulation: The undesired power resulting from the mixing of two or
three undesired transmitter signals
A finite differencetime domain (FDTD) numericalanalysismethodhas been used to
investigate cosite interference between wire antennas on helicopter structures as well as rotor
modulation effects. The FDTD method provides full-wave solutions to electromagnetic prob-
lems. The FDTD method was used to accurately calculate the S1 1 and S22 parameters of two
monopole antennas from 500 MHz to 4 GHz as well as the S 12 parameter. A portion of the
voltage applied to the transmitting antenna will be reflected back and a portion will be transmit-
ted. A fraction of the transmitted signal is then reflected back from the receiving antenna and
a portion of the signal is reflected from the receiving antennainto the load. S 1 1 is the transmitting
antenna input reflection coefficient, S 12 is the reverse transmission coefficient between the two
antennas, and S21 is the forward transmission coefficient. S22 is the receiving antenna output
reflection coefficient. All four S parameters can be plotted on a Smith chart, and the antenna’s
input impedance and the coupling impedance can be computed. S12 is used to calculate the
coupling between the antennas. The time domain data was transformed into the frequency do-
main using a fast Fourier transform (FFT). The analysis was validated by measurements made
in an anechoic chamber, as described in Ref. 15. These measurements were made using a one-
tenth scale model of a full-scale helicopter. Scale model measurements are mandatory when
only a small-scale anechoic chamber is available, and it is also less costly. Because of the use
of a scale model, the frequency band must be scaled so that the scale model and antennas have
the same electrical dimensions as thefull-scalegeometry.Rotormodulationcanimpairthe
performance of communication systems, and this was also investigated in Ref. 15. The FDTD
and scale model measurements of the coupling between two monopoles on a helicopter resulted
in the following conclusions: The FDTD method can be used to accurately predict the coupling
even when it is very small, on the order of 0.5 dB:
The coupling is not greatly affected by the fuselage geometry, provided there are no structural
obstructions between the antennas. The coupling between the two monopoles on a ground
plane is not significantly altered when the same configuration of monopoles is placed on the
bottom of helicopter because the bottom of the helicopter, without wheels, closely resembles
a ground plane.
The investigation confirmed what we already know, that moving antennas further apart, separat-
ing the transmit and receive frequencies, and disorienting the antennas all reduce coupling. It
was also found that “the coupling is not significantly influenced by the presence of rotors except
at and near those frequencies where the rotors are half wavelength long and behave as parasitic
resonant elements.”
Reference 16 describes the use of a 1/48 scale brass model and the numeric electromag-
netic code (NEC, described in Section 12.4.3.1 to predict the effect of the addition of a high-
frequency surface wave radar (HFSWR) onboard a ship. Because of the long wavelength in the
HF band (2-30 MHz), the entire ship will radiate as an HF antenna. The HFSWR interacts
with the topside superstructure, including existing communications antennas. The NEC yields
estimates of the technical parameters of the antennas mounted on ships. These technical parame-
ters of an antenna are completely specified by its impedance, near fields, radiation pattern, and
coupling to otherantennas. Near fields are used to evaluate radiation hazards to personnel, fuel,
and ordnance. Either the NEC program or the brass model measurements may be used to calcu-
late the antenna coupling; in Ref. 16 it was the brass model measurements that were used. The
two areas of concern are the receiver-adjacent signal (RAS) EMI, in which the receiver signal
adjacent to the HFSWR may beinterferedwith, or thebroadbandtransmitternoise (BTN),
which is defined as theportion of the undesiredtransmitter spectrum (includingbroadband
transmitter noise but not including narrowband spurious emissions)that lies within the nominal
passband of the receiver. In this case RAS was not an issue, but BTN was found to be a major
potential problem. The preliminary EMC analysis was based on the assumption that the radar
transmitter waveform is a rectangular pulse-trainspectrum with a 50% duty cycle, 500-psperiod,
and 100-kHz bandwidth, as shown in Figure 10.8. The emission spectrum of this radar is there-
fore a sin .u/x waveform. Assuming this rectangular pulse-train waveform, calculations of the
radar transmitting spectrum at 2 MHz, 20 MHz (the radar transmitter tuned frequency), and 30
MHz are - 17 dBm, 67 dBm (67 dBm= 5 kW transmitted power), and - 11 dBm, respectively,
as shown in Figure 10.9. Based on the brass model measurements, the antenna couplings at 2
MHz, 20 MHz, and 30 MHz are assumed to be 25 dB, 30 dB, and 35 dB, respectively. Hence,
the received interference power levels at the input of the communication receiver at 2 MHz,
20 MHz, and 30 MHz are -42 dBm, 37 dBM, and -46 dBm, respectively. Quasi-minimum
noise (QMN) is a reasonable lower-bound estimate of mean levels aboard Navy ships; QMN
is defined as some minimum atmospheric noise power that is contaminated with some back-
ground local noise. The greater of the QMN and the receiving system noise is used as the EMC
design goal for communications receivers. Comparing these interference power levels with the
QMN, that is, the EMC design goal, we found that the excess interference power levels are 44
dB, 152 dB, and 74 dB at 2 MHz, 20 MHz, and 30 MHz, respectively.
Figure 10.8 Rectangular pulse-train spectral occupancy. (01995, EEE.)

658 Chapter 10
0 If unmitigated, radar transmitter coupling would cause severe

problems in comm receivers
mzalvr ham- niuntlon pmMsm lo lorn

In(nhnd m*nn
0 Solution to Problem 1 Is to filter exciter signal prior to traflSmlSSiOn
Figure 10.9 Coupling of the transmitted radar signal into HF communication circuits: the problem. (0
1995, IEEE.)
This EMC study shows that if unmitigated, radar transmitter coupling would cause severe
problems in communications receivers. There are two potential problems. The first problem is
that the radar transmitter will generate enough broadband noise to severely interfere with all
communications receivers operated at the entire HF Band (2 MHz to 20 MHz). The second
problem is that the radar transmitter could bum out orsaturate some EW receivers at radar on-
tune frequency (20 MHz).
A solution to the first problem is described in Figure 10.10. We propose that communica-
tions receivers will not be interfered with at frequencies more that 5% on either side of the
radar transmitter frequency. At 19 MHz, the radar transmitter power is9 dBm; antennacoupling
is -29 dB; broadband noise power at receiver input is - 19 dBm; QMN is - 114dBm; and
excess interference level above QMN is 95 dB. Hence, filtering on the radar transmitter was
required that will provide 95 dB of attenuation at a frequency that is separated by 1 MHz/5O
kHz = 20 = 1.3 decades. A four-pole filter will provide the required 95-dB attenuation.
0 Proposed requirement: specify that communication receivers will not

be interfered wkh atfrequencbr more than 5% on either side of the
radar transmitter frequency
- i.e., HFSWR taker 10% "blte" out d the HF communlcator'8 rpsctrum
+ p- l W Iw BANDWIDTH
mpar (m)
- *n*nrusouplWW 2
POWWMrmlnpn (dBm) -19-
Wamd n
dr (dam) -114
" U
*DnUIm*. (dem) pe
0 Hence, need filtering on transmit that will
provide 95 dBof attenuation at frequency u~ M uH,
that Is separated by 1000150 o 20 t 1.3
decades
Requires filter with
Figure 10.10 Coupling of transmitted radar signal into HF communication circuits: the solution.
1995, IEEE.)
A second prediction is described in Ref. 16 of the interference generated by the shipboard

HF communication system coupling into the HFSWR receiver. In this second prediction, in
addition to BTN and RAS noise, clutter cross-modulation is examined. Clutter is the unwanted
echoes, typically from the ground, structures, sea, rain or otherprecipitation, chaff, birds, insects,
and aurora (also known as background return). Clutter cross-modulation results when a high-
level signal from an onboard communications transmitter transfers its modulation to the clutter
through cross-modulation occurring in the front end of the receiver.
A 1/48 on scale brass model was also used in Ref. 17 to predict the coupling between a
2-6-MHz transmit fan antenna and a 2-30-MHz receive antenna on a ship. Although the NEC
is used to design new antennas and to provide a preliminary determinationof the antenna perfor-
mance and isolation, it is a 1148th scale that is used to refine the antenna performance and
finalize the locations. Typically the antenna design is not included in the basic design of new
construction ships and must be developed after the topside design is fixed. The communication
suite, both transmit and receive, is predefined, and even the antenna locations are presented to
the antenna designer as a fait accompli. The brass model hull is constructed of laminated wood
overlaid with brass. The topside features are machined from brass to l/IOOOO-inch tolerances.
Antennas are constructed to provide the same electricalcharacteristics at theincreased fre-
quency, due to the scale,but may not have the same physical appearance. Calibrated cables are
connected to each cable under test.
The antenna perfomlance covers transfer impedance, (VSWR), antenna pattern and gain,
radiation hazard prevention, and isolation (decoupling) between transmit and receive systems.
The voltage-standing-wave ratio (VSWR) determines the ratio of power input to the antenna
versus reflected power from the input of the antenna and is oneof the most critical parameters.
For a shipboard transmit antenna, VSWR must be below 4:l across the frequency range of the
antenna, including any matching network. However, perturbations introduced by metallic ele-
ments in the ship's superstructure often prevent meeting this goal. A shipboard receive antenna
does not have the VSWR constraints encountered in transmit antenna design, since the goal is
to optimize receive system efficiency. High-frequency receive systems do not necessarily need
the most efficient antenna, but instead require an antenna that matches receive system perfor-
mance to the QMN curve. Since it is futile to attempt to receive signals below the QMN, the
frequency response of an HF receive antenna should be approximately I O dB below the QMN
to allow for antenna mismatch and cable and system losses.
Overall antenna performance is most easily characterized by the antenna pattern that is
the spatial gain of the antenna. The pattern is described as a 3D plot or a number of 2D plots
and is usually referenced to atheoretical 2/4 monopole on aperfectgroundplane.Antenna
patterns are severely affected by surrounding structures, so a perfect antenna is not attainable
in a shipboard environment. An acceptable antenna is typically defined as one with an antenna
pattern with less than 6-dB nulls at any azimuth over less than 20% of the frequency range of
the antenna. A 6-dB null will result in transmission of only 25% of the power in the desired
direction.
Reference 17 describes the isolation between the 2-6-MHz fan antenna and the 2-30-
MHz receive antenna and shows that the intermodulation interference (IMI) generated in the
victimreceiver, from inadequateantenna decoupling, wasunacceptablyhigh.Relocation of
either the transmit or the receive antenna, or both, was the solution offered for the potential
EM1 problem. After relocation, both the antenna isolation and the VSWR of the antenna/s were
recalculated.
The field strengths were also characterized in close proximity to the transmit antenna,
using the 1/48th scale brass mode, during the antenna design phase to allow a radiation hazard
(RADHAZ) assessment. Radiation hazards include hazards of electromagnetic radiation to fuel
660 Chapter 10
(HERF), hazards of electromagnetic radiation to ordnance (HERO), hazards of electromagnetic

radiation to personnel (HERP), and RF burn. The maximumfield strength levels differ for each
type of RADHAZ. Thefield strength data was used by the antenna engineer to design and locate
the antenna so that it will not exceed allowable levels of HF radiation close to personnel, fuel,
and ordnance areas or so it will at least provide warnings of possible dangers.
10.2.2. Filtersand An ‘‘In-Band” EM1 Solution

10.2.2.1. Filters
High-pass, low-pass, bandpass, or bandstop (notch) filters can be used to attenuate out-of-band
EM1 signals caused by coupling from fields incident on a receiving antenna. To avoid cross-
modulation or intermodulation in the first stage afterthe antenna, e.g., thefront endof a receiver,
a low-noise amplifier (LNA), or a low-noise down-converter (LNC), the filter should be con-
nected between the antenna and the first stage. The problem with this location is the additional
insertion loss introduced by the filter. Most antenna designers have optimized the gain of the
antenna and reduced losses in the RF cable to the antenna and, if the antenna is constructed
with a number of PCB elements, has combined these PCB elements using a no-loss or low-loss
combiner. Even a fraction of a decibel of additional loss as a result of the filter can reduce the
G/T of the receiving system, as described in Section 5.3.3. If the system uses an LNA or LNC
and the EM1 is not caused by an overload in these elements, resulting in cross-modulation or
intermodulation, then the filter should be located after the LNA or LNC to minimize the effect
of the insertion loss of the filter. A number of types of filter are available: Filters with helical
and folded helical resonators have been described in the literature, with design guidelines and
examples. Helical resonators can be used as bandpass filters between several tens of megahertz
and up to 2 GHz. The helical resonator consists of a single-layer solenoid enclosed in a shield,
with one lead of the winding short-circuited to the shield and the otherend open-circuited. Input
and output couplings to the filter are built with taps to the appropriate impedance points on the
helix that match the impedance to the source and load.By including an adjustable tuning screw
in either side of the helix, it is possible to change the capacitive or inductive load of the helical
to tune the center frequency. Helical filters are designed mostly for the Butterworth response.
The Chebyshev response can be used, but the insertion loss’of the Chebyshev is much higher.
A typical loss for a helical filter is approximately I dB.
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter technology is based on the conversion of electrical
signals into surface acoustic waves and then back to an electrical output. The frequency range
for these filters is 10 MHz to 3 GHz, with a relative passband from 0.01% to 100%.The disad-
vantage is the minimum 6 dB of insertion loss. In the SAW impedance element filter (IEF), the
long SAW transducer (resonator) has an impedance dependence similar to a classic inductance
capacitance (LC) or quartz resonator, and the SAW itself plays only an auxiliary role. This
device can be used as a bandpass filter, and in practice a number of elements must be connected
together to achieve an adequate out-of-band suppression. In the IEF the insertion loss can be
reduced, and in the balanced bridge version the insertion loss can be limited to 1.5 dB over a
890-9 15-MHz pass band.
Microwave filter Inc. manufactures a wide range of microwave and RF customized filters
from 1 MHz to 26 GHz, including tunable notch filters. These filters include lumped-constant
construction, distributedlineconstruction,andcavity designs. Filters from 7 to 11 GHz are
available with an insertion loss of I dB maximum.
FSY microwave also manufactures standard low-pass filters from 1 kHz to 18 GHz, high-
pass filters from 5 kHz to 0.4 GHz, and bandpass filters from I O kHz to I O GHz. Waveguide
filters from 3 GHz to 18 GHz are available with a low insertion loss. Allen Avionics manufac-
Systems EMC and
Coupling Antenna 661
tures custom filters from 100 Hz to 1 GHz. K&L manufactures a wide range of lumped-compo-
nent, tubular, and cavity filters. The cavity filters exhibit lower insertion loss and steeper skirt
selectivity than tubular filters and are available with two to six sections. The loss is dependent
on the number of sections and the 3-dB bandwidth, but it can be as low as 0.5 dB for a two-
section filter at 1 GHz with a 20-MHz (2%) bandwidth, or 1.4 dB for a six-section filter at 1
GHz with a 20-MHz bandwidth.
The Evanescent TE mode cavity filter (100 MHz to 18 GHz) is available from K&L and
is a very low-loss filter. Typical losses are less than a decibel for most designs with bandwidth
of 5% or more, with a rule of thumb of 0.1 dB per section. For wider-band filters, losses are
even less. For an EM1 problem at a specific frequency either one side or the other of the in-
band frequencies, the bandwidth of the filter passband can be greater than 5%, as long as the
interferer is well outside of the passband. If the interferer is close to the edge of the receiver
passband, then one skirt of a multisection filter can be close to the interferer and still achieve
adequate attenuation.
For example, a “real-world’’ EM1 antenna-to-antenna coupling problem was presented
to FSY Microwave, Inc., 6798 Oak Hill Lane, Columbia, MD 21045, 410/381-5700. In this
case study the microwave frequency communications linkhad a center frequency of 1500 MHz
and a 3-dB bandwidth of 20 MHz. An interferer at 1475 MHz was at a high enough level to
result in compression at the input of the low-noise amplifier (LNA), so the first filter had to be
located between the antenna and the LNA. This filter required a minimum of 30-dB attenuation
but should also exhibit an insertion loss of maximum l .5 dB to maintain the G/T of the system.
When this problem was presented to FSY Microwave, they kindly customized a standard filter.
The affordable five-pole C1500-20-5NN bandpass filter designed by FSY Microwave had the
following specifications:
Center frequency = 1500 MHz

Insertion loss = 1.5 dB max @ C F (1.0 dB typical)
3-dB bandwidth = 20 MHz min, 24 MHz max
VSWR = 1.5: 1 max over 80% of the 3-dB bandwidth
Impedance = 50 Q in/out
Attenuation = 35 dBc min from DC to 1475 MHz
Typical 5-pole 0.035-dB Chebyshev response
Power rating = 20 W C.W. max
Size = 1.10” X 1.75” X 5.35” excluding connectors
Connectors = type-N female in/out (or as specified)
Temperature range, operating = -30 to +6OoC
Vibration = 10 G’s 5 to 2000Hz, sine swept, 3 axes
Shock = 30 G’s in 1 1 ms, 1/2 sine, 3 axes
Relative humidity = Up to 95%, noncondensing
The insertion loss and attenuation characteristics are shown in Figure 10.11
The five-pole filter is designed to avoid compression in the LNA with a minimum impact
on the G/T figure. If additional attenuation of the interferer is required to avoid an EM1 problem
in the receiver, then a second filter could be included after the LNA. This second filter could
have a higher level of attenuation, because the increased insertion loss occurs after the gain of
the LNA and so will not adversely affect the G/T.
662 Chapter 10
FSV Mkrowaue. I n c .
l .
11.
I 1.00
Figure 10.11 Attenuation characteristics of the FSY Miconvave, Inc., C1500-20-5NN five-pole filter.
10.2.2.2. In-Band EM1 Solution

In some instances where an interferer is very close to being in band, a filter with a very steep
skirt can be used; or if the full bandwidth of the system is not required and some loss at the
higher or lower frequencies can be accepted, then the skirt of the filter may extend to some
small degree into the signal bandwidth. In one example of EMI, whenever an HF radio was
operated onboard a ship, the ship's RF log indicated full speed. The RF current on the ship's
hull induced by the HF radio fan antenna was coupled to the RF log transducer, used to measure
the ship's speed. This problem was considered to be in band; i.e., the interferer frequency is
exactly at a frequency required by the receiving system for normal communications to exist.
In the case of the ship's log, the full speed indicated by the log was well above the speed of
any of the ships in which the EM1 problem existed. It was thus feasible to incorporate a filter
between the RF ship's log transducer and the detector electronics, which would attenuate the
HF radio frequency but, as a result would limit the displayof the ship's speed to a more realistic
maximum.
It may be possible to reduce the coupling between an interferer antenna and the receiving
system by relocation of antennas For microwave antennas it may be possible to increase the
directivity of the TX, or RX, or both antennas or to add weatherproof microwave absorber
between the two antennas. To reduce coupling from the backlobe and sidelobes and reradiation
from a dishedge, absorber can be mountedaround the periphery of the antennas. The Microwave
Filter Company, East Syracuse, NY, offers a dish sidelobe absorber that can be bonded with
temporary adhesive to check out its effectiveness and then bonded with permanent glue if it
solves the problem.
A solution to an in-band EM1 problem exists when the geometry of the problem is fixed,
e.g., two nonmovable antennas or, in our example, the ship’s HF fan antenna and the RF log
transducer. In addition, the problem frequency must be fixed, although the proposed solution
can deal with a modulated interferer. One additional limitation is that the degree of required
suppression of the in-band frequency is not much more than 30 dB. The solution is to pick up
the interferer frequency using a highly directional antenna or a transducer that is more sensitive
to the magnetic field or electric field generated by the interferer than the intentional signal.
Figure 10.12 illustratesthesolution to an antenna-to-antenna “in-band” EM1 problem. The
directional antenna is angled to receive a higher-level signal from the interferer and a much
lower level from the intentional receiver signal. A bandpass filter is recommended after the
small directional antenna in signal path B to exclude other out-of-band signals. After the filter,
a gainstage orattenuator is included to set the appropriate signal level, followedby an adjustable
phase shifter that changes the phase so the interferer in signal path B is 180” out of phase with
the interferer signal coupled into the receiver signal path A. The received signal plus interferer
signal, path A, is applied to a summing amplifier or summing resistor network (combiner). The
phase-shifted interferer signal, path B, is also applied to the combiner, and the output from the
combiner, path C, is the intentional signal, which contains a much attenuated interferer signal.
One technique for providing phase shift is the inclusion of a variable delay line in path B.
ii
Iklvrr
Figure 10.12 Antenna-to-antenna coupling with “in-band’’ EM1 solution,

664 Chapter 10
The phaseshifter must be a unique design

and built for many frequencies, including micro-
wave, but the Microwave Filter Company, East Syracuse, NY, offers a shifter withan adjustable
5-25-dB typical attenuation and a 180” minimum phase adjustment. The frequency ranges of
the different models available are 54-108 MHz, 108-216 MHz, and 470-890 MHz.
10.2.3. Case Study 10.1: Hazardous Zone Around a Transmitting

Parabolic Reflector Antenna
10.2.2.1.
General
The most accurate method available to ascertain safe distances forpersonnel from a transmitting
antenna is by measurement using, typically, a calibrated broadband probe. A typicaltest method
is described as follows:
1. The broadband probe is verified just prior to measurement by use of acalibrated
antenna and signal source at the frequency of interest.
2. The measuring personnel are located outside of the predicted hazardous zone.
3. The antenna isinitially operated at below maximum power and the power is increased
in steps. Where the measured field strength approaches the safety limit, the personnel
then move back from the antenna.
The advantage of measurement over calculations is that the gain and directivity of an
antenna when located close to structures on the ground and the reflection or absorption due to
ground and structures are accurately accounted for. In the case where measurements cannot be
made, or in order to predict the safety zone before measurement, a worst-case calculation based
on theory and measured data may be made for a specific antenna. To make the calculation less
prone to human error and to facilitate changing any of the variables, a computer program was
written, and this was used to generate the polar plots of the hazardous zone.
10.2.2.2.Safety Limit
The safety limit used in the calculation is that published by Health and Welfare Canada in
“Safety code #6,recommended safety procedures for the installation and use of radio frequency
and microwave devices in the frequency range IO MHz to 300 GHz.” The limit for the general
public over the 14-GHz frequency range when averaged over a l-minute period is 61.4 V/m,
or 0.163 A/m, or 10 W/m?. Because the limit is for average field strength, the following calcula-
tions include a conversion of peak transmitted power into average power.
10.2.2.3. Calculation of the Hazardous Zone
A worst-case scenario iswhen an antenna islocated at a low height above a perfectly conducting
ground plane. A more realistic scenario for a parabolic antenna is for it to be mounted at a
considerable height above a ground. Two hazard zones are calculated for the Andrew P6- 144D
antenna, one where the antenna is in close proximity to a perfectly conducting ground plane,
and the second where the antenna is in close proximity to soil with high permittivity. The case
where the antenna is mounted at some height above ground and where structures are located
close to the antenna are also discussed.
The worst-case analysis takes the absolute maximum power capability of the transmitter,
the minimum attenuation in the antenna cable, feed flange, waveguide, etc., and the maximum
gain for the antenna to predict the E field around the antenna.
Andrew Antenna Company Ltd. publishes a radiation pattern plotfor the P6-144D antenna
that is given in upcoming Figure 10.13. The envelope of measured antenna gains is plotted,
resulting in a worst case (i.e., maximum gain). Either of the polarizations that results in maxi-
mum gain at any frequency has been chosen, which is consistent with our worst-case approach.
The radiation pattern envelope was measured by the Andrew Antenna Company Ltd. with the
antenna mounted on a tower with a 60-150-foot height.
From a private communication (Ref. 10) we learned that the peak power available from
the TWT amplifier used to power the P6-144D antenna may be as high as 130 kW (rated peak
power = 125 kW). The minimum attenuation in the waveguide and feed flange is unlikely to
be less than 1 dB, and this was taken as the worstcase. The maximumduty cycle of the transmit-
ted power, from Ref. 10, is 0.1%. The maximum average input power to the antenna (P;,\.)is
given by the peak output power of the amplifier (Ppk),minus the attenuation, times the duty
cycle. Thus, for the case under consideration,
P , , = PPI- I dB X 0.1% (10.1)
That is,
0.1
P:,, = 130 kW - 26.74kW = 103.26kW X ~ = 103.26W
100
For a low-gain, low-directivity antenna, such as a dipole, and when the direct radiated
path length is close to the reflected path length with the direct and reflected field in phase, the
maximum theoretical increase in field strength due to superposition of the two fields is 6 dB
in the far field. At close proximity and for vertical polarization that attenuates off-axis radiation
due to the vertical directivity of the dipole, an increase of greater than 6 dB may be expected
(Ref. 2).
The 6-dB enhancement ignores any reflections from conductive structures such as build-
ings and wire fences in close proximity to the antenna, which may further reinforce or reduce
the field at any givenpoint. When an antenna is located close to aconductiveground,the
characteristics of the antenna may change due to mutual coupling between the antenna and the
ground plane, as well as pattern changes, spurious resonances, and other anomalies caused by
proximity to the ground. These effects are difficult to predict, so measured results are used in
an attempt to derive a worst-case field enhancement due to ground reflections and other factors.
The measurements from which the data is used were made in order to characterize an
open-field test site and to arrive at site attenuation. Invariably such test sites incorporate a con-
ductive ground plane, typically constructed of wire mesh, below at least one of the antennas.
The disadvantage of using the results of such measurements is that both a transmitting and a
receiving antenna are used, so mutual coupling exists between them, whereas our concern is
the E field incident on personnel, where the mutual coupling will be much less pronounced.
The second disadvantage is that the upper frequency limit for such measurements is 1 GHz,
whereas in this case study the frequency range of interest is from 14 to 15.2 GHz. Because of
potential errors, we have used the results of these measurements with a safety factor to provide
a worst-case field enhancement. In Ref. 3 the distance between the two antennas was chosen
to ensure that mutual coupling is not a significant factor.
Assuming that the antenna has been accurately calibrated in an anechoic chamber, the
difference between the published antenna factor and that measured on an open-field test site is
a measure of the enhancement orreduction in field due to the open-field test site characteristics.
From Ref. 12, the decrease in antenna factor or increase in field strength at 215 MHz,
measured with a log-periodic antenna, due to the open-field characteristics is 6 dB. Additional
ambient reflections are included in the measurement. Measurements and calculations given in
Ref. 4 indicate an enhancement of 5 dB at 950 MHz due to reflections.
666 Chapter 10
Due to the uncertainties involved in the application of such data, a very conservative
enhancement of 10 dB was used for the antenna over a conductive surface. This was reduced
to 7.5 dB for the situation where a low-conductivity, high-permittivity soil is the ground plane,
as discussed in Case 2 .
Reference 13 includes a curve Figure 10.16 of the reflection coefficient versus angle of
incidence with vertical and horizontal antenna polarization for average earth,blacktop, and steel.
Figure 10.16, reproduced in this report, indicates the importance of including the angle of inci-
dence in the calculation; also, where blacktopis the ground plane, the reflection coefficient
is less
than for average soil. Figure 10.16 is valid for 30 MHzonly, whereas the reflection coefficient at
14.8 GHz is much different, as seen in Case 2.
Cose 1: Antenna located close to a highly conductive ground plane
A wave propagating in air as it impinges on a surface with either high conductivity or high
permittivity is reflected as a result of the lower impedance of the surface compared to the wave
impedance. We assume that at 14.8 GHz ( h = 2 cm) the reflective surface is in the far field of
the antenna, where the wave impedance Z,v = 377 Q. The barrier impedanceof copper is 0.045
Q/sq at 14.8 GHz, and for steel it is approximately 1.7 Q/sq from
IZA = 369 @- [CIQ/sql (10.2)
where
p r = permeability relative to copper
IS=, conductivity relative to copper
f = frequency [MHz]
Thus the barrier impedance for both copper and steel is lower than the wave impedance, and
the reflection coefficient is at a worst Case 1. As discussed above, the field enhancement due
to reflections and other sources is an estimated worst case of 10 dB; i.e.,
E + E , . -- 10 dB
20 log
Edir
where
Edlr= predicted direct field
E , = reflected, in-phase field incident on the same point
The 10-dB enhancement is also used to account for additional spurious effects, such as antenna
loading.
The equation used in the computer program that enables the generation of the plot of the
hazard zone around is derived as follows. The maximum Esafe field is 60 V/m,so the maximum
plane-wave power density is obtained from
W=-=!??
E?
377
377 (10.3)
= 9.55 W/m2 = 1 mW/cm'
The power density some distance r from the source is given by
(10.4)
where
distance in meters
I' =
G = antenna gain (numeric)

F,. = numeric power enhancement due to reflections etc.
From the W = E?/377 equation it may be seen that a 10-dB increase in E field results in a 10-
dB increase in power density. For example, a 10-dB increase in a lO-V/m field (0.26 W.m)
results in a 3 l .6-V/m (2.6-W/m) E field, from
31.6
20 log ~ = 10 dB
10
The increase in power density is thus
10 log 2'6 = 10 dB
0.26 W/m
The safe distance from Eq. (10.4) is given by
103.3GF,. (10.5)
9.55 X 12.56
The maximum P6-144D antenna gain is 46.3 dBi in the main lobe of the antenna. Figure
10.13 shows the off-axis decrease in gain versus azimuth degrees from main lobe. The antenna
gain in dBi was converted into gain numeric and used with Eq. (10.5) to calculate the safety
zone around the antenna, inside of which is the hazardous zone. Figure 10.17 is a polar plot of
0,
i :
W
n
2 10 ."l
._
E S
i
: ,
>
g
L
c
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i .
.. ......................
c g
B ....
& t
.....
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
._
c1
V
F
50 ..............
2
-
C
(I)
60 . ..
. . .I . . . . . . . . . .
.
. ,
I l l
70
lo 15Z0 40 60 80 100 120 140
160
180
(5"/div)
(ZO'Idiv)
Azimuth (Degrees from man lobe)
Figure 10.13 P6-144D antenna radiation pattern envelope. (Reproduced by permission from Andrew
Antenna Company Ltd.)
668 Chapter 10
the safety distance contour around the antenna. A worked example of the calculation is made
as follows to ensure the validity of the computer program.
The on-axis gain of the antenna is 46.3 dB, F,, is 10 dB; thus the gain numeric times F,,
numeric is 42,658 X 10 = 426,580,whichresults in a safe distance,using Eq. (10.5), as
follows:
which agrees with the computer-generated result.
Cose 2: Antenna located above a ground with high permittivity

The lowest resistivity of soil is approximately 100 Q-cm, which is much higher than the 1.72
pQ-cm for copper. The lowest soil impedance at 14.8 GHz, due to the conductivity of the soil,
is therefore much higher than 377 Q, and negligible reflection occurs due to the conductivity
of the soil. However, a surface that exhibits a higher permittivity than air also exhibits a lower
impedance than 377 Q. Thus when a plane wave in air impinges on such a surface, a reflection
occurs. The reflection coefficient R,, from Ref. 14, for horizontally polarized waves is given
by
2
(10.6)
z
l+"X-
cos cp
z, cos 0
and for vertically polarized waves is given by
(10.7)
z,,
l+-+-
cos 0
z, cos 0
wave impedance = 377 R

soil impedance
angle of incidence relative to vertical, but not 90'
angle of transmitted wave in the soil relative to vertical, but not 90"
The difference in angle between incident wave and transmitted wave is dueto the different
velocities of the wave in air compared to soil. The ratio is
sin 0 - V,
sin @ V,
where
V, = velocity in air
V? = velocity in soil
V2 is always lowerthan V, and is dependent on the dielectric conductivity and loss tangent (i.e.,
on the complex permittivity of the soil).
The worst-case maximum reflection occurs when V, = V?,in which case sin 8 = sin Cp.
Because the complex permittivity of the soil is an unknown, the cos Wcos 8 term in Eqs. (10.6)
and (10.7) are set to I . Figure 10.14 illustrates the wave angles referred to.
The impedance of the soil, Z,, is given by
where
p,,= permeability of free space = 471 X 10” [H]

E,, = the permittivity of free space = 1/3671 X 10” [F]
E, = relative dielectric constant of the medium
Reference 5 shows a worst-case dielectric constant of 20 for sandy soil (humidity 16.8%)
at 10 GHz, and this value is used in the following equation for soil impedance:
4 47cx lo ’
(1/36n X 10”)20
= 84.2 Q
Using 84.2 R in either Eq. (10.6) or Eq. (10.7) results in a reflection coefficient R, of
0.635 (i.e., 0.635 of the incident wave is reflected and 0.365 is transmitted or absorbed in the
soil). Thus the ratio of E,,,,,,/E,,,,in decibels is 20 log 0.365 = -8.75 dB, which corresponds
Boundary
I
Figure 10.14 Incident.reflected, and transmitted waveangles. (01987. IEEE.)
670 Chapter 10
well with Figure 10.15.If we assume that the 10 dB (3.162) field enhancement is dueto reflection
only, ignoring antenna-to-ground proximity effects, using the IO-dB field enhancement, the re-
flected wave E, can be found from E,, the total E field, as follows: E, = 3.162 Ed,,,where EdIr
is the predicted field strength without enhancement; therefore E, may be found from E , = E,,,,
+ E, and is 2.162E,,,,.
When the reflection coefficient is included in the equation for E, we get
E, = E,,,,2.162X R,,
therefore
E,. = Ed,r X 2.162 X 0.635 = 1.372E,,,,
E, = E,,,, + E, = E,,,, + 1.372Ed1,= 2.372E,,,,
Thus the 10-dB enhancement (F<,)is reduced to 7.5 dB. We have assumed a worst-case normal
angle of incidence of the transmitted wave with the soil surface. However, fromRef. 14, signifi-
cant reflection also occurs for horizontally polarized waves with low angles of incidence with
respect to the surface, and our worst-case approach is therefore valid in close proximity to the
antenna. The polar plot of the safety zone with the antenna high-permittivity soil is shown in
Figure 10.18.
Conclusions
In order to err on the side of safety we have used a worst-case approach in deriving a hazard
zone around a specific transmitting antenna. Maximum theoretical field enhancement due to a
reflection from highly conductive surfaces is 6 dB. Measurements onopen-field test sites where
the surface conductivity is lower but where some ambient reflections occur results in measured
field enhancements of 5 dB and 6 dB. Onemajor unknown is the effect on the antenna character-
m
6o r
P
Frequency, Hz
Figure 10.15 E,,,,,,/E,,,, for normal incidence. (01987, IEEE.)

RHO RHO Magnitude vs Angle
.o
.e
.'I
.5
.4
.3
.2
. l
Figure 10.16 Reflection coefficient versus angle of incidence for various materials. (01987, IEEE.)
istics of proximity to ground. Due to the possibility of these spurious effects, the enhancement
was increased to 10 dB for the case where the antenna is located above a highly conductive
ground and to 7.5 dB where a high permittivity ground is present. Where reflective structures
exist around the antenna, the enhancement at certain points may be a further 6 dB, and a revised
hazard zone may be computed from Eq. (10.5).
For a more accurate estimate of the E field at any point around the antenna in the presence
of structures, the General Electromagnetic Model for the Analysis of Complex Systems (GEM-
ACS) program may be used. Using Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD) formulation, a
total field is computed fromsuper-position of fields from direct,reflected, and diffracted sources.
The disadvantage of GTD is thatonlyperfectly conductive surfaces may be modeled. The
method of moments technique available in GEMACS is capable of modeling surface impedance
but is not practical for large surfaces at high frequency.
When the antenna is mounted on a mast and the following requirements are met, the area
around the mast out to any distance is inherently at a safe level of 60 V/m or less. The require-
ments are the antenna is at least 4 m above personnel (i.e., approximately 6 m above ground),
the antenna center axis is either parallel to the ground or pointing upward, the ground under
the main lobe of the antenna does not rise for 605 m, and no vertical conductive surfaces are
within close proximity of the antenna or the main lobe of the antenna.
10.3. AMBIENTSITEPREDICTIONS AND SURVEYS

An ambient site prediction or survey is used when a receiving system or potentially susceptible
equipment is to be installed at the site. In this section the ambient due to intentional sources,
such as communications transmitters and radar and the coupling to a receiver, are considered.
672 Chapter 10
x
I .
'""i
-200 -150 -IO0 -50
50
Azimuth (deg)
100 150 200
Figure 10.17 Polar plot of the hazardous zone around the P6-144D antenna in close proxirnity to a
highly conductive ground.
10
..
_.
.O
Figure 10.18 Polar plot of the hazardous zone around the P6-144D antenna in close proximity to ground
with high permittivity.
674 Chapter 10
If the locations of antennas, antennagains and directivity, transmitter power and frequen-
cies, elevation of the ground,andpresence of structuresaroundthe site are known, thena
prediction of the electromagnetic ambient at a site may be made. A limitation in the prediction
approach is that very often the information is limited. For example, the directivity or polar plot
of the gain of an antenna is not always available, and some assumptions must be made concern-
ing the sidelobes or backscatter of the antenna. The presence of hills or structures can make a
significant difference to thepredicted coupling between antennas and to absorption and shading
of the receiving antenna; when this information is not available, the accuracy of the prediction
suffers. An ambient site survey is the more accurate method of site evaluation. In a survey a
number of antennas, preamplifiers, and, typically, a spectrum analyzer are used to measure the
ambient.
Directional measurement antennas arerotated through 360” with both horizontal and verti-
cal polarizations of the antenna. For measurements at frequencies that are in band for the pro-
posed receiver, the measurements should be made, where feasible, with the antenna and system
that will be installed at the site.For example, if the system comprisesan input filter, a low-noise
down-converter, or a preamplifier and filter, then these should be used in the site evaluation. By
using a representative antenna and system, the antenna gain and directivity, filter effectiveness,
and out-of-band or spurious responses of the receiving system will be included in the measure-
ment.
This approach is usually feasible onlywith small antennas and lightweight receiving equip-
ment. When this approach is ruled out, the measurement antenna should have a directivity and
gain as close to those of the actual antenna as possible, and the gain and noise floor of the
measuring equipment should be at least as good as those of the actual system.
One potential limitation the ambient site survey has is that not all the transmitters may
be operating during the time in which measurements are made. To minimize the risk of missing
an emitter, the frequencies of the transmitters should be ascertained and an identification of
“off air” transmitters should be made. Otherwise, measurements should be made over a period
of hours and repeated over a period of a day or two toincrease the possibility that all transmis-
sions are intercepted.
10.3.1. Case Study 10.2: Electromagnetic Ambient Site Predictions and

Site Surveys
The emission frequencies of interest in the following site surveys were the fundamental fre-
quency of a satellite communications systemat 1544 MHz, the IF at 45 MHz, and the reference
at 10 MHz. In addition, field strengths of 1 V/m or greater at any frequency can result in direct
coupling to cables and equipment, which can result in EMI. At one site, cross-modulation due
to a transmitting antenna located 56 m from the proposed site of the satellite communications
receiving antenna was predicted as follows.
The transmitter operates at a frequency of 151 1.125 MHz at 2.5 W and feeds a yagi
antenna with a gain of 17.5 dBi. The transmitting antenna was predicted to be broadside onto
the receiving antenna. The sidelobe of the yagi antenna is likely to be, at a minimum, 13 dB
down on the main lobe. However, due to the proximity of several towers in the vicinity, the
antenna pattern will be affected somewhat and this is an unknown.
Assuming then an antenna gain of 17.5 dBi - 13 dB = 4.5 dB. The power density P,/
incident on the receiving antenna is given by Eq. (10.8):
(10.8)
where
P,, = antenna input power = 2.5 W
G,, = effective gain of the antenna = 4.5 dB
R = distance = 56 m
P,/= power density in W/m?
Therefore:
P,, = 2.5 W 2‘818 X

X __ 56? = 0.179 mW/m’ = -7.5 dBm/m’
12.56
The received power ( P r ) at the input of a narrowband cavity filter inserted between the
receiving antenna and the low-noise amplifier (LNA) is given by Eq. (10.9):
(10.9)
where
G,, = gain of the receiving antenna = 389
h = wavelength of the incident power
From Eq. (10.9):
Assuming the use of the four-section filter, 4C42 - 1544.5/T23.2 - 0.0, then the attenua-
tion provided at 151 1.125 MHz is 35 dB from measurements. The input power to the LNA is
thus -6.6 dBm + -35 dB = -41.6 dBm. This level is above the -50 dBm at which the LNA
compresses, and therefore a reductionof approximately 2 dB in gain is predicted in the 1544.25-
MHz received signal. Measurements were made at the same site, the results of which were as
follows.
The measurements from 1 to 2 GHz were made with a double-ridged guide (DRG) antenna
and a minimum 41-dBgain preamplifier feeding intoa spectrum analyzer. The emissionat 1.5 11
GHz from the yagi antennawas measured with the preamplifier both in circuitand out of circuit.
The measured level at 1.511 GHz was reduced by 44 dB when the preamplifier was removed,
which proves that the preamplifier was not compressing. The reason to include the preamplifier
was to ensure that any low level in band emission from 1540 to 1550 MHz was detected.
The measured field from the yagi antenna was lower than expected, so to confirm the
measurement,a second yagiantenna,identical to thetransmittingantenna, was used as the
measurement antenna. The level with the measurement antenna pointing at the emitter antenna
is 14.8 dB above that obtained with the ridged guide antenna, whereas a 9.5-dB increase in
level was expected. One possible explanation for the difference in measured level is the different
directivities of the two antennas (i.e., the ridged guide antenna is more affected by reflected
waves than is the yagi antenna due to its lowerdirectivity). This explanation was confirmed by
pointing both antennas away from the emitter, when the ridged guide antenna measurement
resulted in a higher level than the yagi.
The antenna that will be used in the satellite receiving system exhibits an 8.5-dB higher
gain than the yagi. Therefore, due to its higher gain and directivity, higher peaks and troughs
in the received power from emitters, as the antenna sweeps across the sky, compared to the
676 Chapter 10
measured levels, is expected. The received power at the measurement antenna for the highest-
level emitters at 15 11 MHz are calculated as follows: First the preamp and cables were calibrated
using a signal source and spectrum analyzer. The input level to the cable/preamp was adjusted
to -44 dBm. The measured output was -4 dBm; thus the combined gain and insertion loss is
40 dB.
At 15 11 MHz the input level to the spectrum analyzer was measured at - 13 dBm; sub-
tracting the gain of the preamp results in an output level from the antenna of -53 dBm.
The gain of the satellite communications system receiving antenna is 17.8 dB higher than
that of the measurement antenna; thus, based on the higher receiving antenna gain, the power
level at the input of the four-section filter is -35 dBm.
The four-section filter provides an insertion loss of 35 dB at 1.51 I GHz; thus the input
power to the LNA is -35 dBm + -35 dB = -70 dBm. The measured input level to the LNA
is 28.4 dB below the predicted. The main reason for the discrepancy between predicted and
measuredlevelsis that the position of the transmitting antenna was not broadsideonto the
receiving antenna but pointing away at an angle of approximately 20" from the receiving antenna
direction. The maximum level was not measured pointing at the rear of the transmitting antenna,
but due to a reflection from a nearby hill. This example illustrates the importance of measure-
ments when exact locations of emitters and receptors are not known. The next example of a
survey made at a different site also emphasizesthe advantage of measurements over predictions.
A high-amplitude emission at 1.344 GHz was measured using the double-ridged guide
antenna with the 40-dB-minimum-gain preamplifier. After approximately 1 hour of measure-
ment, the emissions changed. An in-band emission at exactly 1.545 GHz was measured and
emissions either side with spacings of approximately 15 MHz. This broad combination of emis-
sions increased and then decreased over a 3-second period and then disappeared for approxi-
mately 3 seconds. The peak emissions at 1.344 GHz and 1.305 GHz also increased and decreased
in amplitude with an approximately 6-second period.
The source of the 1.305- and 1.3405-GHz emissions was a long-range radar situated east
of the antenna measuring location. The power level of the 1.3405-GHz signal was measured
at -31.83 dBm without preamplifier. The loss in the interconnection cable at 1.3405 GHz is
approximately 2 dB; thus the antenna output level was -30 dBm = 1 pW. The gain of the
double-ridge guide at 1.36 GHz is approximately 5.6 dB = 3.63 numeric. The incident power
density on the DRG antenna is given by
(10.10)
It is possible that the intermodulation seen in the photo of Figure 10.19 was due to the
preamplifier oscillating or generating spurious response due to overloading. To measure the
susceptibility of the preamplifier to input level,the input signal was attenuated. The only compo-
nent available that could be used as an attenuator was a 20-foot length of RG58 coaxial cable.
The reduction in the measured amplitude with the coax cable between the antenna output
and the preamplifier at 1.305 GHz was approximately 27 dB. This magnitude of reduction puts
the spectral emissions lineswith 15-MHz spacings close tothe noise floor. On close examination,
at least four of the spectral emission lines at approximately 1.6, l .62, 1.72, and 1.84 GHz were
seen. Although not conclusive proof, this test indicates that the preamplifier is not the source
of the harnlonically related emission lines.
The intermodulation was not consistently seen throughout the day, although the high-
amplitude 1.34-GHz radar signal was.The sources of intermodulation are a 15.4-MHz shortwave
EMC Systems 677
Figure 10.19 Photo of spectrum analyzer display showing intermodulation product at 1545 MHz.
( S W radio, which generates a power density of approximately 2.65 mW/m2, and the radar,
which generates a power density of 0.069
mW/mz.The cause of the in-band frequencyis passive
intermodulation (PM), which occurs only when the S/W radio is used. The intermodulation
product is
13 X 15.4 MHz + 1344 MHz = 1544 MHz
The location at which intermodulation products are‘generated is unlikely to be the input
of the 41-dB preamplifierbecause the 15.4-MHz signal level will be drastically reduced bythe
DRG antenna. The most likely source is a lightning protection scheme that surrounds the top
of the building. The measurement antennas were locatedonly 6 feet away from the vertical and
horizontal conductors of the protection scheme. Reradiation as a result of passive intermodula-
tion due to nonlinearjunctions or the nonlinearity induced by a metal with permeabilitygreater
than 1 is typically 40 dB down on the incident power level.
The intermodulation products seen in Figure 10.19 are 30 dB down on the 1.3405-GHz
level and approximately 46 dB down on the 15.4-MHz level. Intermodulation will occur only
when the 15.4-MHz S/W receiver is operated and the radar is pointed at the building.Therefore
EM1 will not always be present. Some of the EM1 fixes available are:
Move the S/W transmitter frequency. For example, 16.5 MHz, 18 MHz, 28 MHz, etc.
would be the frequencies to choose for maximum suppression of intermodulation-
generated EMI.
Move the S/W antenna at least 500 m from the satellite receiving antenna, which should
be moved as far from the lightning protection conductors as feasible.
If the lightning conductor is nonferrous material, paint with an MI-suppression coating.
If ferrous, wrap with 2.5-in-thick all-weather absorber foam.
If PIM is due to the “rusty bolt effect,” one solution is to break all screwed, bolted, or
riveted joints in the structure causing PIM and to weld, braze, or cadweld the joints. Alterna-
tively, the joint may be improved by cleaning and passivationof the metal surfaces, which may
678 Chapter 10
Table 10.4 Predicted IM Products Resulting in In-Band lnterference

Frequencies
Predicted IM frequencies [MHz] Received

frequency
N M fi f? fi fi
9 1 20.8 456 1543.2 - 1.299
2 1 12.8 1301.1 1542.7 - 1.8
8 1 100.4 742 1545.2 0.7
2 1 100.4 1342 1542.8 -1.7
3 1 151.1 1091.4 1544.7 0.2
4 1 171.8 857.3 1544.5 0
I 1 158.6 434.7 1544.9 0.4
1 1 158.6 1386.2 1544.9 0.3
9 1 171.5 0 1543.5 -1
2 1 448 649.3 1545.3 0.8
8 1 425.3 1859.1 1543.3 -1.2
5 1 438.7 649.3 1544.2 -0.3
then be rejoined and sealed against the environment by paint or caulking. In this case study,
cleaning the joints would be practically impossible, and the other alternatives listed were consid-
ered.
Suppression coatings were obtainable from Omicron Inc., PO Box 397, Buffalo, NY
14222, which can no longer be traced. They manufactured two types of intermodulation interfer-
ence suppression products. Omicron CBA was a polymer-based coating that creates at RF a
low-resistance and low-reactance path. This reduces current flow through the nonlinear junction
and reduces the level of PIM. The low-reactance path is achieved by metal oxide penetration
aids, corrosion inhibitors, chelating agents, and materials of high dielectric constants.
The second suppression agent made by Omicron was the SS-50/SC-60, which was a finely
divided conductive material dispersed in specially formulated polymers. The mode of suppres-
sion is provided by low-reactance pathways on a molecular level, effectively resulting in joint
shunting. According to the manufacturer, laboratory and field tests of Omicron IMI-suppression
coatings have shown greater than 40-dB reduction in IMI levels between 0 and 30 MHz.
A search has unfortunately not turned up any other company that manufactures a similar
product, although one may well exist.
The 1.344 GHz, 1.305 GHz, and 15.4 MHz are not the only frequencies at which intermod-
*
ulation may be predicted at the site, as shown in Table 10.4, in whichf3 = N X f, M X fi.
Frequencies exist at power levels that may be sufficiently high (i.e., 2.2 pW/m' at 171.1
MHz and 1.2 pW/m' at 425.3 MHz) to produce passive intermodulation at a level above the
noise floor of the receiving system. Therefore the potential for PIM at these frequencies also
exists.
10.4. CASE STUDY 10.3: COUPLING INTO HV AC LINE FROM HF

PHASED-ARRAY RADAR
At one prospective site for a receiver, an ambient site survey was conducted. A source of RF
existed that was not recorded in the RF ambient survey because its frequency lies well outside
of the 1544-MHz and 468-MHz frequencies of interest. The RF source is backscatter from an
HF phased-array radar that operates in the 8-20-MHz frequency band. The average peak radiated
power from the array of 16 log-periodic antennas is 2 kW, and the effective radiated power is
nearly 200 kW. From a private communication it was learned that the level of radiated backscat-
ter is approximately 50 W.
In addition to the satellite communication receiver antenna, the received power at the
equipment building induces potential EM1 voltages in the hydro lines, telephone lines, and a
HF whip antenna used for a time receiver (which operates at 7.33 MHz, 10 MHz, and 14.66
MHz). No calculations are required to predict the high probability that the 8-20-MHz source
will interfere with the time receiver, even assuming the source is horizontally polarized and the
time code receiver antenna is vertically polarized.
Prediction of Level of EM1
The hydro lines, which carry a voltage of 2400 V, are assumed to be at 12 m above ground
with approxilnately a 1.2-m distance between individual lines. The power lines run parallel to
the HF array at a distance of 600 m. The received power at a distance of 600 m from the source
can be calculated from
P, = -(32dB + 20log,,, R + 20 log,,,f) + P , [dBml
where
P,. = received power [dBm]
P , = transmitted power = 47 dBm
f = frequency [MHz]
R = distance from the source [km]
Using the worst-case lowest frequency of 8 MHz, the level of received power is
-(32 + 20 log,,, 0.6 + 20 log,,, 8) + 47 = 0 dBm
Using the far-field value of wave impedance (377 Q), the E field is calculated at 0.6 V/
m and the H field at 1.6 mA/m.
Method 1
The most accurate method for calculating the EM1 picked up on the power line is the use of
transmission-line theory; however, the theory is valid only for the situation where the height
( h ) of the line above ground is much less than the wavelength, h.
The E field increases with height above the ground until the height is approximately 0.5
h, after which the magnitudeof the field levels off. One sourceof error in application of transmis-
sion-line theory is when this effect is ignored.
The transmission-line equation may still beused to calculate the approximate characteristic
impedance of the line from Eq. (7.16) and the induced current from Eq. (7.20) by setting the
height to 0% when this is less than the actual height. At 8 MHz, when 0.5h is 18.75 m, the
12-m height of the power line may be used in the transmission line equations, whereas if the
equations are used at 20 MHz, the height would be set at 7.5 m to provide a limit to the induced
voltage. The calculation of differentially induced voltage using these equations is expected to
be reasonably accurate because the distance between the wires is less than 0.5h.
Case Study 12.5 provides worked examples of Eqs. (7.16) and (7.20), in the present study
only the results of the calculations are presented.
At 8 MHz and a height of 12 m the characteristic impedance of the line Z,. is 912 Q. In
using Eq. (7.16) to calculate the characteristic impedance between the lines, the distance is set
680 Chapter 10
to 0.6 m because the equation multiplies this by 2 in obtaining the impedance of a line above
a ground plane. At 8 MHz and a height of 1.2 m, Z, is 552 ST. The induced common-mode
current for the 0.6-V/m incident E field at 8 MHz is 3 1 mA. The differential current is 4.5 mA.
The transmission line is long and terminated in the unknown impedances of the transformer
located at the building and at the substation. If the assumption is made that the load and source
impedances are the same as the characteristic impedances of the line, then the common-mode
induced voltage is approximately 27 V and the differential-mode voltage is 2.6 V. When the
load and source impedances are less than the characteristic impedances of the line, which is
likely, the current flow in the lines and terminating impedances at resonant frequencies will be
much higher than those calculated. The effects of cable resonance are discussed in Section 7.4.
Method 2
Another method for calculating EM1 is the use of current loop or loop antenna theory, where
the current loops are formed between theAC lines for the differential-mode pickup and between
the lines and ground for common-modepickup. In the case under consideration, the line lengths
are greater than h/2 of the interfering source; therefore resonances will occur and the principal
coupling mode is electromagnetic wave propagation (i.e., the lines are an effective antenna).
The area of maximum illumination of the incident field is approximately 500 m. The length of
the loop is in fact very long (i.e., between the transformer and load located at the buildings and
the nearest substation).
The effective length of the loop when used in the current loop equation is 0% = 18.7
m , and the width of the loop may be set to the height of the wire above the ground plane.
Because of the curvature of the incident field and the unknownangle of incidence of the direction
of field propagation and the plane of the loop (which is assumed to be 45"), the following is a
worst-case calculation. See Figure 10.20.
At a distance of 600 m from the source and at frequencies of 8-20 MHz, the incident
field is a plane wave and the induced EM1 is independent of whether the magnetic field or the
electric field couples to the wires. A magnetic field coupling is assumed with a worst-case angle
between longitudinal cable axis and field vector. The height of the power lines above the ground
is assumed to be 12 m and the distance between lines is 1.2 m. The formula for loop voltage
induced in a current loop is given by the following relationships:
1.2m
Power lines
t
12.0m
I
Figure 10.20 Incident field = plane wave. Worst-case angle between the cable axis and the H field is
p = 90". A mean angle of 45" is taken for the angle between the plane of the loop and the direction of
field propagation.
where
V,,, = 2HlZ, sin
jh
p sin !!!! cos 0
1 (10.1 1)
H = magnetic field [A/M]

p = angle between longitudinal cable axis and the field vector
0 = angle between plane of loop and direction of field propagation
1 = loop length
h = loop height or width
h = wavelength
z,, = $ E
= 377 n for plane wave
assuming the worst-case angle between the cable axis and the p field vector of 90" and a mean
angle of 45" for the angle between the plane of the loop and the direction of field propagation.
For the differential induced EM1 voltage V,, at 8 MHz,
For the common-mode induced EM1 voltage VCM at 8 MHz,
VCM =
(
2 X 1.6 X 10-3 X 18.7 X 377 X 1 X sin 3*14
37.5
Although neither method 1 nor method 2 is exact, the calculated induced voltages are
sufficiently close to provide an estimate of the magnitude of EM1 voltage.
The common-mode EM1 induced in the telephone lines may be as high as that for the
power lines, depending on the geometry, whereas the differential-mode voltage is likely to be
much less due to the close proximity of the telephone conductors.
By examining the type of main power-line filter and equipment filters used at the installa-
tion, the prediction is that the level of filtering of the AC line and the telephone line will be
sufficient to ensure EMC for this specific potential EM1 situation. Another likely victim of the
HF phased-array radar is the time reference signal, which is received at the frequencies of 7.33
MHz, 10 MHz, and 14.66 MHz. A receiver presently used in the area by the armed forces is
unable to function during the operation of the HF phased-array radar, irrespective of the tuned
frequency, because of cross-modulation EM1 from that source. Therefore the prediction is, based
on this experience and the high E fields (0.6 V/m) generated by the radar, that interference in
reception of the time reference signal will be experienced.
REFERENCES
1. C.C. Roder. Link Communication Analysis Algorithm (LINCAL) User's Manual. ECAC-CR-80-
059, August 1980.
2. G. Genello, A. Pesta. Aircraft coupling model evaluations at SHF/EHF. IEEE Symposium on Electro-
magnetic Compatibility, 1985.
3. T. Durham. Analysis and measurement of EM1 coupling for aircraft mounted antennas at SHF/EHF.
IEEE Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 1987.
682 Chapter 10
4. S.T. Hayes, R. Garver. Out-of-band antenna response. IEEE Symposium on Electromagnetic Com-
patibility, 1987.
5. D.A. Hill, M.H. Francis. Out-of-band response of antenna arrays. IEEE Symposium on Electromag-
netic Compatibility, 1987.
6. S.T. Li. J.W. Rockway, J.H. Scukantz. Application of Design Communication Algorithm (DECAL)
and Performance Evaluation Communication Algorithm (PECAL). IEEE International Symposium
on EMC, October, 1979.
7. K. Clubb, D. Wheeler, E. Pappas. The COSAM I1 (DECAL/PECAL) Wideband and Narrowband
RF Architecture Analysis Program User’s Manual. ECAC-CR-86-112, February 1987.
8. J.W. Rockway, S.T. Li, D.E. Baran, W. Kowalyshin. Design Communication Algorithm (DECAL).
IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, June 1978.
9. L.D. Tromp, M. Rudko. Rusty bolt EMC specification based on nonlinear system identification. IEEE
Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 1985.
IO. Private communication with J. Rose of Canadian Astronautics Ltd.
1 1. T. Dvorak. The role of site geometry in metric wave radiation testing. IEEE Symposium on Electro-
magnetic Compatibility, 1986.
12. J. DeMarinas. Antenna calibration as a function of height. IEEE Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, 1987.
13. Studies relating to the design of open field test sites. IEEE Symposium on Electromagnetic Compati-
bility, 1987.
14. D.V. Gonshor. Attenuation, transmission and reflection of electromagnetic waves by soil. IEEE Sym-
posium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 1987.
15. S.V. Georgakopoulis, C.A. Balanis, C.R. Birtcher. Cosite interference between wire antennas on
helicopter structures and rotor modulation effects: FDTD versus measurements. IEEE Transactions
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. 41, No 3, August 1999.
16. S.T. Li, B. Koyama, J.H. Schkantz, Jr., R.J. Dinger. EMC Study of a shipboard HF surface wave
radar. IEEE 1995 EMC Symposium Record
17. L.M. Kackson. Small models yield big results. NARTE News, Volume 11, April-June 1993,
Number 2.
11
Printed Circuit Boards
11.l INTRODUCTION
One of the major reasons equipment fails radiated emission requirements is radiation from digital
signals, either directly from the PCB or from PCB-sourced common-mode noise voltage driving
attached cables. Even when equipment is contained in a totally shielded enclosure, noise voltage
generated across a PCB to which unshielded and unfiltered interface cables are connected can
result in a sufficiently high noise current to fail radiated emission requirements. In extreme
cases PCB-generated noise has resulted in equipment failure of commercial radiated emission
requirements with shielded cables connected to a PCB metal faceplate, which in turn was con-
nected to a shielded enclosure. If the radiated emission requirements are the stringent MIL-
STD-461 or DO-160, the use of a shielded enclosure is almost mandatory.
When a piece of digital electronic equipment, such as a notebook computer, contains a
wireless with an antenna anywhere from 2 cm to 20 cm from the PCB, then, although a PCB
with a low-emission layout is a good starting point, it may not beenough to avoiddesensitization
or in-band spurious response in the wireless.
The major source of radiation from PCBs and cables is not differential-mode current but
common-mode current, for, depending on the geometry, the radiation due to several microamps
of common-mode current can be as high as several milliamps of D/M current.
Some experts on PCB layout might say that good PCB layout is easy. This may or may
not be true, however, with the use of ever-faster PCs and PS fast logic; manufacturers have to
goto ever-greater lengths to meet EM1 requirements. The need for new techniques in PCB
layout becomes more important in reducing radiation. That being said, a PCB with the best
possible layout can fail due to a single LSI chip from which the level of radiation exceeds
emission limits or requirements.
Some other factors that affect PCB radiation includethemethod by whichthe power
supply connection is made to the PCB; PCB-to-PCB or PCB-to-motherboard/backplane ground-
ing; the proximity to adjacent structures (grounded or ungrounded), the electrical connection to
ground, and the presence and type of shields. All of these topics are discussed in the following
sections.
11.2. PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION FROM PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

It is the current flow in the signal return connection (PCB track or ground plane), due to both
displacement current between the signal path and return path and theload current, which devel-
ops a voltage in the impedance of the return. This voltage can generate a C/M current, which
is the prime source of radiation from the PCB and any attached connection. The displacement
current flows as the capacitance of the line is charged and discharged; thus displacement current
is nonuniform, with a maximum at the source end of the line and zero at the load end. Displace-
603
684 Chapter 11
ment current, and the resultant C/M current on the line, dueto the proximity of some conductive
structure is more difficult to predict, although Ref. 2 does describe a technique. In predicting
the radiated emissions from a PCB track, the voltage drop in either signal/power return connec-
tions, the typical magnitude of the current spikes, and the impedanceof the path must be known
as well as the displacement current down the line and to adjacent structures.
That radiation is typically increased with the attachmentof a cable on which no differential
signal flows and that is connected only to ground is a puzzle to many engineers. Section 7.6.3. l
describes the mechanism in more detail, but briefly: when C/M current exists on a conductive
structure (PCB tracks) and a conductor is connected to the structure, the C/M current flows on
the attached conductor. Figure l 1 .l illustrates how the C/M current continues to flow on the
cable. At frequencies where the length of the attached conductor is less than a wavelength, the
radiation increases with frequency until the cable is approximately half a wavelength in length.
When the cable becomes electrically long (longer than a wavelength), the radiation from the
cable tends to decrease. Attaching a cable to a PCB ground increases the radiation effectiveness
of the source structure at low frequency. At high frequency where the cable, or PCB, iselectri-
cally long, the current flow on the structure changes phase down its length, and the cable may
be modeled as a series of infinitesimal current sources, some of which are wholly or partially
out of phase. The most likely explanation for the constant orreduced radiation at high frequency
is that the composite field from the cable is the sum of the fields from the infinitesimal current
sources, which interfere. In Section 7.6.3.1 it was shown that 15.7 pA flowing on an attached
cable at 21 MHz results in the same E field as 1.26 mA of differential current flowing in a
small loop. Because C/M current is so often the predominant cause of radiated emissions, EMC
engineers tend to ignore the D/M current as a source, just as design engineers ignore the C/M
current contribution. However, if a large loop is formed, then the D/M-current-generated emis-
sions can predominate. For example, if not all the differential mode current flows on the return
conductor but some leakage current flows on a ground, a large loop may be formed. Adding a
complete shield around a small loop, or a PCB, will eliminate the induction of C/M current on
theattached cable, assuming the cable is connected to the shield. If the cable is connected
PCB Tracks
Figure 11.l PCB tracks with C/M current flowing on an attached cable.
Printed Circuit Boards 685
through a hole in the shield, then cable C/M currents are often higher than without the shield,
due to increased displacement current between the inside of the shield and the loop, or PCB.
Likewise, if the shield is only partial around the loop,or PCB,then the C/M current can increase.
Reference2 describes a method of analyzingamicrostrip PCB (signaltrace above a
ground plane) attached to a shielded enclosure. When the results of the prediction are compared
to the test results in Ref. 1, scaled to account for the different dimensions of the PCB, the results
are extremely close. For example, the radiation from the microstrip is computed at 47.7 dBpV/
m and measured at 48.5 dBpV/m,an uncharacteristically high correlation of 0.8 dB. In contrast,
one of the computer programs described in Section 11.9 predicts a massive 28 dB higher level
of radiation from the same PCB layout as described in Ref. 2.
The impedance of a ground trace or ground plane was examined in Section 5.1.2, with
calculations based on NBS inductance formulas. Reference 3 introduces the concept of partial
inductance and other techniques to describe more accurately the ground return path impedance.
In a complex PCB layout, many ICs are changing state simultaneously, drawingcurrent out of
the closest decoupling capacitor and returning it in the ground return path to the capacitor. In
addition, digital signal and clock currents flow on traces between ICs and return in the ground
return path beneath the traces. Large voltage drops occur in the ground impedance due to these
switching currents, which generateC/M currentsacross the boardand out on any attached cables.
Figure 1 1.19 illustrates the generation of C/M voltage across a PCB ground plane. Because of
theproximity of groundedstructures,connection of onePCBtoanotherPCBor to a
motherboard/back plane or to a power supply, the C/M current is further enhanced. When the
load on a microstrip PCB trace is removed and the configuration is a signal trace above a ground
plane, open circuit at the load end, then the radiation reduces at low frequency but is the same
or higher at high frequency. This effect is discussed in more detail in Section 1 1.3 but is used
here to illustrate the importance of the displacement current alone in generating emissions.
The importance of a short and low impedance ground path is discussed in Section 11.6.
Certain PCB layouts have been described as low-emission types. To enable a comparison
between the different types of layout and different logic families and to test the validity of the
“good” layoutthetestsdescribed in Ref. 1 wereconducted. The results of thesetestsare
summarized in Section 11.3.
11.3. LOW-LEVELRADIATION PCB LAYOUT

11.3.1. Test Data, Layout Comparison, and Recommendations
The differentPCBlayoutsdescribed in thissectionweretested as described in Ref. 1. The
shielded-room tests were conducted in a 20’ X 20‘ X 8’-high shielded room in which absorber
loads were placed at strategic locations
in the room to smooth out the potentially large fluctuation
in measured field in the room due to room resonances. All measurements in the room were
made with the antenna at either l-m distance from thetrack on the PCB or at 0.55 m. The close
proximity of the antenna was required to measure the low levels of radiation from some of the
PCB configurations. Because of the 0.5 m proximity of the PCB from the shielded room ceiling,
a reflection of the PCB appears in the ceiling, as described in Ref. 1. The open-field measure-
ments were made at either 1 m or, when a comparison to emission requirements was required,
at 10 m.
The example PCB is 22 cm long and 14 cm wide. The thickness of the substrate is 1.6
mm, and the width of the track is 0.7 mm, with an 18-cm length. The track is 4 cm from the
front (22-cm) edge and 10 cm from the rear edge. The PCB substrate material is glass epoxy
type FR4(G10) that has a relative permittivity of 5-5.6 at 10 MHz and 4.7-5.2 at 25 MHz.
686 Chapter 11
Reduction in dB
PCB C o n f w Number
Microstrip #l 20 200 -
2ooh4Hz 1OOoMHz
OdB OdB
(Reference)
Figure 11.2a Microstrip, #l, no cable.
Although modem PCBs use much thinner tracks and the distance between tracks or between a
track and the ground plane is much less, the general comparison between different PCB layouts
remains valid.
The transmission-line configuration (#2) in which the signal track is located on the top
of the PCB and the return on the bottom of the PCB is shown in Figure 11.2b. With this configu-
ration, differential-mode currents tend to result in opposing magnetic fields. With the tracks
located one on top of the other, as shown in Figure 11.2b, a vertical electric field is generated
by the voltage difference between the two tracks, which we shall refer to as E-theta, and a
horizontal field, which we shall refer to as E-phi, is generated down the length of the tracks.
The transmission line tends to radiate in all directions, whereas the microstrip, configuration #l
(shown in figure 11.2a), restricts the radiation from behind the ground plane. This characteristic
directivity may be used when the ground plane is used as a partial shield either between tracks
on the PCB or between PCBs.
PCB-C Number
Two conductor transmission #2 20 - 200 -
line 2ooMHz 1OoOMHz
+32 dB +36 dB
'C """""""-""""~~
"~""""~""""""
"_
Figure 11.2b Two-conductor transmission line, #2, no cable.
PCB C o n f i q t i o r l Number B
-
Two tracks 1.6 mm apart #3 20 - 200 -
above an image plane m m 1OoOMHz
+7 to +and-
-12 dB
Figure 1 1 . 2 ~ Two tracks 1.6 mm apart above an image plane, #3, no cable.
PCB Configuration Number Relative performance

two tracks 15 mm apart, no #4 20 - 200 -
ground plane 200MHz 1OoOMHz
+ l 8 to
+36 dB
Figure 11.2d Two tracks 15 mm apart, no ground plane, #4,no cable.
It may appear that the open two-conductor transmission line would radiate at about the
same level as or slightly lower than a microstrip line, especially because the microstrip line
exhibits a lower impedance and the current flow is higher than that of the open transmission
line. However, in measurements on the 30-cm by 14-cm PCB, it was found that the microstrip
emission levels were up to 32 dB lower over the 20-200-MHz frequency range and up to 36
dB lower from 200 to 1000 MHz.
With a l-m-long cableattached to the signal return atthe load end, the microstrip radiation
was 45 dB lower from to 20200 MHzand 32 dB lower from 200 1000 to MHz, compared tothe
two-conductor transmission line. The major reason for this significant reduction is the reduced
inductance of the ground plane signal return path in the microstrip configuration. This reduced
inductance results in a lower voltage drop and a lower C/Mcurrent flow. The C/Mcurrent flow
is, typically, the major source of radiation. The C/Mcurrent is due tononsymmetry in the source
688 Chapter 11

1 cm wide partial stripline #5 20 - 200 -
with vias 13 mm apart. 200MHz 1OoOMHz
-8 to -3 to
-30dB -20dB
Figure 11.2e l-cm-wide partial stripline with vias 13 mm apart, #5, no cable.
Number Relativeperformance
PCB CO-
wideending
stripline 5 mm #6 20 - 200 -
plane
from edge of ground mMHZ 1OoOMHz
below -30to
microstrip +4dB
(below 600
MHz -12 to
-30 dB)
Figure 11.H Wide stripline ending 5 mm from edge of ground plane, #6,no cable.
or tothe proximity or attachment of a grounded structure (enclosure, backplane, motherboard,

adjacent PCB, power supply module, AC safety ground connection, etc.).
Adding a ground track in close proximity to the signal track has the effect of increasing
the current flow in signal and return and adding a ground track; configuration #13, shown
second
in Figure 11.21, increases the current flow further. However,due again to the reduction inreturn
path inductance, measurements on the #l3 PCB configuration compared to a microstrip, #l,
show a significant reduction in the level of radiation.
In the unlikely event that the magnitude of C/M current flow on the tracks is negligible,
i.e., a balanced source and no ground connection, adding the additional ground tracks either
increases the level of radiation or it remains constant. Capacitive (E field) crosstalk is typically
reduced between signal tracks by approximately 6 dB when a ground track is introduced between
Printed Circuit Boards
PCB Configuration Number Relative Derformance

Full stripline #7 20 - 200 -
mMHz 1OoOMHz
below -25 to
microstrip +21 dB
Figure 11.2g Full stripline, #7, no cable.
PCB Confirmration Number Relative Derfomance

Microstrip with 90 degree #8 20 - 200 -
bend 200MHz
1OOomz
-2 dB <52OI"lz
-1 to -6 dB
> 520 MHz

-6 dB to +6
dB
Figure 1l.2h Microstrip with 90" bend, #S, no cable.
two signal tracks and the signal and ground track widths are the same. With a wide intervening
ground track, the capacitive crosstalk may be reduced by as much as 12 dB.
Adding an image ground plane to a PCB, as shown in configuration #3, Figure 1 1.2c, in
which the two tracks are 1.6 mm apart, and configuration #12, figure 1 1.2k, in which the tracks
are 15 mm apart, can be very effective at reducing PCB radiation. The image plane is placed
beneath the signal and signal return tracksthat are both located in the same plane. To be effective,
the image planeshouldbeconnected to the signalreturn at theload end, preferablyatthe
location where a cable may be attached. In all measurements, the shielded enclosure containing
the source was connected to the image plane, in other measurements, the signal return was
connected to the image plane at both the load and source ends.
The emissions of the two tracks 1.6 mm apart over an image plane connected to the return,
configuration #3, were compared to the microstrip #l in upcoming Figure 11.4. With a cable
690 Chapter 11
PCB Confiwration Number

Microstrip with two 45 degree #9 20 - 200 -
bends 200MHz 1oooMHz
-2 dB c 520 MHz
-1 to -6 dB
> 520 MHz

-6 dB to +6
dB
Figure 11.21 Microstrip with two 4.5" bends, H,no cable.

Microsmp with interleaved #l0 20 - 200 -
image plane 2ooMHz 1OoOMHz
2 to 0 to
+20 dB +l2 dB
Interleaved image plane
Figure 11.2j Microstrip with interleaved image plane #lo, no cable.
connected to the ground plane of the microstrip #l or to the return at the load end of the image
plane the relative levels of radiation are very similar and both slightly higher and lower at
different frequencies. The microstrip configuration is often the most convenient and due to the
elimination of signal and power return tracks can reduce the number of layers in the PCB. If
the board contains a ground plane, then the ground plane can be used as the signal return path.
Adding a second connection of the image plane to the signal return, in configuration #3,
at the source end results in a further 3-25-dB reduction in radiation from 200 to 1000 MHz
and 0-28-dB reduction from 20 to 200 MHz, with attached cables. However, if this second
PCB CQ&U&ZI Number

Two tracks 15 mm apart #l2 20 - 200 -
above an image plane 200MHz 1OooMHz
0 to +7 to
-28 dB +l8 dB
Figure 11.2k Emissions from transmission line above an image plane, #12, no cable.

Microstrip with two adjacent #l3 20 - 200 -
grounded tracks 200MHz IOOOMHZ
OtO 0 to
-12 dB -20 dB
Figure 11.21 Emissions from microstrip with two adjacent grounded tracks,no cable.
connectionismade, then the configurationisalmostthe sameas the microstripwith one

grounded adjacent track.
In comparing configuration #12, in which the tracks are 15 mm apart and above an image
plane, the emissions with no attached cable were both 5 dB higher and 5 dB lower at specific
frequencies than microstrip # l . From 200 to 10,000 MHz, the emissions from # l 2 were 4-15
dB higher than from #l. With an attached cable, the emissions from # l 2 from 20 to 200 MHz
were 0-28 dB lower than from # l , and from 200 to IO00 MHz they were 7- 18 dB higher.
Figures 1 1.3- 1 1.10a compare the relative levels of radiation from the different PCB lay-
outs with frequency.
One example of placing an image plane between the signal track and the power/signal
ground plane is shown in Figure 1 1.2j, configuration #lo, in which the image plane is connected
692 Chapter 11
10 dB I
div.
START 20.00 MHz FREQUENCY STOP 200.0 MHz
Figure 11.3 Relative levels of emissions from PCB layouts # l , #2, and #5. No attached cable, 20-200
MHz.
a
b -
"f -
- --
-
tz -*ion YM
110 miemrtrip with h-d
1 3 two Wrr 1.8 mm
11 m h V i p
ground p h e
&ova I ground p h r
VBW 30 kHz
9- 113 miemtrip with two -nt ground Wrr RES Bw 100 kHz
10 dB I
div.

Figure 11.5 Relative levels of radiation from PCB layouts # l , #2, #5, and #12. No attached cable, 200-
1000 MHz.
ef -
-
-
a2
810
tmmmidonlin
m m p
h ~ m d p-
83 t w o trrlo. 1.8 mm gn &ow m murid p h .
WITH CABLE
9 813 m b M r l p with two -nt ground tnckr
10 dB I
div.
Figure 11.6 Relative level of emissions from PCB layouts #2, #3, #lo, and #13. With attached cable,
200- IO00 MHz.
694 Chapter 11
10 dB I
div.
Figure 11.7 Relative levels of emissions from PCB layouts # l , #2, #5, and #12. With attached cable,
20-200 MHz.
Figure 11.8 Relative levels of emissions from different stripline configurations, 20-200 MHz.
C .
h
-
l-
- ”
W
16
87
tun
1
DtripliM
an rtriplin. v h 13 mm
MI Dtripliru, ddltbd vlr rwnd .do. of PCB, 13 mm
HORIZONTAL
VBW 30 kHz
RES BW 10 kHz
10 dB Il
div.
- .. h
I
I\
#.A-\
\
‘h
- c-
1 . I FLOOR NOISE
START 200.00 MHz FREQUENCY

STOP 1000.0 MHz
Figure 11.9 Relative level of emissions from the full stripline with and without additional vias around
the periphery of the ground plane. Horizontally polarized, 200-1000 MHz.
VERTICAL
VBW 30 kHz
RES BW 30 kHz
10 dB
div.
START 200.00 MHz FREQUENCY

STOP 1000.0 MHz
Figure 11.lOa Relative levels of emissions from the full stripline #7 and #6, vertically polarized, 200-
1000 MHz.
696 Chapter 11
IO
Figure 11.lob Emissions from the configuration #2, with attached cable, at 10 m compared to the FCC
Class A limits.
Figure 1 1 . 1 0 ~ Emissions from configuration # l , with attached cable, at 10 m compared to the FCC
Class A limits.
to the signal return at the load end. The measured emissions from #l0 were much lower than
two tracks one above the other, #2; however, when compared to the microstrip, the emissions
were from 0 dB to I O dB higher from 20 to 200 MHz and from 0 dB to 12 dB higher from
200 MHz to 1000 MHz, with no attached cable. With an attached cable, the emissions from 20
to 200 MHz were 2-20 dB above #l, from 200 to 1000 MHz they were 0-12 dB above. There-
fore, if for some reason the ground plane cannot be used for the signal return path, adding an
interleaved image plane that is connected to the signal return at the load end is an improvement
over no ground plane at all but not as effective as the microstrip.
A comparison was made between the interleaved image plane, #lo, and #3 (the signal
track and a return track 1.6 mm apart, both above an image plane) with the return connected
to the image plane at the load end. The radiation from #IO without attached cable was 0-10
dB higher than #3 from 20 to 200 MHz and 0-20 dB higher from 200 to 1000 MHz. With an
attached cable, the radiation from #IO was 0-15 dB higher from 20 to 200 MHz and 3-25 dB
higher from 200MHz to 1000 MHz. One possible explanation for this effect is that the increased
mutual inductance between the signal and return of configuration #3 results in a lower return
inductance when compared to #IO, but this remains a hypothesis. Addingan image plane beneath
the ground plane of a microstrip does not result in a reduction in radiation. This is because of
the inductance and skin-depth effects, which ensure that all of the current in the ground plane
flows on the trace side of the plane and is concentrated under the signal trace. Thus, the image
plane is redundant when a ground plane exists on a PCB.
Adding a second poweror signal return plane, which is electrically connected to the lower
ground plane at a multiple of points, with the signal trace/s sandwiched between the two planes
results in a stripline configuration, which exhibits the lowest possible radiation from a PCB.
The disadvantage of this configuration is that no signal traces are available for testing purposes
except at IC pins or component leads.
When a full upper plane cannot be used, a partial upper plane of crosshatched traces
connected with vias to a lower signal or power ground plane shields very effectively and there-
by reduces radiation from specific signal or data bus trace/s. As described later, a partial upper
plane radiates significantly less than the full upper plane and so is the preferredlayoutto
use.
The method of connecting together the upper and lower ground planes was by the use of
vias (plated through holes) at intervals of 3.3 mm, 6.6 mm, or 13.2 mm. The PCBs were initially
manufactured with vias at 3.3-mm intervals. Then, during the process of testing, first one set
of vias was drilled through, removing the electrical connection and leaving vias at intervals of
6.6 mm, and then another set of vias was drilled through, leaving vias at 13.2-mm intervals.
Measurements were made on a 1-cm-wide upper plane covering the 18-cm-long microstrip con-
nected at intervals of either 3.3 mm, 6.6 mm, or 13 mm. Compared to the microstrip, the level
of radiation from the l-cm-wide stripline with vias connected every 13 mm and without an
attached cable is lower between 20 and 1000 MHz. With an attached cable, the stripline radiation
is 8-30 dB lower than the microstrip below 200 MHz and 3-20 dB lower between 200 and
1000 MHz. With the l-cm stripline vias at a distance of 6.6 mm apart compared to 3.3 mm,
the level of radiation was only9 dB higher at some frequencies. With vias 13 mm apart compared
to 6.6 mm, emissions at higher frequencies were only 4 dB higher at certain frequencies.
Figures 11.2a-1 compare the measured radiation from the 13 different PCB layouts to our
baseline microstrip layout without attached cable. All measurements were made with the 74F04
device as the source and with a 330-ohm surface-mount resistorin parallel with a 47-pF surface-
mount capacitor, representing from 8 to 10 =L-type loads.
Figure 1 1.10b shows the magnitude of the emissions from PCB configuration #2, which
is the two-conductor transmission line with the traces 1.6 mm apart, with an attached cable.
698 Chapter 11
The measurements were made on a 10-m OATS using a biconical/log-periodic antenna and are
compared to the FCC classA limits at 10 m inthe figure. Ascan be seen, the worst-case emission
from PCB #2 is 35 dB above the limit! Figure 1 1 . 1 0 ~shows the emissions from the #l PCB
configuration, which is the microstrip, with an attached cable. With the #l PCB, the worst-case
emission is approximately2 dB belowthe class Alimit, but even themicrostrip would be
approximately 7.5 dB above the class B limit. To reduce the low-frequency emissions, slowing
down the rise and fall times would be ineffectual. Moving the trace closer to the ground plane,
shortening the trace length, or using a stripline would be the step to take.
In a typical complex PCB layout, a number of clock and data lines are routed around the
board to which a number of ICs are connected. A worst-case prediction of radiation from a
board is achieved when the number of traces that carry clocks or signal lines changing state
synchronously are added together and are assumed to radiate coherently. The weighting to be
added to the radiation from a single trace to account for a multiplicity of traces is therefore 20
log N , where N is the number of traces on which clocks or signals change statesynchronously.
In numerous measurements on emissions from complex PCBs using a spectrum analyzer it has
been observed that, during successive sweeps, the spectral emission lines do not remain at a
constant level but change amplitudewith every sweep.In addition, the low-frequencycomponent
raises the apparent noise floor of the spectrum analyzer. The variation in the amplitude of the
spectralemissionlines,which is ameasure of thecomposite field from all sources at each
specific frequency, is attributable to the change in timing of the sources as they switch and, in a
consequent interference of fields from the multiplicity of sources, impinging on the measurement
antenna. If the spectrum analyzer is operated in the peak, or max, hold over several sweeps,
the maximum amplitudes are captured,and these are typically 10 dB higher than those measured
in a single sweep. This observation tends to validate the process of simply adding sources coher-
ently for a worst-case calculation.
If the traces on the PCB are significantly longer or shorter than the 18 cm used in the
measurements, then the measurements can be scaled accordingly, at least for frequencies below
that at which the trace equals a wavelength. Therefore, to compensate the measurements for
trace length, add 20 log /IO.18 m, where 1 = trace length in meters, to the emission measurement
made on the PCB layout of interest. On signal trace and return configurations, such as #2 and
#14, the distance between the track and return affects the magnitudeof the radiation. A compen-
sation in the measurements of #2 can be made if the actual track and return distance is greater
or less than 1.6 mm or greater or less than 15 mm. The approximate compensation to the mea-
surements is 10 log dlld2, where d l is the actual distance between the tracks and d2 is either
the 1.6 mm of configuration #2 or the 15 mm of configuration #4.
The approximate correction for clock frequencies other than 10 MHz is given by 20 log
f(MHz)/lO, which is added to the measured emissions at 10 MHz. For example, if the clock
frequency is 1 MHz, then -20dB is added to the emissions at 10 MHz and above. If the clock
frequency is 100 MHz, then 20 dB is added to the emissions at 100 MHz and above but below
the frequency at which the track length equals a wavelength.
Adding an isolated image plane above a microstrip groundplane increases emissions at
resonant frequencies and decreases emissions at nonresonant frequencies. Connecting the image
plane to the microstrip ground plane at only two locations does not reduce radiation but merely
shifts the resonant and antiresonant frequencies. Therefore, do nor add an image plane above
a microstrip groundplane; instead, make a stripline configuration by connecting the upper plane
around its edges to the lower ground plane.
Although decreasing the distance between signal and return traces reduces the impedance
of the line, any increase in current is more than compensated for in a reduction in radiation as
a result of the lower signal return inductance due to the increased mutual inductance between
the traces. As we have seen, decreasing the voltage drop in the signal return by decreasing its
inductance will reduce the potential C/M current and the radiation from the board, especially
when an interface signal cable return is connected to the board. The reductions in radiation
achieved by reducing the distance between the trace and the ground plane, or the return trace,
is almost a function of the decreased distance. For example, reducing the distance by a factor
of ]/l33 (18 dB) results in an average reduction in radiation of 16 dB, based on measurements.
A summary of the layouts described and some further general guidelines that may be
useful in reducing PCB radiation follow.
a. The use of high-speed logic, including high-speed CMOS, in a “poor” PCB layout
(not microstrip, image plane, or stripline, with long signal/power traces and returns
at some distance from the source) will almost certainly failthe majority of commercial
EM1 radiated emission requirements unless contained in a shielded enclosure.
b. Use of the microstrip, stripline, or image plane layout will reduce radiation from the
PCB, both with and without an attached cable, and an unshielded PCB may meet
EM1 requirements. However, if a common-mode current exists between the ground
plane on a low-emission type of PCB layout and a second PCB ground plane or a
safety ground or any conductive structure, such as a power supply shieldedenclosure,
the radiation from the low-level-emission type of layout may be no lower than that
of a high level type of layout. This effect is discussed in Section 11.6.
11.3.2. Practical PCB Layout

The PCB layouts tested in Section 1 I .3.1 were extremely simple, however, the test results and
the lessons learned from these results can be applied to the more complex PCB layouts used
in practice. For example, the effectiveness of a solid power/signal ground plane in reducing
emissions when compared to a PCB with only signal and power traces has been extensively
demonstrated in practical layouts. As discussed in Section 1 1.6.2, a ground plane must be solid
directly under all data and signal traces. In a complex board, traces run all around the board
on multiple layers, and this means that the complete board area must be covered in a solid
ground plane that is most conveniently used for digital power and digital signal return. See
Section 11.6.2 to find out what constitutes a “good” ground plane. The closer the “hot” traces
(traces that carry digital signals and clocks with fast edges over a distance greater than 25 mm)
are to the ground plane, the lower the emissions. Therefore route all high-speed, long tracks on
the layer closest to the ground plane. These hot tracks can be on the layer on either side of the
ground plane when this is buried. Tracks carrying less active signals or that are short can be
carried on tracks further away from the ground plane. Keep hot tracks as short as possible and
include series resistors at the source end to increase the rise and fall times. Choose buffered
input devices to reduce the load on the bus or clock. Where possible, run clocks and data buses
in localized striplines inwhich the edges of the upper ground planeis tacked to the lower ground
plane, with vias a maximum of 13 mm apart (closer if possible). This configuration is illustrated
in Figure 11 .l la. Do not extend the upper ground plane beyond the row of vias. If possible
extend the stripline over the whole area of the board with the vias located at the periphery of
the board, this is illustrated in Figure 11.1 lb.
A common error is to leave large gaps between the vias at locations around the edge of
the board. In this case the emissions are concentrated at these locations and some enhancement,
especially at high frequencies, may be seen. It is possible to use a power plane on one surface
of the board with the ground plane on the opposite surface of the board to form a stripline and
this is illustrated in Figure 11.1 IC. The two planes are connected together at RF by surface-
mount capacitors located at intervals no greater than 25 mm around the periphery of the board.
700 Chapter 11
hot b-acks
hot tracks hot tracks
Figure 11.ll a Locating hot tracks close to the ground plane and local stripline.
LIF’PER GROUND PLANE
LOW13R ( i R O I J N D PLANE
R o w of VIZIS R o w of wa.
around penphay around penphery
of board of board
Figure 11.l1b Overall ground plane stripline.
A capacitively coupled stripline is not as effective as a stripline formed by two ground planes
connected directly together, and ifthe capacitors are greater than 25 mm apart, any benefitover
a microstrip is greatly reduced. If tracks used for low-level signals such as analog, video, or
control are present on the board, then these signal tracks may be located on the outside of the
stripline ground planes to reduce crosstalk between the digital signals and these low level signals.
This configuration is illustrated in Figure 11.1Id. However, if these low-level signals reference
a noisy ground, namely, the inner surface of the stripliie digital ground plane, then emissions
from these tracks may be high, due to common-mode noise. If this is a potential problem and
the possibility of crosstalk is real, then the solution is to construct an inner stripline dedicated
,
Row of vins GROUND PLANE Row of V m s
around p e r i p h q around periphay
of b o l d of board
Figure 11.l1C Stripline formed by the power plane and the ground plane.
Figure 11.lI d Low-level-signal tracks located outside of the stripline to reduce crosstalk.
Row of w a y
around penphay
of board
Figure 11.ll e Localized stripline to contain low-level-signal tracks.
to the low-level-signaltracks and signal return withthe associated ICs located directly over this
area; this solution is illustrated in Figure 11.1le.
One reported problem with the stripline configuration is increased radiation from the verti-
cal vias passing through the ground plane. However, this problem is purely anecdotal and may
simply have been observed because of the very low emissions from the well-designed and imple-
mented stripline PCB configuration.
One observation that has been made in measurements on numerous boards is that emis-
sions from ICs and their pins can be sufficiently high for the board to fail commercial require-
ments despite the very best possible PCB layout. In microstrip layouts in which the ground
plane is imbedded, add a small section of ground plane directly under the IC connected by vias
to the underlying ground plane. This configuration is illustrated in Figure 11.1If. If the IC has
a metal lid, connection of the lid to the ground plane at least at the four comers can reduce
emissions, especially at low frequencies. Localshielding of the IC, as discussed in Section 11.7,
in the microstrip layouts in which the ground plane is imbedded has the problem of increased
radiation from the tracks exiting the shield. If a stripline is used with two outer ground planes,
then the connections to the IC pins can be made with vias under the shield to the inner layers.
The shield can thenbe contacted around its periphery to the ground plane, and this configuration
is extremely effective. If it saves the use of a metalor conductively coated equipmentenclosure,
this local shield can be very cost effective.
An image plane may be constructed from aluminum or copper foil enclosed in a noncon-
ductive envelope. When this insulated foil is placed in close proximity to either side of a PCB
that contains "hot" traces or ICs that radiate at a highlevel, the level of radiation canbe reduced
from that side of the board. When the foil can be wrapped around one edge of the PCB and
cover both sides of the PCB, radiation can be reduced from both sides of the PCB. However,
the worst-case maximum emissions from the PCB when measured on an OATS, with the PCB
rotated through 360" and with the antenna raised and lowered, may not be reduced. This is
because the image plane changes the radiation pattern from the PCB and the level of emissions
Ground plane
hot tracks hot tracks
Figure 11.l If Localized ground plane under the IC.

702 Chapter 11
from the gaps at the edge of the PCB may not be reduced, but may even increase at some
frequencies.
In one case, PCB-sourced emissions coupled to the antenna of a wireless plugged into
the PCMCIA slot of the equipment. The wireless was desensitized due to the broadband noise
(typically from data or switching-power supplies) and the harmonics from clocks injected into
the antenna. With an image plane covering both sides of a PCB and wrapped around the edge
of the PCB facing the antenna, a reduction was seen in the very localized coupling between the
PCB and the antenna, and the wireless reception was improved. The overall radiation from the
PCB due to the “wrap-around” image plane was not, however, greatly reduced.
The step-by-step design and the rules to follow in laying out a PCB follow.
1. Evaluate the EMC requirements placed on a PCB or PCBs. That is, what require-
ments have to be met? Is crosstalk or common ground impedance coupling to sensi-
tive circuits a potential problem? Is the PCB housed in a conductive enclosure? And
is this, or can it be made into,an effective shield? Decidehow much emission reduc-
tion at source is required. For example, a high-speed PCB with many LSI devices
contained in a nonconductive enclosure with attached signal or power cablesrequires
the maximum possible level of source reduction by “good” circuit design and PCB
layout. At the extreme, use an LCR circuit to make the clock as close to a sinewave
as possible.
2 . Locate ICs so that the interconnects are as short as possible. Locate oscillators as
close as possible to ICs that use the clock and as far away from signal interface and
low-level-signal ICs and tracks as feasible.
3 . Minimize path lengths between sources and loads and between loads sharing a com-
mon clock or bus, or use shielded stripline over these connections.
4. If microstrip or stripline configurations cannot be used, keep signal and return tracks
as close together as feasible.
5. Reduce the drive current on tracks by minimizing loading, typically by the use of
buffers at the load end or series resistance.
6. Use the slowest logic possible to achieve the required performance.
7. Increase the decoupling to one capacitor per IC when the ICs are not located close
together. Use surface-mount capacitors for decoupling.
8. Choose the location of common ground and chassis ground and isolation of grounds
in accordance with the guidelines of Section 11.6.2.
9. Often, placing a low-value capacitor (0.01-0.1 pF) inparallelwith a high-value
capacitor (1-10 pF) is effective. However, if the capacitors leads are not very short,
nothing may be gained.
10. Choose the grounding scheme from Section 11.6.2 that will reduce radiation from
attached cables.
11. Reduce the number of signal tracks that change state simultaneously.
12. If power and return tracks are the source of radiation, add inductors between the
power supply and the ICs and increase the number of decoupling capacitors.
13. After the initial layout, use a viewer, such as GerbTool or a Gerber viewer available
on the Internet, to trace the routing and component placing, to ensure that none of
the design rules have been violated.
If radiation from interface cable predominates and the PCB is located in an enclosure,
the multiple connection of the power/signal ground plane to chassis will reduce common-mode
noise voltage developed across the board. Unfortunately, the RF current flow in the enclosure
will increase, radiation from seams and apertures is likely to increase, and the net gain may be
zero with a poorly shielded enclosure.
It has been recommended that the width of the power plane be made smaller than the
ground plane to reduce fringing fields. Although the mechanism for the reduction is unclear,
in measurements on a full stripline versus the I-cm-wide stripline, the full-stripline radiation
was up to 32 dB higher than the I-cm stripline above 350 MHz. By adding additional vias at
1 3 - m intervals around the periphery of the full stripline, the radiation can be reduced to just
below that of the 1-cm stripline. Therefore, use the partial stripline over clocks and data buses
wherever possible, and do not extend power planes over an area larger than the ground plane.
When the radiation of a PCB has been drastically reduced, for example, by use of the shielded
stripline, the predominant source may be the ICs themselves.
Although effective at reducing current loop area, effective decoupling around an IC can
increase the magnitude of current spike flowing in the IC as it switches. Inclusion of a resistor
or a ferrite bead between the decoupling of the IC and the power pin will reduce the current
spike at the expense of increased bounce in the supply voltage (see Fig. 5.14). Femte beads
have also been used on power return pins, but this will inherently result in a higher ground
bounce voltage.
Use ICs with the minimum number of internal devices changing state simultaneously.
When using a custom device, ensure a layout with minimum internal path lengths and
one that reduces common-mode noise generation on the input and output pins. Series resistance
may be incorporated within the device, in series with the supply, to limit switching current. The
value of the resistor will depend on the tolerance of the device to supply bounce.
11.3.3 High-Frequency (1 GHz and Above) Radiation from PCBs
As clock speeds increase, along with the slew rate of the logic, high-frequency PCB radiation
also increases. At high frequency, microstrip or other transmission-line configurations are typi-
cally used, with the line terminated in its characteristic impedance 2,. At these high microwave
frequencies, radiation from microstrip discontinuities and lines becomes significant when not
masked by C/M current flow-generated radiation. The measured results presented in the data
of Section 11.3.I are 60 dB above predicted results for purely differential-mode current radiation
at 1 GHz, so even at this high frequency the C/M current-contributed radiation cannot be
ignored! However, as the structure becomes electrically long and the frequencies of interest are
above 1 GHz, the differential-mode current radiation should begin to dominate. Any impedance
mismatch at the end of a line will form a discontinuity and increase radiation. A high-impedance
termination relative to 2, will radiate more effectively than a low impedance one, approximately
2.5-19 dB higher. In addition, at higher frequencies, the higher the track above the ground
plane, the higher is the radiation. For example, increasing the frequency or the height of the
track above the ground plane by a factor of 10 (20 dB) increases the radiated power by a factor
of 100 (40 dB) and the E field by 20 dB. The higher the permittivity of the substrate, the lower
the impedance of the transmission line and the higher the radiation. Using the many equations
for radiation from discontinuities in a microstrip based on the signal current flow invariably
results in predicted levels of E field that are much higher than measured from typical printed
circuit boards.
It has often been recommended not to daisy-chain the logic connections to a clock but to
fan out to clocks, as shown in Figure 11.12. At low frequency and when the load is not matched
to the line, this arrangement has not been demonstrated to be advantageous. However, with
matched transmission lines, the fan-out arrangement should be used.
704 Chapter 11
Figure 11.l 2 Daisy-chain vs. fan-out of clock or high-speed data.
Right-anglebendsexhibitincreasedcapacitance,whichrepresents a discontinuityand
increased radiation. Use of a 45" bend in a microstrip line, as shown in Figure 1 1.13, will reduce
radiation at very high frequency. However, for 74F, 74AS, 74S, 74, 74C, 74HC, and ECLlOO
or similar-speed devices, any reduction in radiation as a result of using the 45" bend is insignifi-
cant, and in measurements was masked by the radiation from the impedance mismatch at the
end of the line and the C/M current-contributed radiation from the track.
Figure 11.l 3 Forty-five degrcc bcnd in a PCB trace.

The theoretical difference in either horizontally or vertically polarized radiation from a

straight microstrip compared to one with a 90" bend is +/-6 dB at high frequency, i.e., a mean
difference of 0 dB. The slight reduction in measured radiation between the 90" bend and the
straight microstrip was seen in the horizontal E field and is almost certainly due to the decreased
length of the track due to the bend.
The stripline PCB configuration should be used wherever practical. If stripline cannot be
used, one technique for reducing radiation from a microstrip is to use differential signals for
long computer clock runs on the board. The two signal traces should be of exactly the same
length and be located as close together as allowed. The loads at the far end of the differential
lines must be well matched, and thisis easier when ECL, ECLlite, or ECLinPsis used. Common-
mode currents can be reducedby running both traces through a PCB-mounted balun. But beware:
if the connections to and from the balun are too long, these may radiate more than if the balun
is not employed. The FCC requires that radiation from digital devices (unintentional radiators)
be measured above 1 GHz to the fifth harmonic of the highest fundamental frequency or to 40
GHz, whichever is lower. Many fiber-optic drivers operate at 2.5 GHz or higher, and measure-
ments up to 25 GHz must be made. When designing a laser driver for fiber optics, the layout,
shielding, grounding, and filtering must be at the same level as any medium-power RF circuit.
This typically means a filtered differential input to the driver IC, which is contained inside a
completely shielded enclosure mounted on the PCB. The enclosure must contact themetal hous-
ing of the laser. The power to the laser driver must be well filtered over the 2.5-25-GHz fre-
quency range, and here a feedthrough placed in one wall of the shielded enclosure is almost
mandatory.
Although radiation from a PCB at gigahertz frequencies should be reduced by placing
microwave absorber (available in thin sheets of loaded rubber) on the PCB surface or over
ICs, practical experience has shown this to be ineffective. However, low-frequency solid ferrite
material used to fill apertures in heatsinks and enclosures has been effective.
11.4. COMPARISON OF LOGIC TYPES

As clock and data rates are pushed ever higher, the speed of logic used in digital equipment
hasincreased. When standard CMOS logic is used exclusively on a PCB, we seldom see a
problem with meeting Class A and even Class B radiated emission requirements, unless the
designer has done a very poor job of laying out the board. This was not the case with standard
74 type TTL ICs, with which some care had to be exercised to meet Class A requirements.
With the advent of high-speed CMOS and higher-speed bipolar devices, much greater care has
to be taken in the PCB layout, circuit level reduction, and possibly shielding,to reduce emissions
to acceptable levels.
The concern has been expressed that use of these new high-speed logic types will result
in significant radiation in the 1 - IO-GHz frequency range, which the FCC covers in its limits.
The highest-speed device that was tested was the ECLinPS device, with a rise and a fall time
of between 0.275 ns and 0.6 ns. The ECLinPS device did not radiate levels at high frequency
above those of the 74F device when the fundamental frequency was low (10 MHz). This is not
surprising, for the criteria for high-frequency radiation when the fundamental clock frequency
is low is the rate of change of voltage and current, i.e. the slew rate, and not the rise and fall
time alone. As discussed later, the slew rate of the ECLinPS device is very similar to the slew
rate of the 74F04 device.
Figure 11.14 illustrates the voltage amplitude in the frequency domain (the spectral emis-
sion lines) generated by the IO-MHz clock measured across a 50-ohm load at the output of the
ECLinPS device. As the speedof the device increases, so does the maximum frequency at which
706 Chapter l1
MKR 9 MHz
ATTEN 10 dB 2 . 2 0 dBm
fP RE
10 dB/
START 0 Hz STOP 1500 MHz

RES BW 300 kHz VBW 100 kHz SWP 100 meec
Flgure 11.14 ECLinPS device frequency-domain voltage measured into a 5042 load.
the device can be used. The maximum frequency of the “ECLinPS Lite” family is 2.2 GHz
for flip-flops and 1.4 GHz for buffers with a minimumrise and fall time of 0. l ns. With a 1.4-
GHz fundamental and a0.1 ns rise and fall time, the first breakpoint in the envelope of spectral
emission lines, as shown in Figure 3.5, is at l/& = 88 MHz, where d is the pulse width (3.6
ns). After the firstbreakpoint, the amplitudeof the spectral emission lines reduces as a function
of 20 dB per decade of increasing frequency. Above the second breakpoint of 3.18 GHz, given
by 1 h f n the amplitude reduces as a function of 40 dB per decade of frequency.
If the 74F04 and 74AS04 devices had been tested close to their maximum frequencies of
124 MHz, say, at 120 MHz, the levels of emission would have been higherat the same frequency
(than the emission from a 10-MHz clock). For example, at a frequency of 360 MHz (the third
harmonic of the 120-MHz clock), the 120”Hz clock emission would be 25 dB higher than
emission from the 10-MHz clock and 21 dB higher at 1080 MHz (the 9th harmonic), assuming
the rise and fall times stay constant.
If the ECLinPS device had been operated at a 450-MHz clock frequency instead of 10
MHz, the emission levels at 2.25 GHz would have been approximately 33 dB higher. The in-
crease in emissions corresponds closely to the increase in clock frequency, i.e., from 10 MHz
to 120 MHz = 21 dB and from 10 MHz to 450 MHz = 33 dB. With the use of the microstrip
transmission-line PCB configuration and a 10-MHz clock, none of the logic types resulted in
radiation above 1200 MHz, at a level above the noise floor of the measurement system, even
with the antenna located0.55 m from the PCB and withan attached cable on the PCB. Standard
CMOS could not be included in the measurements due to an upper frequency limit below the
Table 11.1 Upper Frequency Limits

of Logic Families
Logic family Frequency limit
ECLinPS 1200 MHz
14F 125 MHz
14AS 125 MHz
74s 95 MHz
74HCT 50 MHz
74ALS 35 MHz
74LS 33 MHz
74 24 MHz
10-MHz clock used in the test setup. Table 11.1 illustrates the upper frequency limits of the
logic families tested.
The purpose of measuring the radiation from the microstrip PCB configuration with differ-
ent logic families was twofold. With a comparison available between the 74F04 device, used
in all the comparative measurements made on PCB layouts, and other logic types, the radiated
emissions from the PCB layouts can be scaled for the other devices. In addition, if a choice
was available, the device with the lowest emission level and the required upper frequency limit
could be selected. For example, standard TTL is no longer a popular logic family, and in the
future it may well be phased out. However, if the typical upper frequency limit of 25 MHz, 13-
ns rise and 6-11s fall times, with propagation delays of 30 ns, are acceptable, then TTL is the
best bet, next to standard CMOS, for reduced high-frequency radiation.
The devices tested were all hex inverters, with the exception of the MC lOOEl11 ECLinPS
device, which was a 1:9 differential clock driver. The hex inverters were the 74F04, 74AS04,
7404, 74LS04, 74ALS04, 74HCT04, and 74304 devices. The load for the 74XXXO4 devices
was a 330-ohm resistor in parallel with a 47-pF capacitor, the same load as used in the PCB
radiation measurements. This load is considered typical by many IC manufactures and is often
used as the test load. The capacitance of 47 pF corresponds to a fan-out of between 8 and 10. The
ECLinPS device was tested with a 47-ohm resistor in parallel with a 4-pF capacitor. According to
the manufacturer, Motorola, “The input loading capacitance of the device typically measures
1.5 pF and is virtually independent of input fan-out as the device capacitance is less than 5%
of the total.” The ECLinPS device was also tested with a load of 56 ohms, which matches the
characteristic impedance of the microstrip PCB used in the test. The radiation from the ECLinPS
with the 47-ohm and 4-pF capacitor load was up to 20 dB higher than with the purely resistive
load, and it is the capacitive and resistive load results that are presented here.
The 74AS04 device was also tested over the 200-1000-MHz frequency range with differ-
ent loads. The radiation from the 74AS04 loaded with a 330-ohm resistor, when compared to
the standard 330-ohm resistor in parallel with a 47-pF load, is both higher and lower at different
frequencies. Open circuit, the 74AS04 radiation is up to 10 dB lower, but with a 68-ohm load
it is up to 27 dB lower. The 68-ohm load is an invalid load but illustrates the importance of
the amplitude of the output waveform, which reduces considerably with the 68-ohm load, in
determining both the low-frequency radiation and the slew rate and, therefore, the high-
frequency radiation.
The maximum-voltage amplitude at the fundamental clock frequency determines the
low-frequency level of emissions, and the slew rate determines the high-frequency emissions.
708 Chapter 11
Table 11.2 MaximumVoltageExcursion

family Logic v, V
74F 6.0 3.8
74AS 6.5 3.58
74HCT
5.08 7.0
14ALS04 5.5 3.88
7404 5.5 3.28
74LS
3.8 5.2
ECLinPS
0.76 0.76
Table 11.2 plots the maximum voltage excursion during the falling edge of the pulse, V,, and
the voltage measured after the settling time, V .
Figure 11.15 compares the low-frequency, 20-200-MHz, radiated emissions from the mi-
crostrip PCB with different logic types. The highest-level emissions are from the 74HCT04
device, and this is to be expected because the pulse amplitude is 5.8 V, also the highest. Likewise,
the ECLinPS exhibits the lowest levelof low-frequency emissions and thelowest voltage excur-
sion.
Table 11.3 shows the rise and fall times over a 3” excursion during the transition. The
more common definition of rise and fall times is the time measured between 20% of the voltage
transition and 80% of the voltage transition. Because the voltage transitions varied so greatly
from deviceto device, the traditional measureof the rise and fall timewill have little relationship
Figure 11.l 5 Comparison of low-frequency emissions from the different logic types in a microstrip
PCB.
Table 11.3 RiscandFall Times

Slew rate
family
Logic ti (ns) t, (ns) (Vlns)
74F04 3.01 4.0 1.o
74AS04 3.9 3.28 0.9
7404 4.36 10.6 0.68
74LS04 8.67 4.45 0.67
74ALS04 3.5 7.27 0.85
74HCT04 2.6 3.29 1.15
74804 3.05 5.0 0.98
ECLinPS 5 0.85
to the voltage and current frequency component generated by the pulse. Since the ECLinPS
device maximum excursion is 0.76 V, only the slew rate for this device is shown in Table 1 1.3.
Even the voltage slew rate does not adequately describe the high-frequency components gener-
ated by the pulse, because the amplitude of the current pulse plays an important role. For exam-
ple, the voltage amplitude of the emission at 770 MHz from the ECLinPS device is 1.92 mV,
which is lower than that from the 74F04 device at 3.7 mV, whereas the current amplitude from
the ECLinPS device at 770 MHz is slightly higher, at 7.9 mA, compared to the 7.3 mA of the
74F04 device.
Figures 1 1.16- l 1.17 show the high-frequency emissions from the different logic types.
As expected, the correlation between high slew rate and high-level emissions is good, with the
10 dB I
div.
Figure 11.16 Comparison of high-frequency emissions from thedifferentlogictypes in a microstrip

PCB.
710 11 Chapter
VBW 30 kHz
RES BW 100 kHz
10 dB
div.
Figure 11.17 Comparison of high-frequency emissions from thc different logic types in a microstrip
PCB.
exception of the 74HCT04 device, which has the highest slew rate but about the same level of
emissions as the 74S04, which has a slightly lower slew rate. For the lower-slew-rate devices,
such as the 7404, the 74LS04, and the 74ALS04, the emission levels are concomitantly lower.
The measured fall time over the standard 3-V excursion is used to determine the slew rate in
Table 1 1.3.
11.5. CIRCUIT-LEVELREDUCTIONTECHNIQUES
High current spikes flow in the logic signal and return interconnections as the output logic de-
vice changes state and charges/discharges the input capacitance of the load device and removes
the charge from either a baselemitter junction or a diode. During the transition, the load on
the output device is therefore predominantly capacitive and, depending on the geometry of the
interconnections, the logic type, and the frequency, the source of radiated emissions is typi-
cally a low impedance (i.e., a predominantly magnetic field source). The significance of a low-
impedance predominantly H field is discussed in Section 11.7 when examining the shielding
effectiveness of a conductive enclosure around a PCB. The current pulse is the predominant
source of emissions at frequencies less than approximately 200 MHz. However, emissions cre-
ated by the voltage transition should not be ignored in an EMC prediction, especially at high
frequency or when the load is a high impedance with low load capacitance. Even with an open
circuit at the farend of the PCB, displacement current flows due to the charging and discharging
of the capacitance betweenthe signal and return paths. The sourceof radiation is then predomi-
nantly E field, and it is typically the E field, which is specified and measured, in commercial
requirements.
Printed Boards 711
Measurements made ona microstrip PCB layout with either an open circuit at the far end
or a 330-ohm resistor in parallel with a 47-pF load showed a 10-38-dB increase in radiated
level for the microstrip with load below 137 MHz. However, above137 MHz, the O/C microstrip
radiation was from 0 dB to 15 dB higher than the microstrip with load, illustrating the importance
of the voltage-generated E field. Some of this increase with an open circuit may be attributable
to the decrease in rise and fall times of the unloaded 74F04 driver.
It is the current flow in the signal return connection (PCB track or ground plane), due to
both displacement current between the signal path and return path and the load current, that
develops a voltage in the impedance of the return. This voltage can generate a C/M current,
which is the prime source of radiation from the PCB and any attached connection.
Many of the measurements on PCB radiation described in this section were made with a
cable attached either to the ground plane or to the signal return track at the load end. Thus in
reducing the radiated emissions from a PCB track, the voltage drop in the signal/power return
connections or/and the magnitude of the current should be reduced.On an electrically long line,
use of the correct value of termination resistance will mask the peaks and troughs in emissions
at resonant and antiresonant frequencies. Although, the total magnitude of emissions tends to
increase. This may at first appear to be questionable, and it is correct to say that some of the
peak emissions due to resonance may decrease with a termination resistor.However, in a typical
microstrip transmission line with a 65-Q characteristic impedance, adding a 6 5 4 termination
resistor will increase the current flow in the line, especially at low frequency, where the typical
load impedance presented by the device is high. With an increase in current flow, the level of
radiation will increase, especially at transmission-line antiresonant frequencies.
If a trace on an existing PCB is found to be a major source of emission at a single or a
few frequencies, changing the termination resistance may reduce the problem frequencies, al-
though the emission amplitude at other frequencies often increases. For example, changing the
termination resistor from 700 ohms to 600 ohms resulted in a predicted 40-dB reduction in
radiated emissions around 300 MHz. This effect occurred with a track length of 51 cm, which
equals 1.5h at 300 MHz. The source was a 10-MHz clock with a 50% duty cycle and a IO-ns
rise time.
In most practical applications, the load on the line at frequencies as high as 300 MHz is
amuchlowerimpedancethan 600 ohms due to theICinputcapacitance. The only way to
increase the load impedance at high frequencies is to add series resistance or a series resistor/
capacitor combination, if the input characteristics of the logic type allow. One method effective
in reducing the magnitude of the current spike is to include series resistance at the output of
the driver circuit, as shown in Figure 1 1.18a. The series resistance is available in a number of
different values in a dual in-line package, which saves PCB space. For TTL circuits, the value
of the resistor must be limitedto 10 ohms or less. A ferrite, availableas a surface-mount compo-
nent, or other form of inductor will limit the magnitudeof switching current but tendsto resonate
and may degrade signal quality. A combination of damping resistance and inductor, as shown
in Figure 1 1.18c, may be the ideal solution.
Figure 11.18a Added resistance at the driver end.

712 Chapter 11
.......
....\ ... LOAD

CLOCK a
I ....... .
Figure 11.18b Added capacitance at either the load end (incorrect) or driver end (correct).
Do not add a capacitor ut the load end of CI clock or data signal track, because, although
this will increase the rise and fall times of the voltage step, the magnitude of the current pulse
will increase and so will the radiation below approximately 200 MHz. When using very high-
speed devices, tJt, < 2ns, the frequencies above 900 MHz will also be reduced by the addition
of a capacitor across the load, as long as the track is electrically short. Nevertheless, the correct
location for the capacitor remains at the source end with some series impedance between the
source and capacitor. The addition of a capacitor at the driver end without a series impedance
will increase the radiation from theICand may be counter-productive. These solutionsare
illustrated in Figures 11.18a, 11.18b, and 1 1 . 1 8 ~ .
The lower thefundamentalfrequency, the slower the edges can be made. In practical
terms, regardless of frequency, appreciable reduction in emissions can not be made lower than
the 4th harmonic of the fundamental. With present high-speed clocks, this reduction may not
be possible at a low-enough frequency. One possibility is to use an LCR network to generate
a clock pulse that approximates a sinewave. This solution will result in jitter at the output of
the device that uses the clock, and the solution is not practical in circuits susceptible to jitter.
It is also very difficult to develop a pure sinewave, for as the device that uses the clock changes
state, its input impedance changes and results in a step function in the sinewave. Despite this
effect, the sinewave clock can result in a reduction in the emissions at low harmonics of the
clock. In one instance, a device selling for $99.00 was contained in a plastic enclosure that had
to be sprayed with aconductive coating, at a cost of $20, to meet emission requirements. Chang-
ing the clock to a sinewave brought emissions to just below the limit without the need for a
shielded enclosure.
Another circuit-level technique for reducing radiated emissions measured by a spectrum
analyzer or receiver is to use a spread-spectrum, frequency-hopping, or frequency-wiggle tech-
nique. These frequency-shift techniques effectively broadband frequencies to reduce the mea-
sured emissions levels from clocks and data, at the fundamental and harmonics. The FCC, and
almost certainly other organizations,will accept these techniques in meeting radiated emissions
from equipment containing digital components. A second situation in which to implement a
spread-spectrum, frequency-hopping, or frequency-wiggle clock is in a computer in which a
radio is imbedded or into which a PCMIU card is plugged. The computer clocks and data will
Figure 11.18~ Added resistance and inductance at the driver end.

generate spurious responses (spurs) in the radio as a result of the power-line and data-line con-
ductednoiseand due to the radiated coupling to the radioantenna.Usingfrequency-sweep
techniques will move the spurious response out of the radio-tuned channel. And if this is swept
at a low-enough rate, then the reception of packets of error-free data is possible. In addition,
no one channel is denied to the user, which may be the case if a fixed spur happens to coincide
with the tuned channel. Even if the channel is not totally denied, the area of coverage area for
that channel can be severely limited. For more information on radio-induced EM1 see Section
5.3.3.4. If the clock is generated by a phased lock loop, then the computer can control the loop
and move spurs out of band in an intelligent fashion. One commercially available spread-spec-
trum clock is the IMISM530, manufactured by International Microcircuits, Milpitas, California.
This can reduce clock-relatedEM1 by up to 20 dB accordingthe to manufacturer. The IMISM530
applied to existing clock frequencies will modulate that frequency, centering on the input fre-
quency, or up to that frequency and can be used to generate multiples or fractions of that fre-
quency. The clock has the following characteristic:
Replicates and modulates externally applied signals

3.0-5.5-V operating supply range
14- 120-MHz selectable output frequencies
Output may be equal to a fraction of, or multiple of, input frequency
Will accept input frequencies of 14- 120-MHz
TTL-or CMOS-compatible outputs with 6-mA drive capability
20-pin SSOP, or “skinny dip” package
Frequency spreading with F,,,center frequency
Frequency spreading with F,, maximum frequency of spread
Compliant with all major CISC, RISC, and DSP processors
Low short-term jitter
Synchronous output enable
Power-down mode for low power consumption
Locks to externally. applied signal
Another source of spread spectrum clocks is Cypress, San Jose, California.

Matching the termination impedance to the characteristic impedance of a signal track is
often said to reduce the magnitude of radiated emissions. In fact, this is seldom the case. Match-
ing the termination is useful in improving signal quality but only serves to increase the current
flow in an electrically short signal and return track. An electrically short signal and return track
is one in which the propagation delay of the track is low compared to the duration of the logic
transition. With increased current flow, the radiation increases.
At low frequency, the current on an electrically short PCB layout is determined by the
loadimpedance. The load impedance presented by thelogic is made up of some seriesIC
package and die lead inductance and thedevice capacitance andequivalent resistance in parallel.
The device components are active and dependent in many devices on the applied logic level.
The impedance above ==30MHz tends to be dominated by the device input capacitance; above
= 100 MHz, the impedance is low. At high frequency, the characteristic impedance of the line
plays a role in the magnitude of current flow. With a relatively low load impedance, the higher
the impedance of the line the lower the signal current flow and the lower the radiation. This
may be achieved with a constant distance between signal and return tracks by choosing a sub-
strate material with the lowest possible permittivity.
714 Chapter 11
Figure 11.l9 Common-mode voltage developed across a PCB.
11.6. PCB GROUNDING

11.6.1. Common-Mode (dm) Voltage Developed Across a PCB
Figure 1 1.19 illustrates a typical ground configurationon a PCB containing logic in which power
return and signal ground are the same. The transient currents develop voltages in the impedance
of the signal return. Due to the correct use of decoupling capacitors, the differential-mode volt-
ages developed are minimal. The voltages that are developed are common mode, as illustrated
by the noise waveforms shown in Figure 1 1.19. The greater the distance from the chassis ground
connection, the higher thecommon-mode noise voltage. In Figure 11.20 the noise voltage devel-
oped at IC U6, referenced to point A, the power return, appears equally on the signal return
connection (common mode). A common-mode voltage will also appear on the return of IC U7,
and thus a differential voltage will appear between U2 input and the return of U6.
When the noise pulse duration and amplitude result in noise energy that is higher than
the noise energy immunity level of U7, then EM1 occurs. In one case of EMI, transients of 1S-
V magnitude were measured between two ground points on the board and at the input of an
IC. One commontechnique used to reduce the impedanceof the signal return is crosshatching,
as shown in Figure 11.21. The lowest impedance is achieved by use of a ground plane, the
impedance of which is given in Section 5.1.2. As described in Case Study 11. l , the impedance
of a practical ground plane made up of connected segments may be much higher than expected.
When a ground plane is used on a board containing ICs, the copper must be removed
under the pins of the ICs. Very often the removal takes the form of a slot, as shown in Figure
1 1.22, and the impedance of the ground plane is dominated by the impedance of the PCB mate-
rial betweenthe slots, which is considerablyhigher than that of asolidgroundplane. The
inductance of the return path is reduced by the proximity of the signal path, and the inductance
of a ground plane is much lower than that of a narrow PCB track. It is the lower inductance
su
Figure 11.20 Poor signal/power return layout.

Printed 715
Figure 11.21 Improved signal ground layout.
and, therefore, impedance of the microstrip PCB ground plane that resulted in up to a 36-dB
reduction in measured emissions compared to an open transmission line. In the measured con-
figurations,the same distance existed between the signal and return tracks as between the signal
track and ground plane in the microstrip, and the only difference was the ground plane.
11.6.2. “Good” and “Bad” PCB Ground Planes

Often the ground plane is constructed of crosshatched tracks. Whenthese comprise short, thick
lengths of track, the impedance can be almost as low as for a solid ground plane. However,
when the tracks are unduly long and narrow, k i m p e d a n c e will be significantly higher than
that of a solid ground plane.
The majority of the signal return current flows in the return path directly beneath the
signal trace. This means that when the width of the return trace is five timesor more the height
of the signal trace above the return trace, an effective ground plane has been achieved for that
single signal connection. This concentration of current under the signal trace is again due to
mutual inductance.This means that the width of the ground plane can be limited to those areas
of the board where signal and clock tracks exist. In most boards, which have tracks over the
whole area of the board, the ground plane must also cover the whole area of the board.
etched
Areas away \ PCB Material
“
““
L
o o o ~ o o3 c
”’
3
3
”””-
:0000000
Figure 11.22 Typical ground plane with PCB removed for IC pins.
716 Chapter 11
Figure 11.23 A slot in the ground plane interrupts the signal return current under the signal track.
Figure 11.23 shows a vertical track located on the same layer as the ground plane that creates
a slot in the ground plane. Above and at right angles to this ground plane layer track is another
signal track. The return signal current in the upper track must now spread out due to the slot
in the ground plane, and the ground plane impedance is increased.
In the measurements described in this section, a signal source was made up of a battery,
a regulator, a clock oscillator, and a driver IC, all contained in a shielded enclosure, and the
signal output was used to drive the PCB. In the construction of the shielded enclosure used to
house the source, the enclosuremust be connected to the groundplanes in the microstrip,
stripline, or image plane PCBs. Figure 1 1.24 illustrates the connection of the enclosure to the
signal wire from the source and the ground/image plane. The signal return connection is made
from the PCB plane to the feedthrough in the enclosure via a short length of wire, as is the
signal connection to the signal trace. To minimize radiation from these short lengths of wire,
a small copper doghouse enclosure coversboth the feedthrough connections and the lengths of
wire. This doghouse extension,which can be seen in Figure 11.24, is used to connect the enclo-
sure to the groundhmage plane of the PCB. In the connection of Figure 11.24, none of the
signal return current flows in the connection between the enclosure and the PCB ground plane.
A
SIGNAL
CONNECTION
TO TRACK
SHIELDED
ENCLOSURE <
pea EDGE
3 Cl"
2 GROUND PLANE
CONNECTION
- P
4 6cm {P
Figure 11.24 Separate signal return and the connection between the ground plane and the enclosure.
The grounding experiment involved connectingthe enclosure to the PCB via a short length
of wire that was connected to the feedthrough and then via the signal return wire to the PCB.
This grounding technique is illustrated in Figure 11.25. It can be seen that the signal return
current does flow on the connection between the enclosure and the PCB ground plane.
The radiated emissions from the different types of PCB layout were measured with this
alteration in grounding. The level of radiation from the low-emission type of PCBs (microstrip/
stripline) increased from 56 dB below the high-emission typesto 6 dB below these high-emission
types. The reason for this dramatic increase is that an RF potential difference is developed
between the enclosure and the ground plane/s or imageplane. This potential difference is caused
by the signal return current flow on the short (5-mm) length of wire used to connect the PCB
to the enclosure. Although the wire is short, it exhibits significant inductance and it is across
this inductance that the voltage is developed. In contrast, in the grounding connection shown
in Figure 1 1.24, the enclosure-to-ground-plane connection is low impedance; it does not cany
the signal return current and so no RF potential is developed.
Why is the same problem not seen with the semirigid cable connection shown in Figure
1 1.26. No potential difference is developed on the outside surface of the semirigid shield because
of both the mutual inductance between thecenter conductorand shield and the skin-depth effect.
The skin depth ensures that above some relatively low frequency, the majority of the return
current flows on one surface of the shield, and the mutual inductance ensures that this is the
inside surface of the shield.
The problem of RF voltages developed between PCB grounds and equipment grounds or
the enclosure has been seen in a number of practical EM1 cases. Two of these are presented
next.
The first case study involved radiation from a PCB, which contained digital and RF cir-
cuits, to a nearby PCB, which contained sensitive RF circuits. The source PCBgenerated emis-
sions that were, at certain frequencies, 40 dB abovethe FCC class “A” limits! The board layout,
however, was exemplary. It contained all the “good” features, such as effective ground planes
and stripline configurations for signals that were potential sources of emissions. The problem
SOURCE
SIGNAL
CONNECTION TO
1 TRACK
ir SHIELDED
GROUND PLANE
CONNECTION TO
ENCLOSURE VIA SIGNAL
RETURN PATH
I“ -4 6cm
Figure 11.25 Signal return used as the connection between the PCB ground plane and the enclosure.
718 11 Chapter
SOURCE Rigid Semi
Figure 11.26 Semirigidcableconnection, usedwiththe ECLinPSdevice, to themicrostripground

plane.
was due to a thin trace used to connect the RF and digital grounds together at a single point.
The thin trace carried the return current of a digital signal driving a device on the RF board.
The two PCBground planes and single-point connection are shown in Figure 11.27. The return
current generated a voltage drop in the inductance of the return trace, so an RF potential was
developed between the ground planes. This is the same problem as seen in the groundingexperi-
ment, in which the potential was developed between the ground plane and the enclosure. Many
modem PCB antenna designs use a similar layout, driving the antenna at a similar point, and
achieve a high gain, that is efficient radiation.
A significant reduction in radiation was seen simply by widening the thin signal return
trace. Widening the trace reduces the inductance and the voltage drop in the return path. The
width of the common ground connection between the digital ground and the RF ground is kept
narrow to minimize noise current flow from the digital ground into the RF ground, used by
sensitive RF circuits. However, the width of this single connection canbe increased when sensi-
tive circuits are located far from the connection or when digital signal return current is routed
away from thelocation of the single-point ground. Forexample, ensure that digital return current
does not flow between devices located across (at right angles to) the increased width of the
ground plane connection.
An even more effective solution is the use of a semirigid cable connection, as shown in
Figure 1 1.28, or a stripline PCB structure installed across the gap, Figure 1 1.29. The stripline
is not as effective as the semirigid cable due to some leakage through the gaps between the
vias used to connect the upper and lower ground planes together.
Another potential solution is to disconnect the two ground planes and to use an opto-
isolator to transfer the digital signal to the RF section, as shown in Figure 11.30. Separating
the two ground planes is very effective in reducing current flow between them. However, if an
RF potential exists between the planes, as it almost certainly does, then the level of radiation
Figure 11.27 PCB with digital and RF ground planes connected together with a thin track.
Printed Circuit Boards 71 9
Figure 11.28 Use of a semirigid cable to connect the ground planes together.
DIGITAL GROUND PLANE RF GROUND PLANC
Figure 11.29 Striplineconnectionbetweentwogrounds.
"7
Figure 11.30 Use of an opto-isolator to keep the signal return current away from the single-point ground
connection.
720 Chapter 11
may remain high or may even increase with separated grounds. The solution is the use of the
opto-isolator, in which the digital return current is forced back to the digital ground plane on
a trace, which is disconnected from the RF ground, and the digital and RF grounds are tied
together at a single point. Negligible current flows in this common connection, and the two
ground planes are close together in potential.
Another common exampleof RF potential developed between PCB ground planes is when
signal and signal return connections exist between two or more PCBs. These connections are
typically made via pins in edge connectors and a motherboard or back plane. It is important
that as many parallel signal return connections as possible be made and that these connections
be as short and as wide as possible to reduce the inductance of the signal return and, therefore,
the potential difference between grounds. Where possible locate a return pin adjacent to every
“hot” signal pin.
Some of the worst violations are seen in boards that are mounted piggyback on a PCB,
with signal power and return connectedby long, thin pins. This configuration is shown in Figure
11.31. The solution is to use PCB edge connectors for the piggyback PCB and to make the
interconnections via a microstripPCB (singleground plane) or stripline (upper andlower ground
planes with trackssandwiched between the PCB ground planes).If external cables areconnected
to the two PCBs, then the RF potential between the two ground planes appears on the signal
connections as a common mode voltage, regardless of whether the signal is balanced or unbal-
anced with reference to ground. The two cables result in a very efficient antenna, for the RF
potential between them drives one cable against the other, similar to the two rods of a dipole
antenna. In this example, the use of finger stock or a similar contact to connect the two ground
planes together will reduce the RF potential between them. Ideally, this common connection
should be made at the location where the two cables leave the enclosure or at least where they
leave the PCB. To reduce radiation from the cables due to a potential difference between the
PCB ground plane and the enclosure, finger stock or a direct connection may be made between
the ground and enclosure. If a DC connection is not allowed, an RF (capacitive) connection
should be made.
Another practical example of EM1 was partially due to an RF potential between a ground
plane on an approximately 8-cm X 4-cm digital PCB and an RF ground. The digital PCB was
located approximately 0.5 cm from a receiver contained in a small, well-shielded case. The
small microstrip antenna connected to the receiver was approximately 2 cm from the digital
board and was referenced to the receiver case. Due to radiated coupling between the digital
board and the antenna, the receiver exhibited desensitization and narrowband and broadband
spurious response. Part of the problem was due to the RF potential between the digital ground
plane and the RF ground (shielded case). By shorting the case to the digital ground plane at a
number of points with finger stock material, the radiated coupling reduced significantly, although
not enough to totally cure the problem.
One technique for joining different ground planes on a PCB is shown in Figure 11.32.
Figure 11.31 Piggyback connection of PCBs using pins and sockets.

Ground plane
/
isolation
violated by
signal trace
All s~ppal,traces and power plane interconnects

made in cotnmon ground plane area
Figure 11.32 Ideal large-area ground connection ona PCB violated by a signal trace that is not located
over the common ground area.
Here a large surface area is used to make a common ground connection. The common failure
with this technique is to take a signal track between the two different ground planesat a location
other than the common ground area, as illustrated in Figure 11.32. With this location of the
signal track, the return current must flow through the one ground plane down to the common
ground connection and back to the source.A large loop is thus formed, and the level of radiation
due to this loop is extremely high.
In conclusion, the use of low-emission type of PCBlayouts in conjunction with ICs that
generate only low-level emissions can reduce radiation to levels where shielding of the PCBs
is not necessary to meet commercial radiated emission limits. However, when PCB-to-PCB or
PCB-to-enclosure/ground connections are high impedance and carry RF current, then none of
these reduction techniques may be sufficient without the use of an effective grounding scheme.
11.6.3. Grounding a PCB Within an Enclosure

Figure 11.33a illustrates a grounding scheme for a board with a signal that is connected to an
attached cable. The signal ground of the board-to-enclosure connection is made at the point at
which theinterface signal exits the board.If this connection represents a sufficiently low imped-
ance, then the noise voltage developed across this ground connection will be low, as will the
C/M current flow on the cable.
Many engineers are puzzled by the need for only one connection of the signal ground to
enclosure to reduce C/M noise voltage. But by definition,because C/M noise appears equally
on the signal and signal ground, it requires only a connection of the signal groundto enclosure
to reduce the magnitude of C/M voltage. One secondary effect of this connection is that some
of the common-mode noise may appear as DIM noise in the signal.
In practical cases the grounding maybe made fromthe PCB to a connector housing, which
is in turn connected to a metal faceplate, which may then be connected via two small screws
722 Chapter 11
II .. ........,
,. , 1
Isolating .‘l..
power supply
Figure 11.33a Signal-ground-to-enclosure connection at thelocationwhere an unshielded cable exits

the enclosure.
to the main frame of the enclosure. Due to the relatively high impedance of this connection, a
sufficiently high noise voltage can be developedto drive the attached cable with enough current
to fail emissions requirements.
If more than one cable is connected to an enclosure and common-mode noise voltage
appears on one or another of the cables, then one cable can “drive” the other, and fields are
generated between the cables in addition to those between cable and enclosure. Try to connect
the shields of cables together at a single point with a low impedance connection. If cables are
unshielded, connect reference signal grounds within the cables to a single point on a PCB. If
shielded add an additional low-impedance connection between the cable shields. Better still, tie
them to a ‘clean” chassis/enclosure ground,preferably to the outside surface. Digital designers
L
and compliance engineers very often experience out-of-specification emissions over the 40-
300-MHz frequency range on boards with attached cables, even when thefundamental frequen-
cies are much lower. If the PCB signal ground-to-enclosure connection is made at the wrong
location, the common-mode voltage developed across the board appears between the cable and
the enclosure. The cable then radiates in the same way as a monopole antenna, with the cable
current increasing with increasing frequency until the frequency at which half a wavelength
equals the length of the cable. Above this resonant frequency, the cablecurrent tends to reduce
and the radiated E field exhibits maximum and minimum values.
In other cases where either no connection or a poor connection of signal ground to the
enclosure is possible, a C/M inductance wound on a ferrite bead, or toroid, in which both the
signal and signal return are passed through the ferrite, will present an impedance to C/M current
flow. One location for the balun is where the signal leaves the board, with an alternative location
on the cable external to the board. Section 5. I . 10.4 discusses the properties of the balun. Avoid
threading the signal and return conductors through separate holes in a ferrite bead, for then
signal degradation can occur in the megahertz frequency region.
If the balun is located on a PCB inside an enclosure, radiated coupling from the PCB can
induce current in the balun. If this is found to be the case, enclosing the balunin a small, shielded
enclosure may help, as shown in Figure 1 1.33b. Do not, however, connect the enclosure to the
noisy digital ground. If a direct connection of the signal ground to chassis is not allowed, then
the implementation of an RF ground using one of more capacitors in parallel may be a solution,
as shown in Figure 1 1 . 3 3 ~Using
. a C/M inductor in conjunction with the capacitive RF ground
can lead to resonance effects, as described in Ref. 1, which can be counterproductive. If the
location of the C/M inductor or balun is on a high-impedance section of the attached cable,
then the level of reduction in C/M current can be negligible, but a direct or RF ground at that
point will be very effective. If the balun is located on the cable, moving its location to a low-
impedance section can improve the performance.
l
.
,.., ........ . .
Interface
Input i "
"
R T N ~
Figure 11.33b Shielded balun inside enclosure where an unshielded cable exits the enclosure.
An alternative approach for digital signals that constantly change state, for example, the
1553 bus, or that go into a high-impedance "off" mode in the absence of a signal is a custom-
made transformer that contains an electrostaticshieldbetweenprimaryand secondary. The
shield is a turn of conductive foil, aluminum or copper, wound between the primary and second-
ary, with the ends of the foil insulated; i.e., the shield does not represent a shorted turn. The
electrostatic shield must then be connectedto a " clean" ground, which is typically the enclosure
or chassis. Connecting the shield to the noisy digital ground may actually increase the C/M
noise current. With the shielded transformer, C/M noise currents flow via the shield into the
ground and not on the cable. If PCBs are contained in unshielded enclosures, then the RF poten-
tial developed between the PCBs must be reduced by connecting the ground planes on the PCBs
together at the location where interface cables are connected to the board. An RF potential
difference between the ground planesof two or more PCBs to which cables are connected results
in one cable driving another and a very effective radiating antenna.
The C/M current flow on the power cord may also result in excessively high radiation
from PCBs and attached cables. Here the C/M current must be reduced by the use of effective
C/M filters or a C/M inductor on the AC safety ground.
In the case where PCBs with a front panel are contained in an enclosure and where the
front panels are connected together down the edge with finger stock or spiral gasket or the like,
a number of considerations must be made as to the connection of the digital ground to the front
panel. Where unshielded cables are connected to the front panel, the decision is relatively easy,
for the digital ground should be connected to the front panel with the use of baluns on signal
and returns to reduce the C/M current flow. In the case where shielded cables are connected
to the front panel, two choices exist and the right decision is not always obvious. If the digital
ground is connected to the front panel and also to the chassis at some other location in the
-_____
I .. .... . . 1
Figure 11.33~ RF connection to the enclosure using one or more capacitors.

724 Chapter l1
.PCB Dicital Ground
I
1
1 CtlaSSlS
I '
1
I
- II/Front Panel
""""-""""""" Conncctor
luclded Cablc
D " I
Digital GrOLIld
ISignal'Dgital Ground
PCB
Coax Connector
Coax Cablc
I
_rvm
""""""""""
.A
'PCB Dytal Ground Ma! k

Conncctcd Along ~JIC Full Edge
orulc PCB
Figure 11.33d Method of isolating thc digital ground froma front panel and at the same time connecting
the digital ground to chassis to reduce C/M current on signal interfaces. Suitable for shielded cables.
equipment, high C/M currents can flow in the front panel, resulting in a voltage drop between
the front panel and the rest of the enclosure. In extreme cases the radiation from the front panel
alone, without an attached cable, can be close to Class B commercial radiated emission limits.
This effect can be demonstrated by using a spectrum analyzer to compare the voltage drop
between two locations on the enclosure at a set distance apart and between the enclosure and
a front panel. A second method for finding this problem, which provides a very convincing
demonstration, is to make a radiated emission measurement, without cables, and then to connect
a wire in electrical contact with the front panel. If emissions go up significantly, the cause is
either the front panel voltage driving the wire or emissions from an aperture coupling to the
wire and causing a current flow on the wire. If, on the other hand, the digital ground is floated
from the enclosure, then C/M current on the shielded cable center conductor/s can result in
cable radiation when the cable shield or shield termination or connector backshell is not ade-
quate.
A possible solution to both problems is shown in Figure 1 1.33d. Here the digital ground
is isolated from the front panel. Where a single-ended signal interface must connect to the case
of a connector (in this example, a coaxial connector), a balun is used to provide impedance
between the digital ground and the front panel. To reduce the C/M voltage applied to the signal
interface, the digital ground plane is connected to the chassis before the front panel. In Figure
1 1.33d the connection is made as the ground plane is extended to the edge of the PCB and
clamped in a metal card guide. To make this connection effective, the card guide must be ade-
quately bonded to the enclosure and the card guide must grip the PCB with spring fingers.
11.7. SHIELDING A PRINTEDCIRCUITBOARD

The radiation in close proximity to a PCB is typically a low-impedance field. In considering
the radiation without a shield, our only concern is the field measured at a distance of 3 m,
I O m, or 30 m from the PCB, where the field has an impedance of 377 ohms and the relative
magnitudes of the E and H fields at the board are unimportant.
When examining the radiation from PCBs contained in a small enclosure (upto a 19-inch
rack size) we find that the magnetic field shielding effectiveness of an enclosure is defined as
the ratio of field measured at some location from a source without the shield in place to the
field with the shield in place. Due to the switching transient currents flowing on a PCB and the
close proximity of the PCB to the enclosure, the field impinging on the inside of the enclosure
has a high magnetic field component.
The enclosure approximates a loop antenna, which, despite the low impedance of the field
close tothe source, generates a field with an impedance of 377 ohms in the far field, the location
where commercial EM1 measurements are made. The electric field shielding effectiveness of a
small enclosure may be very high, and thelimit is often the magnetic field shielding effectiveness
of an enclosure, which results in not meeting EM1 requirements.
The magnetic shielding effectiveness of a small enclosure is adversely affected by high
joint DC resistance and contact impedance, which depend on the resistance of the surface finish.
For example, Iridite, Oakite, Alodyne, electroplated nickel, electroplated tin, and Dow 20 are
all low-resistance finishes, whereas Stannate and zinc dichromate exhibit impedance 10 times
higher, with unplated aluminum 10-30 times higher. A copper-loaded paint on the inside of a
nonconductive enclosure will exhibit joint impedance a thousand times higher than the low-
impedance finish on a highly conductive material. Surface area also has an impact on the joint
impedance. The larger the surface area, the lower the resistance and contact impedance. Small
gaps in the joint or seam increase the gap inductance and limit the shielding effectiveness of
the enclosure at high frequency. The presence of apertures also limits shielding effectiveness.
For magnetic field shielding, it is better to have many small apertures versus fewer larger aper-
tures, even if the total area of the removed metal is larger. This is discussed in detail in Sections
6.4.3 and 6.5.3. Although we have considered only magnetic field shielding here, at frequencies
above 200 MHz and with relatively large apertures the electric field, coupling through the aper-
tures may predominate.
The use of a PCB-mounted shield covering a small section of circuit or IC, which are
both high level emitters, has often been tried, with variable results. If the tracks going through
the shield are not C/M filtered, very often the radiation from the tracks connected to the shielded
circuit can increase. This effect is very common when adding a shielded enclosure around a
PCB to which a cable is attached. If the radiation sourced by the PCB is predominantly from
the attached cable, then adding a shield often increases radiation, for the presence of the shield
increases C/M current flow on the cable. Connecting the signal return or the shield of the cable
to the enclosure where possible or use of the balun or shielded transformer is a possible solution
to this problem, as already described in Section 11.6.3.
The use of surface-mount ferrite and/or surface-mount capacitors on all signal and power
lines entering the PCBmounted shield will effectively reduce current flow and shunt the current
back to the source. The surface-mount capacitors must connect to the shield, because digital
ground connections, using tracks, are also sources of C/M noise.
One PCB shield is made in the form of a phosphor bronze fence, which can be bent to
any shape. The fence forms the walls of the enclosure, and the top is made of a flat material,
which is held in place by spring force. The fence is constructed with pins that go through the
board to a ground plane, on the track side of the board, which completes the shield. It is often
the poor integrity of the ground plane that compromises the shielding effectiveness. Small gaps
are left around the base of the fence to allow components and surface tracks to enter the shield.
These apertures limit the shielding effectiveness along with the impedance of the pins of the
fence. However, the theoretical magnetic field shielding effectiveness with apertures is still a
high 70 dB from 10 MHz to 200 MHz. It is typically the components and tracks entering the
726 Chapter 11
Figure 11.34a Instrument Specialties PCB fence material.
shield that result in leakage and a greatly reduced shielding effectiveness. However, in the
gigahertz frequency range, the small apertures do result in coupling. Figure 1 1.34ashows a 97-
870 custom-made fence without apertures that was effective at solving a problem at 1.5 GHz.
The PCB shield shownin Figure 11.34b is compartmentalized,which is a usefultechnique when
sections of PCB that contain sensitive circuits must be shielded from sections of PCB that are
potential emitters. The PCB fence material is made byInstrument Specialties Co., Inc., of Dela-
ware Water Gap, PA 18327-0136. Figure 11.34a shows the standard product range from this
company.
To demonstrate the importance of low joint and seam impedance we will consider a num-
ber of shields designed to go around PCBs. The first shield is made up of two parts, one, with
the dimensions 23 cm X 26.5 cm X 1.5 cm, that covers the component side of the board, and
a second, with the dimensions 21 cm X 26.5 cm X 0.6 cm, that covers the track side of the
board. The slots in the shield are: one at 0.6 cm X 23 cm at one end of the board and two at
1.5 cm X 9.5 cm at the other end of the board. A ground plane on either side of the board
connects the two sections of shield together with vias at intervals of 7 cm. Thus, the board
contains both large slots and a high-impedancejoint. Figure 11 . 3 4 ~shows the end of the board
in which the 23-cm-long slot is located.
Figure 11.34b PCB shield constructed of Instrument Specialties fence material.

Printed 727
Figure 11.34~ PCB shield covers, showing long slot down one end.
The technique used to measure the shielding effectiveness entails driving a PCB, laid Out
with tracks above a poor ground plane, with loads distributed around the PCB. The signal source
is located outside of the shielded room, withthe enclosure under test located inside the shielded
room. One potential source of error is the cable connecting the source to the on-board loads,
which can radiate and maskthe radiation from the enclosure. To ensure that this did not happen,
the cable was contained within a copper tube that was fitted through the shielded-room wall
and soldered to a,bracket, which was bolted onto the enclosure. To establish a measurement
setup noise floor, the best possible enclosure with regard toshielding was constructed.This was
a copper enclosure with a lid soldered to the enclosure and with the seams in the sides soldered
together so that no seams, apertures, or slots existed in the enclosure. Allother enclosures when
compared to the soldered copper reference enclosure showed a lower shielding effectiveness
from 100 to 300 MHz.
In the case of the shield shown in Figure 11.34~the transfer impedance of the cover-to-
cover interface is not confinedto an inidited metal-to-metal contact but includes the impedance
of the plated-through connection between the ground planes on either side of the board. How-
ever, the degradation due to the contact impedance of the seam is swamped by the shielding
effectiveness degradation due to the wide slots. The theoretical magnetic field shielding ef-
fectiveness is limited by the 0.6 cm X 23 cm slot, which is 8 dB at 100 MHz, for the two 1.5
cm X 9.5 cm slots it is 27 dB. The worst-case measured magnetic field shielding effectiveness
of the enclosure at 150 M H z is 3 dB, which is close to the predicted value.One important factor
in considering the shielding effectiveness is the directivity of the source, for without a shield
the PCB radiates in all directions, whereas withthe shield the fields are concentrated at the slots
in the end of the shield. In a practicalinstallation, the PCB is pluggedinto a rack that is shielded
on five sides. In our example, it is the long slot in the PCB shield, which faces the open front
of the enclosure. In this configuration,it is not uncommonto find that the field measured at the
front of the rack with a poor PCB shield is higher than with the PCB shield removed!
The shielding effectiveness of the shield shown inFigure 1 1 . 3 4 ~can be greatly improved
by bridging the long slots with a conductor, which contacts the PCB, the groundplane, and the
shield. This may be achieved by bending tabs in the enclosure and bolting the ends of the tabs
to the ground plane.If the radiation contributed by the long slots is reduced, the example PCB
shield is still limited to approximately 30 dB of shielding effectiveness due to the high-imped-
ance seam. This impedance is dominated by the inductance of the plated-through connections
and the screws holding thetwo covers together. A 7.5-cm slotexists between the screws because
the ground planes on either side of the board are connected together only via plated-through
holes where the screws go through the board. Although the majority ofthe current flow on the
inside of the shield is caused by the PCB radiated emissions, if the signal ground planes on
either side of the board are less than ideal, some fractions of the noise current can flow on the
inside of the shield covers. Therefore, it is inadvisable to connect the shield covers to the signal
728 Chapter 11
Figure 11.34d Shieldthattotallyenclosesthe PCB.
ground plane around the periphery of the board, instead, leave the shield either isolated or
connected at a single point, preferably where connections are made to the board (often, edge
connectors). If the shield cannot completely cover the PCB, as shown in Figure'll.34, then
the shield cover should contact a track with a widthat least equal to the bent edge of the cover.
A second, identical track shouldbe fabricated on theother side of the board. Bothtracks should
follow the contours of the shield edges and be joined together at intervals of approximately 15
mm by vias. The tracks should be either isolated from the signal ground plane or connected at
a single point only.The distance of the screws holding the covers together should be no greater
than 3 cm. With these modifications made to the PCB shield, shown in Figure 11.34~and the
end slots reduced to a cm or less, the shielding effectiveness can be increasedto at least 40 dB.
Figure 11.34 illustrates a PCB shield that totally encloses the PCB, and it is the shield that is
plugged into the guide rails of the card cage. This enclosure exhibits a shielding effectiveness
of 60-90 dB from 100 to 300 MHz.
Figure 11.34e shows a PCB shield with 0.9-cm-long and 0.2-cm-wide slots down the edge
of the shield. The measured shielding effectiveness of this enclosure is also 60-90 dB over the
100-300-MHz frequency range, although the variation with frequencyis different from that of
the enclosure shown in Figure 11.34. The high level of measured shielding effectiveness in
the enclosure with small slots is totally in agreement with theoryas long as the majority of the
noise currents flowing on the inside of the enclosure flow down the 0.6-cm length of the slot
and notacross the length of the slot. In thetwo enclosures with ahigh level of shielding effective-
ness, any degradation will be due to unfiltered or unshielded connections on the motherboard
or back plane into which the board is plugged.
L -
Figure 11.34e Shield that totally encloses the PCB, with small slots down the edge of the shield.
If a nonconductive enclosure is already manufactured and is designed to enclose one or

more PCBs, it is possible to shield by spraying the inside of the enclosure with a conductive
coating, such as silver- or copper-loaded paint. With the use of a conductive coating, the lower
the surface resistivity, the higher the shielding effectiveness. The weak link is at the joins in
the enclosure, which should have as high a contact surface area as feasible to reduce the contact
impedance. With the use of conductively coated plastic or plastics loaded with conductive fibers,
the measured shielding effectiveness from 50 MHz to 300 MHz is 10-30 dB.
One of the latest forms of PCB shield, called a Conductive Shielding Envolope (patent
pending) by the manufacturer, Schlegel, is made of lightweight, pliable, silver-metallized non-
woven fabric. The attenuation published by Schlegel for this type of enclosure ranges from 30
dB at 10 MHz to 60 dBat 100 MHz and stays constant at 60 dBout to 1000 MHz. The attenuation
quoted by Schlegel is almost certainly for E field and plane waves, as with the majority of
manufacturers of conductive material. The shielding effectiveness for H fields is unknown and
is strongly dependent on the effectiveness of the joins in the material.
Use the calculations contained in the PCB radiation report, based on clock frequency,
logic type, PCB layout, number and length of PCB tracks, and number of PCBs, to find out if
the relatively low shielding effectiveness of the conductive-coated type of enclosure is adequate
or if one of the enclosures with higher shielding effectiveness is required.
11.8. PCB RADIATION,CROSSTALKPREDICTION,

AND CAD PROGRAMS
Some of the ideal characteristics of a PCB radiation and crosstalk prediction program are that
it be virtually invisible and automatically invoked during CAD PCB layout. The ideal program
would calculate the signal integrity and current flow on tracks, based on clock frequency, and
predict the near fields as well as maximum horizontal and vertical fields with an accuracy of
6dB or better at distances of 1 m or greater. Most of the commercially available programs fall
short of the ideal. Program capability ranges from a prediction of radiation from a simple struc-
ture, such as a two-track transmission line some distance from a ground plane or a microstrip
line, based on input clock voltage and rise and fall times, to programs that use schematic or
CAD PCB layout as the input data. Accuracies range from worst-case 60 dB to average 20 dB.
The programs can be separated into rules-based and simulator programs. Someof the simulator
programs do not at present offer an exact prediction of the level of emissions from a PCB but,
rather, identify “hot spots” in the layout. The two problems with this approach, when used to
design a PCB before the prototype has been manufactured, are as follows.
Why bother about the “hot spots” if the unmodified PCB will meet all the radiated emis-
sion requirements? This can be determined only by accurate field predictions at a
l-m, 3-m, or 10-m distance from the PCB.
In measurements of emissions from PCB traces at very close proximity, using extremely
small (3-mm-wide) probes, high-emission traces can be identified. However, when
a larger probe or the small bowtie antenna is used to measure the emissions at a
greater distance from the board, typically 10-20 cm, these high-level emissionsfrom
a localized area are often seen to reduce rapidly with increasing distance, leaving
emissions at other frequencies and from other locations to predominate. It is often
the high emissions measured at a distance of 10 or 20 cm that continue to propagate
out to distances of 1 m , 3 m , and 10 m. Although the hot spots area useful indication
of problem areas on a board, it is the common-mode current generated by a section
of board and the area of the antenna formed by the PCB tracks that determine how
effectively the board radiates in the far field.
730 Chapter 11
11.8.1. ModelingTechniques
Modelingtechniques exist for the prediction of radiation from structures, and some canbe
applied to PCB radiation. These techniques include the method of moments (MOM) and varia-
tions thereof, such as the full-wave moment method, with the capability of analyzing 3D struc-
tures, and the conjugate gradient-FFT method (CG-FFT).
Due to the complexity of these techniques, they have all been incorporated in computer
programs. Use of a computer program eliminates mathematical error but can result in very large
errors because of misapplication of the program and some intrinsic limitations in the method.
Some of the programs that use MOM modeling are WIRES, NEC, MININEC, and GEMACS,
described in 12.4.3.1. None of these programs allow the modeling of a microstrip PCB with a
substrate that has a permittivity higher than 1. In addition, because wires or patches are used
to construct the ground plane and current diffuses through these structures, the prediction of
the shielding effectiveness of a stripline is in error.
One program,described in 12.4.3.6, is the EMAPS FEM/MOM code, ahybrid finite
element/method of moments code (FED/MOM),which is available from theUniversity of Mis-
souri-Rolla. The EMAPS program does allow the modeling of the radiation from a microstrip
on printed circuit material with a permittivity greater than 1.
The simplest technique, and intrinsically the one least prone to error, is to model a ground
plane as a plate to which a wire is connected at one end and then bent to lie above the surface
of the ground plane. The far end of the wire cannot typically be terminated on the ground plane,
which forms an image plane, for current cannot flow in a plate. Thus, signal return current in
the ground plane is not modeled. Nevertheless this technique of disconnecting the wire at the
far end has been used with acceptable results.
The simple application of the MOM method may not be able to account for the presence
of 3D structures attached to the PCB layout, although the effect of an attached wire can be
analyzed. Such MOMmethods do calculate current flow on the structure because of connection
of a single-frequency source.
The MOM programs require lots of computer time. For example, modeling a PCB ground
plane with a small number of wires takes a couple of hours of computer time but results in
large errors, because the spacing between the wires is large. If patches are used to form the
ground plane, then the accuracy is higher but the program can takedays to run 0n.a fast Pentium
PC.
The CG-FFT program does predict radiation from a microstrip with a high-permittivity
substratebut assumes a symmetrical, infinitely small source. Thus, the radiation due to the
differential-mode current flow can be predicted,but not that from C/Mcurrent due to an attached
structure. This results in a massive 60-dB underestimation of the fields from the structure.
Reference 2 describes an analysis technique compared to measurements on a microstrip
' PCBattached to ashieldedenclosureinaconfiguration similar to that used to provide the
measured data presented in this chapter. The parasitic capacitance, which exists between the
microstrip and the box, supplies the return path for the common-mode current, just as it does
in the test setup described in this report. The reference proposes a moment method of analyzing
arbitrarily shaped 3D conductor dielectric composite structures that allows the radiation due to
common-mode current caused by parasitic capacitance to be calculated. The reference reports
a good correlation between the predicted and measured fields at a distance of 3 m from the
source. For example, the horizontally polarized field at a distance of 3 m from the source parallel
to and in the planeof the microstrip transmission line at a frequency of 150 MHz is47.7 dBuV/
m computed and 48.5 dBuVlm measured. The reference also containsa comparison of predicted
and measured fields at different locations around the PCB, with a very good correlation. The
excellent correlation indicates that in this specific test setup, the predominant source of C/M
current is the presence of the shielded enclosure, with little contribution from imbalance in the
source.
It is interesting to compare the measured results from Ref. 2 to those presented in this
chapter. Themajor differences between thetwo test setups isthe shorter microstrip, the narrower
ground plane, and the larger enclosure used in the Ref. 2 setup. The frequency of maximum
radiation is 50 MHz forthe 18-cm microstripand 150 MHz for the 4.5-cm microstrip. In compar-
ing the levels of maximum radiation, the 4.5-cm microstrip is 10 dB below the Class A limit
and the 18-cm microstrip is l dB below the Class A limit. When the size of the ground plane
beneath a microstrip is very much less than a wavelength, the size affects the radiation only
minimally. Therefore, the major parameters of interest are the thickness of the substrate, the
length of the track, and the sizeof the adjacent structure. Based on the length of the track alone,
and using a 20 log 0.045/0.18 m correction for length, results in a 12-dB difference, whereas
the measured peak difference is 9 dB.
11.8.2. Computer Programs Specifically for PCB Radiation Prediction

These programs are seperated into rules-driven design and analysis types.From anecdotal infor-
mation on an analysis type of program, the prediction was that the radiation from a microstrip
PCB layout is higher than the two-track typeof layout, indicating that the common-mode current
contribution to radiation is ignored. Despite ignoring the C/M current, the prediction was 2-
20 dB higher than the measured results for the microstrip. Perhaps the most surprising result
was that the emissions at 5 GHz, from a 10-MHz clock source, was only 8 dB lower than the
emission at 20 MHz, at the same level as the emission at 200 mHz and 62 dB higher than
measured!
11.8.2.1. EMCAD Program

The EMCADITMis an MS-DOS-based computer software program supplied by CKC Labora-
tories Inc, Mariposa, California. This program computes radiated emissions from PCB traces
and from cable or wire interconnects, as well as radiated susceptibility, crosstalk (PCB traces
and cable and wire interconnects), and filter simulation. The EMCADl PCB radiation analysis
does account for the common-mode current contribution to radiation from a PCB. The program
allows the entry of a simple PCB structure, including:
Test distance
Distance to ground plane
Width of trace
Distance to signal return
Number of similar traces
Dielectric constant
The program allows entry of the parameters of a symmetrical trapezoidal waveform:
Rise time
Fall time
Pulsewidth
Fundamental frequency
Waveform amplitude
732 Chapter 11
And the program predicts the 10 highest readings, plotted and in tabular form, compared to a
specification, such as MIL-STD-461B.
Using the EMCADI computer program to input the PCB data from Section 11.3.1 and
Ref. 2 andcomparing the result to measuredabsolutedata, the EMCADI programpredicts
emissions up to 28 dB higher than measured. One user of EMCADl explained that the error
was on the safe side;however, based on the level of predicted emissions, a designer may decide
to apply a shield to a PCB that may not be necessary. The most likely reason for the difference
between the predicted and measured levels is that the proximity and size of adjacent conductive
structures are not accounted for in the EMCADl program, although this has not been confinned
by CKC Laboratories.
11.8.2.2.
EmcScan
Program
The EmcScan tool, from Quantic Laboratories of Winnipeg, Canada, is a Unix-based simulator
for detecting electromagneticemissions from PCBs.It complements Quantic’sestablished Com-
pliance tool, which simulates radiation from a number of PCBs with cables and enclosures.
EmcScan allows PCB designersto identify hot spots and segments of nets likely to cause prob-
lems. It simulates current spectra and track current densities as well as the electric and magnetic
fields close to a PCB, usingQuantic’sfield-solvertechniques. It inputsdata from the CCT
SPECCTRA autorouter and all major CAD layout tools. It is not possible to input the dimensions
of a simple layout unless this is first entered into a CAD program. The program performs EMC
simulation during routing or at the postlayout stage. The EM field simulation and analysis is
performed transparently to the user. According to Quantic Laboratories, the program very accu-
rately predicts the relative levels of field and their distribution, although the absolute magnitude
of the field at present may not be accurate. However, Quantic is working on this and expects
to be able to predict accurately the magnitude of the fields in the near future. For more informa-
tion, see Iltt~://\vww.qucrntic.-Emc.coln.
11.8.2.3.AppliedSimulationTechnology
The ContecRadia, ContecSPICE, ApsimOMNI, ApsimSPICE, ApsimSKETCH, ApsimOMNI,
ApsimALM, ApsimRLGC, and ApsimRADIA-WB programs are available from Applied Simu-
lation Technology of San Jose, California, for use on UNIX workstations as well as IBM-PC
compatibles with the Windows NT OS.
ApsimRADIA-WB is a software modeling and simulation program that can predict the
radiated emissions from PCB, MCM, cables, and subsystems. The program provides insight
into physical placement, electrical specifications, interconnects, and connectors. The engineer
can enter physical interconnect locations and simulate their effects from a schematic diagram.
The program evaluates the impact of electrical and physical characteristics on EM1 using sche-
matic capture, field solvers, and EM1 simulators in an integrated system. The program does not
accept data from CAD tools. The inputs to the program are simple voltage or current sources
or SPICE transistor-level models, and the interconnectmodels can be simple impedance or delay
lines or more complicated transmission lines extracted from the field solver. The program can
simulate nonlinear and linear sources.
Once the design is entered it is automatically simulated using ApsimRADIA and Apsim-
SPICE. The results can be viewed graphically or in text form. The results are compared against
an EM1 standard of choice. The program can predict emission levels measured at some point
defined by the user in the far or near field.
ApsimSPICE is a circuit simulator with lossy coupled transmission-line capabilities. It
can predict noise, reflections, and crosstalk in circuits and systems.
Apsim SKETCH is a schematic capture program that serves as front end to ApsimRADIA-
WB. It has special built-in symbols for such entities as multiple coupled transmission lines,
connectors, vias,andcables.Traditional symbols for semiconductors and macromodelsare
available.
ApsimOMNI is signal and power/ground modeling and simulation software designed to
evaluate nonideal ground planes with holes, slits, and cutouts. As discussed in Section 11.6.2,
these imperfections can be major contributors to radiated emissions.
ContecRADIA can predict radiated emissions from PCBs and MCMs using current distri-
bution along tracks with' nonlinear devices. ContecRADIA is integrated with schematic editors
and, unlike ApsimRADIA-WB, is integrated with CAD layout programs. ContecRADIA can
consider the effect of EMC site conditions such as reflection and direct waves and horizontal
and vertical polarization. ContecRADIA is interfaced with schematic editors to generate EM1
design rules and guidelines prior to board placement and layout. A ContecSPICE netlister and
a ContecRADIA netlister with track conditions are available for signal integrity andEM1 design
rule generation. ContecRADIA includes a scanning capability that provides a very fast simula-
tion for entire PCBs in addition to an analysis capability. Designers can identify which track
segments are exceeding user-defined EM1 restrictions through ContecRADIA reports and on-
screen plotting. According to Applied Simulation Technology, ContecRADIA does calculate
common-mode-current-induced radiation with and without attached cables and accounts for the
presence of a grounded structure. ContecRADIA features include:
Transmission-line waveforms (reflection, crosstalk, etc.) and radiated emission noise.

EM1 noise simulator using current distribution along branched and parallel tracks with
nonlinear devices.
Electromagnetic field intensity derived using the dipole antenna model applied to the cur-
rents simulated by the previous step. The electromagnetic field intensity for each
track segment is summed vectorially, and the total field intensity at measurement
points can then be calculated.
Detailed analysis and scanning capabilities.
Near- and far-field emissions calculations.
Noise filter modeling using SPICE models or S-parameter measurements together with
ContecSPAR.
EMC site model with a peak hold capability indicates the worst-case EM1 by automatically
sweeping turntable rotation and/or antenna height.
Digital, full logic, and analog circuit simulations.
Arbitrary waveforms.
EM1 reports: frequency spectrum, net highlighting, branch, net, board.
Signal integrity reports: geometry report(track length, parallel tracks, lengthon each stack-
up layer), electrical report (impedance mismatch, unit length delay, crosstalk, num-
ber of vias), simulation report (delay, overshoot, crosstalk).
11.8.2.4. Incases Programs

Incases, of Fort Worth, Texas, manufactures a number of software models marketed as EMC-
Workbench for the design of printed circuit boards with respect to signal integrity and EMC.
The EMC-Workbench package contains four submodules for the complete EMC board simula-
tion:
734 Chapter 11
Prelayout design studies and preanalysis of placement data

Transmission-lineparametercalculationandsignalintegritysimulation(reflection and
crosstalk)
Radiation simulation
Three-dimensional display tool
The preanalysis package performs a preanalysis of a placed but unrouted layout using heuristics
andgeometryconstraints. There are two primarytools in thismodule, MANDI (Manhattan
distance estimator) and LDA (layout data analyzer).
MANDI performsaplacementpreanalysisbased on Manhattandistances for all nets,
and additionally performs a reflection preanalysis for 2-point nets. LDA performs a reflection
preanalysis for routed 2-point nets and simple crosstalk screening basedon geometry constraints.
The package also includes the two-dimensional field solver TALC, which is used for the cal-
culation of transmission-lineparameters. In the interactive mode,TALC allowsanalysis of
nonrectangular-cut sections and calculation of characteristic impedance and phase velocity for
various transmission-line structures.
INSIDE (Incases signal integrity diagnostic environment) provides tools and libraries for
reflection and crosstalk simulation. The layout data extractor provides a user interface to select
which transmission lines are to be simulated. A graphical user interface simplifies usage. Single
and coupled transmission lines on multilayer boards with uniform ground planes are analyzed
to produce per-unit inductance and capacitance using TALC. The results are stored in a library
to reuse them for further simulations. In the interactive mode, TALC allows users to analyze
nonrectangular-cutsectionsand to calculatecharacteristicimpedanceandphasevelocity for
various transmission-line structures.
FREACS providesfastsimulationalgorithmsfor reflection andcrosstalk effectson
multilayer boards with uniform ground planes. An arbitrary number of parallel lines can be
analyzed. The simulator input is generated using a simplified graphical user interface, SIGMA/
F. Models out of the EDL (EMC device library) are included automatically using the library
interface EXLIN. EXLIN is also used to maintain and customize the library. The basic library
delivered with this packagecontains more than 800 elements of 74 devices in different technolo-
gies, most of them completely modeled.
IBIS describes acomponent and supplies standard models, suchas the Pentium IC; alterna-
tively, a device can be modeled using a simple linear model editor.
Incases also supplies a modeling service. A stimulus for the model is defined and the
reflections (overshoot and ringing) are displayed. The termination resistance canthen be changed
or series resistance added and the reflection problem can be solved. The crosstalk analysis is
similar. The analysis searches for a coupled trace, based on coupled length and distance, and
the criteriaforthesearch for theseparameterscan be modified. The source waveform and
crosstalk waveform are then displayed. The traces and the termination can then be modified to
reduce crosstalk.
SCALOR provides a graphical user interface for modification of selected net structures
and EMC measures. This allows a trial-and-error simulation within the INSIDE package.
GRADIAN is a graphical postprocessor for 3D visualization of radiation data. It supports
the display of current distribution on conducting areas of the PCB or the enclosure, the electric/
magnetic fields, 3-dimensional polar diagrams. Magnitudes arevisualized using different colors
or arrows of different size, length, and direction. This allows an understanding of the dependen-
cies of different quantities, such as current, electric field, and magnetic field. Thus the electric
field can be displayed as different colors andthe magnetic field as arrows of different direction
and length.
The CORMORAN package is an analysis tool for calculation of the PCB radiation and/
or susceptibility. It provides an end-to-end solution for radiation analysis, from the input of
PCB geometry from a CAD system,through a fast experimentalPCB structures editor, to graphi-
cal results display and analysis tools. Dataand library management arealso handled from within
the CORMORAN package. Mechanical geometry of enclosures, heatsinks, etc. can be imported
using mechanical CAD system interfaces or can be defined directly in the CORMORAN ASCII
input language ESDL (EMC System Definition Language).
A shield can be placed around a PCB with an aperture, and the program takes approxi-
mately 30 minutes on a slow UNIX system to calculate the field from the aperture and 5-10
minutes on a faster workstation.
Multiple boards and connectors can be handled. At the time of writing, the PCB-to-PCB
modeling via connectors uses only a simple model of the connector and does not model cables.
By publication date of this book, a more sophisticated connector model should be included as
well as a model for cables. In addition, the later version of EMC workbench should include a
model of an IC socket. For the radiation simulation of PCBs, models of the component’s input
and output behavior and the physical PC board geometry and layer structure are used. The
package utilizes I/O buffer macromodules managed by EXLIN and stored in the ED library.
These models may be imported into the CORMORAN packagein IBIS ( U 0 buffer information
specification) or SPICEformat, or can be created within EXLIN by entering the I/O characteris-
tics into a properties window. With over 2800 library parts in the extensive I/O buffer library
supplied with CORMORAN, an existing U0 buffer macromedel may exist. The PCB geometry
and layout structure is imported through dedicated PCB interfaces in an ASCII-neutral format,
SULTAN, and is then read andconverted into the CORMORAN binary database by LDE.
SULTAN format interfaces are available from all major PCB systems.
CORMORAN calculates the current distribution, in the PCB traces using telegrapher’s
equations where ground planes exist or using MOM where discrete return paths or finite planes
have to be considered. Where MOM is applied, the problem is described by electrical field
integral equations (EFIE). The solution provided by either method is in the frequency domain
and is converted to the time domain through Fourier transformations. Using predefinedobserva-
tion points, CORMORAN then calculates the electrical and magnetic fields and the poynting
vector. Near- and far-field scans can be simulated by defining an array of observation points in
space, and polar radiation analysis can be achieved by defining a circle of radiation points on
a plane. Digital or analog signals as pulses or sinewaves are described, displayed as scopelike
measurements, and the program converts from the time to the frequency domain. The radiated
spectrum, near-or far-field scan, and radiation pattern are displayed using ANARES for 2D and
3D display and analysis and GRADIAN for 3D visualization and manipulation. A 2D plot of
the radiation and current distribution in a single trace or in multiple traces is displayed. Alterna-
tively, a 3D visualization can be displayed, with the PCB trace and the field around it rotatable.
The field around the trace is displayed as a colored plot. If it is clicked on, the magnitude of
the field is displayed; if the trace is clicked on, the current in the trace is displayed. Likewise,
the direction and magnitudeof current on a ground plane can be displayed. Multiple traces can be
modeled, with the effect of crosstalk between the traces accounted for. Neither the telegraphers
equations nor the MOM methods can directly calculate the effectof 3D structures and common-
mode current; instead, an intelligent system is used to make corrections for these effects. For
spectrum analysis and comparison of radiation levels against defined legislative limits (FCC,
CISPR22, etc.), a virtual radiation test chamber is implemented. A graphical representation of
the virtual test chamber is provided with user-definable parameters for the relationship between
the floor, test table, and antenna, such as height, angle, antenna position. Users are able to enter
antenna factors to define their own antennas, or they can choose from a variety of predefined
736 Chapter 11
types. A MIL-STD-462-specified ground plane on the table cannot be directly specified in the
radiation test setup but can be entered under the PCB in the input file. The effect of the ground
plane on the antenna factor will be included in a future issue of EMC Workbench.
Although a susceptibility analysis is available, it describes only a time-domain field source
and calculates the modification in the radiation from the PCB due the presence of the additional
source. The changein current on a trace or multiple traces is computed based on trace geometry
and input impedanceof devices but not the susceptibility of the device. For susceptibility/immu-
nity, the ideal tool would provide the analysis of the current flow on the PCB, due to a single
or swept frequency amplitude-modulated source, with the demodulation effect predicted in any
analog/RF device on the PCB.
Incases also provides the THEDA family of software packages for PCB, MCM,and hybrid
design, including: schematic design and entry, automatic placement, clearance control, interac-
tive routing editing, hybrid and multichip module design, and PCB manufacturing. The PCB
systems integrated with EMC workbench, in addition to THEDA, are: Boardstation, from Men-
tor Graphics; Visual, fromZuken-Redac; SciCards, from Xynetics;Allegro,from Cadence;
Power PCB, from PADS; and P-CAD Master Designer, from ACCEL.
An accuracy of 5-10 dB between the EMC workbench analysis and measurements on
benchmark PCBs has been reported. Incases provides a 5-day training course as part of the
package, although the program appears easy to learn.
For more information see http://www. iwccrses.corn.
11.8.2.5. Allegro Program
Cadence’s Allegro is a rules-driven design and analysis PCB and MCM program. The rules-
based design is confined to placement, routing, signal noise, timing analysis, propagation delay,
capacitance,resistance,inductance, impedance, signalintegrity,andbackwardandforward
(near-end and far-end) crosstalk. The Allegro program does not provide rules for radiated emis-
sions or immunity.
11.8.2.6. IFS Modeller Program
The IFS Modeller program is a CAE tool for design engineers with high-speed analog system
simulation requirements involved in PCB, IC, cable, coax, connector, and sinlilar interconnect
design problems requiring arbitrarily placed rectangular and circular shapes. The program en-
ables engineers to model via a GUI. Additionally, SPICE analysis is possible for crosstalk and
TDR output. The product features:
Transmission-line analysis of any drawn cross section
Solution of the complex Helmholtz equation for a selected frequency range
Frequency-dependent analysis of dielectric losses based on selected loss tangent
Cross-section reports, which includeunit matrices for R, L, C, and G as well as impedance,
admittance, and propagation modes
Use of the boundary element method, with the ability to address lossy conductors and
dielectrics
Automatic generation of SPICE modelsfor lossless or lossy multiconductor transmission
lines for a selected frequency
The supported platforms are: Windows; HPKJX9.x; HP/UX1O.x; Sun Solaris; and SunOS. The
IFS Modeller progm11 allows users to proactively conceptualize and visualize.
11.8.2.7. Program Comparison and Alternatives
None of the three major manufacturers of the commercially available PCB analysis programs
were either able, or willing, to analyze the microstrip or transmission-line layout examples de-
Printed 737
scribed in Section 11.3.2 of this book, so the author was not able to compare the performance
results to the measured results. With one manufacturer the predicted results were very different
from the results presented in 113.2 or Ref. 2.
If a PCB prediction or rule-based program is not used, either because such a program is
not available or because the results have not been satisfactorily validated, then at the minimum
a viewer program is extremely useful. The most common program is a Gerber viewer, which
provides an easy view of the layout, layer by layer, and simplifies the tracing of potentially
“hot” tracks throughout the board as well as how effective the ground planes are. All of this
can, in a pinch, be accomplished by means of photocopies of the different layers, but the Gerber
viewer allows isolation of individual tracks by highlighting a net and zooming in on a specific
area of the PCB. Simple, but generally adequate, Gerber viewers are available on the Internet
as freeware. A commercially available viewer and plot program, for use on a PC, with higher
capability is the GerbTool View/Plot program from WISE Software Solutions, Beaverton, OR.
WISE also manufactures the GerbTool designer,which allows the designer to modify the design,
after Gerber databases have been generated, and the GerbTool CAM, which is the full CAM
station.
11.9. PCB LAYOUT CASE STUDIES

11.9.1. Case Study 1 1 .l : Grounding Analog and Digital Circuits
Sharing the Same PCB
Figures 11.3% and 11.3Sb show the two sides of a common PCB layout in which the analog
circuits and logic share the same PCB. At first glance, the ground plane under the analog ICs
appears adequate, whereas in reality the layout is a classic example of poor grounding resulting
in conlmon impedance and radiated coupling and crosstalk. Electromagnetic interference was
detected on thisboard by examining theoutputbits of the12-bitsuccessive-approximation
A/D converter. The A/D converter was packaged in a 32-pin IC, the pads of which may be
seen i n Figures 11.35a and b.
When examiningthe output bitsof a successive-approximation converter, the type of noise
may often be determined by the distribution of the number of times each bit is set after an
D
ANALOG
SHIELDED
C +5v
LOGIC
SUPPLY
U/ \ -
ISOLATED ISLANDS E
Figure 11.35a Example of an analog/digital circuit with ineffective ground plane resulting in EMI.
738 Chapter 11
DlGll
GND
12 BIT
1 LSB.
J
ANALOG THIS AREA
SHIELDED FILLED IN
Figure 11.35b Reverse side of PCB with ineffective ground plane.
AID conversion. A Gaussian distribution indicates that the source of noise is noncoherent (e.g.,
thermal or l/f), in which case reducing the values of resistors and using low-noise op amps
may reduce the noise level. When the noise iscoherent (e.g., impulsive or CW noise), the AID
output often exhibits missing codes in which certain bitsare either not set or are set infrequently.
In the example presented here, a number of bits, not just the LSB, were toggling. The
input of the AID was connected at the edge connector to analog ground, i.e., shorted out, and
the differential input to the A/D should have been zero volts. The source of the noise was
determined to be the digital logic. On close examination of the analog ground plane in Figure
1 1.35a it is seen that the analog ground is separated into isolated islands connected by very thin
and often-circuitous tracks. These thin tracks are intended to shield the analog signal from the
+5-V power rail that can be seen around the peripheryof the PCB in Figure 1 1.35a. The tempo-
rary measure taken to improve the grounding was to fill in the isolated islands, by connection
of copper foil, on both sides of the board. A reduction in the number of bits toggling was
achieved by the improvement in the ground.
The digital ground connection may be seen in Figure 11.35b between points A and B .
The analog ground also connects to both points A and B , so digital noise currents flow in the
analog ground. Removing the analog ground connection just before point B effectively floated
the analog ground on top of the digital ground, and the number of bits changing state reduced
considerably. The thin shields aroundthe analog tracksatlocation E in Figure 11.35a will
provide approximately 6 dB of reduction in capacitive (voltage) crosstalk. Increasing the width
of the shield tracks can result in up to 11 dB of reduction. In this crosstalk problem, a low level
of noise voltage was measured between the analog ground and the +5-V track, and the major
coupling mode is almost certainly inductive. The source is the digital noise currents flowing in
the +5-V track. Inductive coupling is unusual in this configuration due to the typically high
input impedance of analog circuits. (See Chapter 4 for a description of capacitive and inductive
crosstalk.) However, the weighting of the LSB in the 12-bit A/D converter is 1.2 mV, which
makes the analog circuits extremely susceptible to noise, especially as a gain stage precedes
the A/D converter. The crosstalk problem was solved by cutting the +5-V tracks at locations
C and D, shown in Figure 11.35a, and using a wire connection in close proximity to the digital
Printed 739
ground track in Figure 11.35b. With the crosstalk problem solved, the noise reduced to a level
whereby approximately 1 LSB was toggling.
The remaining problem was found to be in the connection of the metal case of the AID
converter to analog ground. The A/D converter pin at point E is the case connection that was
connected by a track to analog ground, although the islands on either side of the track were
also analog ground. A voltage was induced in the case of the A/D by radiated coupling from
the digital logic circuits and tracks. By making a solid analog ground connection to the case,
the remaining EM1 disappeared and all output bits of the A/D were at “zero” level.
Although the intra-equipment-level problems were solved, as soon as the analog input
was connected to an external piece of equipment EM1 reappeared, due to common-mode noise
voltages between the analog grounds of the two units of equipment. The unit of equipment
underinvestigation was deliverable;thus,only minimum modificationswerepossibleatthe
PCB level. The immediate solution to the problem was to change the single-ended input to a
differential input. This required three video op amp ICs that exhibited a minimum 30 dB of
common-mode noise reduction up to 30 MHz. Consequently, the EM1 fix was expensive. It was
also difficult to find space for the additional circuitry. The lesson to be learned from this case
study is that in designing the printed circuit board layout, the equipment and system with the
goal of achieving EMC would have avoided delays in equipment delivery and the costlymodifi-
cations that had to be implemented in the next version of the equipment.
In summary, the improvements were:
a. The isolatedgroundislands shown in Figure11.35awere connected togetherusing
copper foil.
b. Connecting the case pin of the 12-bit A/D converter to the improved analog ground
eliminated the contribution of radiated coupling EMI.
C. Removing the analog groundconnection just beforepoint B effectively floatedthe
analog ground on top of the digital ground and eliminated, in conjunction with the
improved analog ground. the common ground impedance coupling problem.
d. Disconnecting the +5-V trace that can be seen around the periphery of the board in
Figure 1 1.35a, at points C and D , and bypassing it by means of a wire running across
the board above points A and B eliminated inductive crosstalk between noise carried
on the +5-v line and the sensitive analog traces shown in the right-hand edge of
Figure 1 1.35a.
11.9.2. Case Study 11.2: Good Grounding Technique

for a Video Circuit on a PCB
A second video circuit PCB layout is shown in Figure 11.36, the video ground plane of which
appears to be as segmented as that shown in Figure 11.35. However, the physical separation in
the ground plane is intentional, because the modified differential op amp circuit of Figure 8.17b
is used to effectively connect the ground plane islands A and B for differential signals but to
isolate the groundswith respect to common-mode signals/noise. The modified differential circuit
is also used at location C in order to isolate the video ground at the source from the video
ground on the video processing board, which is shown in Figure 11.36, point A. The ground
plane at B is the digital ground connected to the A/D converter. The advantage of the modified
differential circuit in this application is that the resistors connected to one of the two inputs are
used to tie the analog and digital grounds together and avoid potentials above the common-
mode input range of the op amp. Caremust be exercised in connecting the video circuit supply
return to the video ground. This connection must be made either at the signal source or to plane
A on the video processing board, but not both.
740 Chapter 11
QUASI-DIFFERENTIAL
,INPUT
Figure 11.36 Example of an analog/digital circuit with effective ground planes connected together by
differential anlplifier circuits.
The tracks at the side of the board, location D,carry control signals, which are designed
not to change state during video processing and A/D conversion. However, these tracks are
likely to have common-mode noise voltages impressed upon them or to carry common-mode
currents, with a consequent risk of radiated coupling to the analog circuit. The intent in design
verification was to test for the presence of radiated coupling at the prototype board level and
then to replace the tracks with six-conductor shielded cables if a problem existed. The shield
of the cable would be connected to a “clean” ground, such as structure ground. Tests showed
that indeed some radiated coupling existed, but this was at an insignificant level.
The board is used primarily in space applications, with a metal core providing a thermal
path to conduct heat away from components. The core is electrically isolated from all circuits
but connected to the enclosure, both electrically and thermally, at the card guide.
A noise problem has been encountered in the use of two different boards, both of which
contained a metal core connected to the enclosure. When the cores were isolated from the enclo-
sure, the high level of noise, detected again by the toggling of the A/D converter output bits,
reduced drastically. The source of the problem is unknown and was initially thought to be RF
currents flowing through the PCB core. Assuming that all other PCBs in the same enclosure
are sources of noise current flow in the enclosure, isolating the cores of these boards from the
enclosure should reduce the noise level on the susceptible board; but it did not. A key to the
problem may be the very high capacitance between the core and the analog/video ground plane.
The capacitance is dependent on the board and analog ground plane size and has been measured
at 3000-5000 pF.
Printed
11.9.3. Case Study 11.3: Coupling Between Digital Signals and an Analog
Signal Within the Analog Shielded Section of a Board
The board shown in Figures 11.37a and 1 1.37b is another example of an analog and digital
mix. Figure I 1.37a shows the digital section on the left-hand side and the analog ground plane
on the right-hand side, with a single trace connecting the two. This board did not suffer from
excessive radiation due to this single-point analog-to-digital ground connection, as described in
the grounding section, because of the width of the ground connection trace and because it was
made on more than one layer and these layers sandwiched the clock and data connections be-
tween the digital and analog sections. However, the analog circuit did suffer from pickup due
to the high-speed clock entering the analog section. The analog-section ground plane layout
ANALOG GROUND PLANE

7
\ LMn I - ml- IIK \ DllCCl Ulm
Figure i1.37a Analog ground plane and digitalscction of board.

742 Chapter 11
+20,-20,& AGND PLANES
Figure 11.37b Analog power and return tracks inside the digital section.
was designed to enablethe incorporation of a gate typeof shield around the analog section.When
this shield was incorporated, the level of radiated coupling remained the same. The addition of
shielding was ineffective because the source of radiated coupling was the clock signal, which
entered the analog section and was connected to the D/A converter. Before the radiated coupling
mechanism for EM1 was discovered it was thought that coupling occurred to the k20-V power
supply and analog ground track connections and the problem was caused by common-mode
current flow on the supply and return connections. The reason that this all-too-common problem
was suspected was that instead of making the power supply connection onthe right-hand connec-
tor adjacent to the analog ground, the circuit designer, against better judgment, was persuaded
to allow a connection as shown in Figure 11.37b. This type of connection places the analog
supply and return in very close proximity to the digital circuits and is a prime candidate for
coupling. However, in this case, coupling to the supply and return was not the problem.
The analog section was required to operate at very high speed, with an analog slew rate
of 600 V / p . The circuit designer had tried a high-Q Chebyshevfilter at the outputof the analog
chain in an attempt to filter out the clock signal; however, this degraded the response of the
analog output. Instead, a capacitor was tried at the load end of the analog trace connected to
the output of the D/A converter to reduce the load impedance and thereby the EM1 voltage
induced in the signal. The value of the capacitor was chosen suchthat the time constant formed
by the output impedance of the D/A converter and the capacitor did not increase the slew rate
appreciably. The EM1 problem was greatly improved and other improvements were possible.
However, an executivedecision wasmade to eliminate thevoltage-to-frequency converter,
which was supplied by the output of the analog section, and to use a digital-to-frequency con-
verter, with the hope that the EM1 would disappear. The warning was given that with a high
level of C/M noise on the digital data to the digital-to-frequency converter, that EM1 coupling
could occur inside the device; but this was ignored. Sure enough, the EM1 was still present,
and the designers spent a great deal of time improving the immunity of the digital-to-analog
converter, much to the delight of the manufacturer.
11.9.4.CaseStudy11.4:Out-of-SpecificationRadiatedEmissions
from Telephone Equipment
The equipmentunder test (EUT) wastested for radiated emissions in accordance with EN55022,
Class B (Domestic Information Technology Equipment). The original problem was an out-of-
spec emission at 185.00 MHz, which was about 6 dB above the limit, however, our own scan
of radiated emissions showed the level to be slightly higher, 10 dB above the limit. Therefore
modifications were required to reduce this and several other emissions fairly close to the limit.
11.9.4.1. Circuit-Level EMC Modifications

Several modifications are required to achieve the attenuation of radiated emissions shown in
Table 1 1.4. A shielded power cable is required as well as common-mode filtering of the power
with 1000-pF capacitors between each line and chassis ground. This is done for every line that
is routed down the cable. Theshield of the cable must also be terminated properly with a good
low RF impedance to the connector shell as well as to ground at the power supplyend. A power-
line filter was added between thepower supplyand the power cableto keep RF out of the power
supply and the ACpower lines, thereby minimizing radiation from these sources. This was done
to prove the effectiveness of the fixes performed on the power cable tothe EUT. The connector
on the EUT should make contact with the inside of the enclosure to keep coupling tothe shield
to a minimum. An EM1 gasket was also added between the connector and the enclosure to seal
the gap on both sub-D connectors on the EUT. The capacitorshelpbykeeping conducted
common-mode currents off the cable’s conductors, especially at lower frequencies. We used
surface-mount capacitors; however, capacitors with longer leads would likely to a good job,
although the extended lead length will present a greater impedance at higher frequencies.
When the cables were plugged into the serial connectors, a resultant out-of-specification
increase in radiation occurred. Surface-mount 470-pF capacitors were connected between the
digital ground in each of the connectors andthe chassis ground (and thus the conductive coating
on the inside of the enclosure), with a resultant decrease in emissions. Because this fix would
be extremely difficult to implement it was decided to try a filtered modular jack that contains
capacitors between each line and the metal case of the connector, as well as a ferrite block.
One cable was tested alone, because the radiated emissions from this cable were at the highest
744 Chapter 11
Table 11.4 Radiated Emissions Measurements Before and After Modifications

Radiated
emissions (dBpV/m) EN 55022 Class B
f limit
No (MHz) modifications With modifications (dBpV/m)
49.00 35 24 40
5 1.88 38 20 40
55.74 32 15 40
63.01 28.5 9.5 40
65.90 39 7 40
75.73 29.5 25.5 40
78.83 34 20 40
83.92 34 25 40
101.00 37.5 14.5 40
168.52 34.5 12.5 40
185.00 50 18 40
214.55 33 24 40
253.52 44 34 47
386.66 40 22 47
Ircdics indicates emisslon level is within 6 dB of the limlt (6 dB being our standard safety margin). Boldface indicates
emission level exceeds the limit.
level of all the four cables tested; thus, if this cable is within spec, the others will be as well.
The 470-pF capacitors were removed and the modular jack for the high-emission cable was
replaced with a Corcom filtered connector, part number RJ45-8LC2-B. This connector has a
metal shield around it, which should be terminated on the inside of the enclosure to the conduc-
tive paint. The reduction of the emissions radiated from the cable is 15 dB at 11 1.OO MHz,
however, an out-of-spec emission at 51.88 MHz remained. Adding a 1000-pF capacitor from
the digital ground lines of the display connector to the chassis ground drops this emission by
about 21 dB. These modifications are required on all of the other modular connectors.
The key to having the modificationsto the cables work is that the enclosure is well shielded
and the power cable shield and connector shell terminations have low impedance. If not, radiated
coupling to the output cables, which will bypass any filtering or high-impedance shield termina-
tions, can easily put emission levels out of spec. Apertures in the enclosure shield can result
in this effect. The coating at the two ends of the EUT enclosure exhibited a high impedance,
i.e., an aperture with respect to electromagnetic fields and especially magnetic;thus, a consistent
conductive coating that allows a good contact at the seams is mandatory. The intentional aper-
tures in the EUT enclosureareacceptable,because, due to theirsmallsize,only very high
frequencies will couple through them. It is the longer gaps in the ends of the enclosure and at
improperly connected seams that will allow the undesired coupling to cables at frequencies that
canpresentaproblem. In all tests these open end sectionswerecovered by aluminum foil
connected to the remaining components of the enclosure, which were coated with a relatively
low-resistance coating. This aluminum foil also covered most of some bad spots in the conduc-
tive paint discovered at the ends of the enclosure.
11.9.4.2.PCB LevelRadiationReduction
All of the modifications mentioned in Section 1 1.9.4.1 are costly and difficult to implement.
The manufacturer of the equipment was willing to go to a new PCB layout. Weak areas in the
existing PCB layout exist, and so going to a new layout was almost certain to reduce radiation.
In some instances a new PCB layout will eliminate the need for a conductive coating on a plastic
enclosure.
The problem areas on the PCB were at U40 and U41 in the power supply and around
Y I , the 8-MHz oscillator, as well as coupling resulting in C/M currents flowing on cable plugged
into 51, 52, 53, and 54. These area are shown in Figure 11.38a.
The modifications to the PCB layout needed to ensure meeting EN5022 Class B are as
follows:
U40 and U41 must be moved to a location over the digital ground plane section of the
board and not over the analog ground section. The existing digital ground trace,
which is taken into the analog section, is not adequate. The supply trace to the digital
section of the board should be brought into the power supply area by a plane, and
the decoupling capacitors must be connected by vias between the new power plane
and the digital ground plane. Likewise, C60 and C61 must be connected directly
by vias between the new digital power plane and the digital ground plane. Do not
use traces to coizrzect capacitors, and locate these capacitors close to U40 and U41.
Add 0.1-pF capacitors in parallel with the 47-pF C60 and C61, again using vias between
the digital ground and power planes, to improve their performance at high frequency.
The oscillator Y1 is located over the analog ground plane close to the J1, 52, 53, and 54
connectors. The power and return to Y 1 are made with traces, as are the connections
to the decoupling capacitor.
Y1 must be moved as far away from 51, 52, 53, and 54 as possible (at least 6 cm) and
remain in close proximity to the IC that interfaces to the clock. Y 1 must be located
over the digital ground plane, with its return pin directly connected, not by a trace,
to the digital return plane. The oscillator decoupling capacitor must be connected
between the digital power and return traces by vias, not by traces. and in close
proximity to Y 1.
E
Figure 11.38a Problem layout area before modification.
746 Chapter 11
DIGITAL <;RC):J N D PLANE

ANALOG
000~0
Digital ICs GROUND
PLANE
U
U40
n U4 1
U
Figure 11.38b Problem layout after modification.
All clock lines and high-speed data lines must be on inner layers sandwiched between
the digital power and return traces and not on the solder sides of the board.
J 1,J2,J3, and J4 should be located directly over a sectionof digital ground planeextending
under the connectors. Make provision for a 470-pF capacitor between the digital
ground plane and chassis at each of the connectors.
Place only low-level, low-frequency devices and traces close to 51, 52, 53, and 54. Keep
high-speed devices and clock and data traces as far away from the connectors and
signal traces to the connectors as possible.
The new PCB layout was made, with the improvements made in the critical areas shown
in Figure 11.38b. In formal tests the equipment met the EN55022 Class B requirements without
the addition of any of the circuit-level additions, such as filtered connectors and capacitors.
However, the customer complained that it only just passed radiated emission requirements, but
then admitted that not all the recommended modifications could be made to the board!
11.lo. INCREASED PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD IMMUNITY

With the advent of the European Union (EU) radiated and conducted immunity (susceptibility)
requirementscontained in EN50082-I, EN50082-2, EN55024, EN 6100-4-3, etc. equipment
either is subjected to common-mode test current injected on signal interfaces and to radiated
immunitytestfields or will be in thefuture. In addition to immunitytestlevels,digital or
switching power-supply noise can interfere with low-level signals. The problems of susceptibil-
ity of circuits are addressed in Case Studies 11.1 and 1 1.3 in Section 11.9, on PCB case studies.
At the PCB layout stage, any layout that reduces emissions will also decrease the level
of noise voltage induced in the circuit. For example, a good, solid ground plane will reduce the
voltage dropped across it as signal current flows and will reduce emissions. Likewise, if C/M
current flows in the ground plane, the voltage drop in a good ground plane is low and the level
of common impedance coupling is low.
One special precaution that needs to be taken in laying out a boardfor maximum immunity
is to make signal and signal return track lengths, for differential-input circuits, equal. If they
are not equal, any induced C/M RF current will exhibit a different propagation delay, or phase
shift, between the signal and the signal return track, resulting in a differential voltage at the
input of the receiver. Remember, however, that EM1 can also result from a C/M current flow
into the input of a single-ended receiver, which is converted to D/M by the differences in signal
input impedance and signal ground impedance. The most common and effective solution is to
place a low-value capacitor, which has a low impedance at RF and a high impedance at the
input signal frequency, between the signal input and the ground. Thus at RF the signal input
has a low impedance to signal ground and the C/M current, onsignal and ground tracks, results
in a minimal D/M voltage between signal and ground.
REFERENCES
1. D.A. Weston. EMC Series Report # l PCB Radiation due to high speed logic and emission reduction
techniques, 1992 EMC Consulting.
2. Shahrokh Daijavid and Barry J. Rubin. Modeling Common Mode Radiation from 3D Structures. IEEE
Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, February 1992, Vol. 34, Number 1.
3. Frank B.J. Leferink. Inductance calculations; Methods and Equations. IEEE International Symposium
on Electromagnetic Compatibility record, Atlanta, 1995.
12
EM1 and EMC Control, Case Studies, EMC
Prediction Techniques, and Computational
Electromagnetic Modeling
12.1. EMCCONTROL
The emphasis in this book has been on prediction techniques useful in designing EMC into
equipment and systems. EMC control ensures that the EMC design is correctly implemented
at every stage in the development and manufacture of equipment.
12.1.l. EMC Control Plans

Control plans are required at both the system and equipment levels. The system-level plan re-
quirements are contained in MIL-STD-464 and equipment/subsystem requirements in the Data
Item Description.
The EMC control plan indicates how EMC will be accomplished for a specific equipment,
subsystem, or system. Too often the control plan is a general-purpose document reissued with
only minor changes forevery type of equipment. The control plan should be specific and describe
the type of equipment, expected levels and frequencies of emission, level of immunity, EM1
budgeting, and potential waiver requests,or any predicted difficulty in meeting the requirements.
Details of the grounding scheme, filtering, shielding, etc. should be provided with design goals
and breadboard-level tests.
An important section in the plan, and one increasingly required by procuring agencies, is
a detailed EMC prediction that can provide information on the effectiveness of the design and
highlight any critical areas. The EMC prediction is typically part of the EMC program plan,
however, when this is not a requirement, the prediction should be included in the control plan
or as an appendix to it.
The EMCprediction and analysis techniques shouldbe described with validation measure-
ments, where possible, that confirm the applicability of the particular technique to the applica-
tion. The prediction techniques should be used in potential EM problem areas, for determining
degradation criteria and safety margins, tailoring applicable EMC documents, and determining
the anticipated EM environment.
The purpose of the plan is twofold: (1) to assure the procuring agency that the equipment
will be designed for EMC;( 2 ) to provide guidelines and design goals to designers and systems,
mechanical, and packaging engineers.
Once an effective and detailed plan has been created, the next step is to ensure that the
plan is used by the responsible engineering people. This is achieved by making one individual
responsible for EMC and having that person sit in on design reviews as well as the process of
signing off drawings. The same individual should develop the EMC control program, control
749
750 Chapter 12
and test plans, and the power and grounding diagram. The contents of a typical control plan
are as follows:
Scope
Purpose
Organization
Where the EMC activity fits in the contractors organization
Documentation
Applicable documents, including the EMC requirements, test methods, grounding and
bonding, lightning protection, and safety, as it applies to EMC
Reference documents, including EMC design guidelines and handbooks
Documentation requirements
Test results
Signal and power interface details
Power and grounding diagram
Test matrices
Test plans
Test procedures
Test reports
Management
EMC responsibility: should contain the responsibility and authority of the individual
who will direct and implement the program and the number of full- or part-time
EMC personnel on the program
EMC reviews
Design requirements: Methods and requirements for ensuringthat contractor-developed
subsystems and equipment will not be adversely affected by interference from
sources within the equipment, subsystem,or system or be sourcesof interference
that might adversely affect the operation of other equipment/subsystems. This is
typically achieved by meeting MIL-STD-461 requirements. Some of the specific
design areas that should be controlled by requirements are:
Cable design, including wire categorization and criteria for identifying, labeling, and
installing
Interference-generating or susceptible wires, shielding techniques, and wire routing
Internal wiring, external wiring
Enclosure structure, shielding, bonding, aperture closure, and gasketing
Signal interface design goals and tests
Intraequipment and Intrasubsystem design considerations controlledby interface con-
trol documents when equipment is procured from different sources
Intersubsystem design considerations controlled by interface control documents
Radiation characteristics from system antennas, including fundamental and spurious
energy and antenna-to-antenna coupling
Design criteria and required tests for lightning protection
Impact of corrosion control requirements on EMC and recommendations for resolu-
tion of problem areas
Methods of implementation of design changes required for EMC
12.1.2.EMC Control Program Plan

The program plan provides the data to determine whether all pertinent EMC considerations are
being implemented during a program and whether equipment, subsystems, or systems can be
EM1 & EMC Control, Predictions, & Computational Modeling 751
expected to operate in the electromagnetic environment without degradation due to effects from
electromagnetic energy and without causing degradation to other equipment, subsystems, or
systems.
The plan should describethe procedure for managing the EMC program during the project,
the EMC organization and responsibilities, lines of authority, responsibilities and role of the
Electromagnetic Compatibility Advisory Board (EMCAB), procedures for identifying and re-
solving potential problems, and a schedule and milestone chart of all EMC activities during the
program. The plan should contain the EMC predictions and analysis when this is not a part of
the EMC control plan.
The following is an example of one approach that may be taken to ensure EMC in the
design of a ship for which a large number of pieces of equipment, not all of which meet MIL-
STD-461 or IEC Publication 533 requirements for shipboard equipment, must be chosen. The
outline of the program plan is as follows:
1. Characterize the EMC characteristics of the candidate equipment

2. Characterizethepredictedelectromagneticambient
Srep I: The following information on the candidate equipment is required:
a. Ship zone in which equipment is located

b. Operationalcriticality
c.Whether it is an intentional or unintentionaltransmitter,receiver, or both, for the
purpose of EMC
d. EMC requirementsmet by the equipment, including commercial
e. Electromagneticemission profile
f. Electromagneticimmunity
g. Shielding effectiveness of the equipment enclosure and cable
h. Power requirementsandtype of supply used
i. Interfacetypes (RS232, 1553, IEEE-GPIB, etc.)
j. Effectiveness of equipment power-line filter, wheninstalled
Step 2: The electromagneticambient is likely to vary throughoutthe ship, depending

on the proximity to equipment such as transmitters, electrical control rooms, cables, and the
level of shielding provided by metal walls and apertures (doors and windows) planned for each
zone. In order to derive a typical ambient for each zone, the following factors should be ac-
counted for:
a. The routing of power, control, and transmitter cables in the vicinity of each zone and
the nature of the coupling paths between the cables and equipment.
b. Where the radiated emission footprint for a specific equipment is known, it should
be used in characterizing the electromagnetic ambient. If equipment has met radiated
emission limits, then these limits may be used.
C. Where pertinent measured data for ships is available from shipboard EM1 surveys,
this data may be used.
d. In the absence of either of these types of data, published data similar to that provided
in this book for similar environments-such as process control-or computing may
be used.
e. The conducted ambient may be derived from shipboard conducted susceptibility levels
contained in IEC publication 533 for commercial ships and MIL-STD-461 for mili-
tary. These levels should be tailored when informationon theactual ambient is known.
752 Chapter 12
With the EM conducted and radiated ambients characterized, a comparison of the EMC
characteristic of the equipment to the harshness of the ambient can be made. Potential EM1
situations, in which the equipment does not match the ambient, can then be determined. For
example, when a computer that meets commercial radiated and conducted emission limits and
that exhibits an immunity level adequate for an office environment is intended for operation i n
a control room, the potential for EM1 is high.
A detailed analysis of each potential EM1 situation should be performed to ascertain the
probability that the problem exists. If the probability of EM1 is high, the severity of the degrada-
tion due to EM1 should be calculated and one of more changes made to ensure EMC. Some of
the changes that can be made to achieve EMC are as follows:
a. Relocating equipment within a zone (to separate high emitters from the more suscepti-
ble equipment).
b. Addingsignal and/or power-line filters to an entire zone or to individualpieces of
equipment.
c. Compartmentalizing a zone into “noisy” and “quiet” areas, perhaps by incorporation
of conductive doors and walls with feedthrough signal and power-line filtering. A
related technique is to shield an individual piece of equipment.
d. Reroutingsignal and/orpower cables.
e. Increasing the level of shielding on signal and/or power cables and/or their connec-
tors.
f. Where feasible, changing an equipment’s interface to ahigher-immunitytype (e.g.,
changing from RS232 to RS422 or from an electrical to an optical interface).
The topside antenna-to-antenna and antenna-to-cable coupling must also be examined in
the EMC control plan, here the techniques described in Section 10.2.1 are applicable.
12.1.3. Quality Control
One of the major reasons why equipment that has been certified as complying with an EMC
requirement does not continue to comply in a production version is lack of quality control. The
other major factor, already discussed, is modifications to equipment design or software.
Any modifications to a design should be under configuration control from a single author-
ity. Appropriate documentation, such asan Engineering Change Notice (ECN), should be used.
The ECN must be reviewed by the responsible EMC authority to evaluate the impact of the
change to EMC, once the change is accepted, speedy removal of superseded documents should
be accomplished.
Any changes to equipment that has been accepted should be inspected and verified and
the equipment retested for compliancewith EMC requirements when thisis considered necessary
by the procuring agency. That apparently minor modifications can result in significant changes
in emissions and susceptibility, especially when the changes affect the grounding scheme must
be considered when making the decision to retest or not. Equipment that has had changes incor-
porated should be marked or reidentified if the magnitude of the change warrants. Inspection
records should be maintained that include as a minimum:
Identification of the item
Date of inspection
Number of units inspected
Number of units rejected
Description and cause of discrepancy
Disposition of material
Identification of the inspector
Additional inspection records that include test results and certification of personnel for
special processes, such as soldering and plating, should also be maintained. Inspections should
be tailored for EMC. For example, if a ferrite core contains a few pinholes, it is likely to be
rejected by incoming inspection, although the pinholes will not affect the impedance of the
ferrite and will hardly change its physical characteristics. Far more important would be a test
of the impedance versus frequency characteristics that affect the performance of the core.
The performance of filters is not necessarily consistent over different production runs and
should be individually tested in a setup that approaches as closely as possible the impedances
of the actual source and load as well as the type of noise.
Incoming inspection should includea checklist for incoming material, shop travelers, oper-
ation sheets, and/orinspection instructions to describe inspection operations during manufacture.
Statistical quality control should be implemented on items not 100%inspected. Material subject
to deterioration, such as conductive adhesives or caulking, should be periodically inspected and
discarded when beyond its useful life.
The periodical training or retraining of inspection personnel, especially when new pro-
cesses or materials are introduced, should be instigated. Quality control of sources shall be in
place, including a list of approved sources anda performance rating system.The latest drawings
or specifications should be quoted on purchase orders, with inclusion of quality assurance re-
quirements such as traceability included on the P. 0.
Material not inspected either shall be not released to production or shall be controlled so
that if the item is subsequently found unacceptable it may be retrieved. All materials should be
identified. Materials not released for usage should be segregated in controlled areas with age
control and lot identity maintained.
Adequate test procedures should be in existence for qualification tests of engineering mod-
els and preproduction and production models of the equipment. Make sure the test procedure
is reviewed and acceptedby the customer well before commencementof tests. Records of accep-
tance tests should be maintained. Control of nonconforming supplies and items shall be such
that no out-of-specification component/unit can be incorporated into productionequipment. Sup-
plies that cannot be reworked or components that cannot be repaired should either be returned
to the manufacturer or be scrapped. Packaging and shipping procedures should be in effect.
Sensitive equipment must be adequately identified, specially packed, with the inclusion of an
accelerometer to monitor vibration and shock where this is justified.
Measuring and test equipment at a facility should be controlled as follows:
Test procedures for test equipment including calibration limits and description of calibra-
tion equipment.
A list of qualified test facilities where equipment is sent should also be maintained.
Standards and calibration equipment used to calibrate test equipment shall be periodically
certified.
The test equipment shouldbekept in an environmentwithhumidityandtemperature
control and in which no damage or loss of calibration can result.
12.2. EM1 INVESTIGATIONS

In an EM1 investigation the approach used is of paramount importance in finding a speedy and
cost-effective solution. The approach should be methodical and thoughtful. This is much easier
said than done, especially when under pressure to find a quick fix. In some instances the cause
of EM1 and its solution are readily apparent and a minimum amount of prediction and diagnostic
testing are required. In many cases, however, an immediate answer to the problem is not avail-
754 Chapter 12
able, and some analysis and testing are required. One incorrect approach is to try a number of
changes in parallel in the hope that at least one will work. I know of one extreme example
where equipment was due for delivery but failed an acceptance test due to EMI. The requirement
specification was extremely stringent and no waiver was allowed. A systematic approach was
not used in finding the source of the problem. Instead, every change imaginable was made to
the equipment. Some of these changes may have achieved some small improvement that was
masked by other changes, which exacerbated the problem. After three years the problems were
solved and the equipment could be shipped. Because no exact records were made of those
changes that had effected the improvement, the next version of the equipment exhibited the
same problem. Although an extreme case it serves to illustrate the importance of a systematic
and well-documented procedure. More commonly, months may be spent in fixing an EM1 prob-
lem that a specialist may accomplish in weeks, or the fix involves a costly modification or
addition to circuits where a much simpler and cost-effective solution exists. Using the right
systematic method requires self-discipline and the cultivation of a step-by-step approach.
One argument for blanket changes is that with additional filtering, shielding, grounding,
compartmentalization, etc., a guaranteed solution exists. However, as we have seen throughout
the book, a limit exists to the shielding effectiveness achieved in a practical enclosure, source
emissions may be high, and an incorrect filter or grounding scheme may worsen a problem.
Unfortunately, the advantage of the systematic over the blanket approach often has to be demon-
strated before it is accepted.
It is imperative that the number of variables that are not part of the EM1 investigation be
reduced to the absolute minimum. Therefore, do not arbitrarily move a cable position or circuit
board location without a “before and after” measurement or assessment of the effect on EM1
or emission level. Also, do not exchange or modify the software, circuits, equipment power
source, installation method, connector or cable type, grounding configuration, or test method
and test equipment without a “before and after” assessment of the effect.
The first question to ask is: Is the problem EMI? Or is the equipment malfunctioning due to
another cause? Practicing engineers often encounter discussions between software and hardware
engineers who believe a problem lies in each other’s domain. This is also true of the designer
who can find no failure in the hardware or software and assumes the problem is EMI. Therefore
if, after investigation, EM1 is not found, the cause of the problem may be equipment malfunction.
A typical approach is first to isolate the source of the problem and the coupling path or
paths by a process of elimination. As discussed in previous chapters, it is common for both
radiated and conducted coupling to coexist. Also, the coupling may appear to be clearly con-
ducted, whereas in reality the path is radiated, or vice versa. In an investigation every measure-
ment and modification must be documented, with any change in the level of EM1 noted, for as
seen throughout the book, and especially in the case studies, a modification that results in a
worsening of a problem can tell as much about the cause as a change that results in an improve-
ment.
It is often easier to start with the minimum number of circuit boards, cables, and pieces
of equipment that exhibit an EM1 problem or above-specification emissions. Once the source(s)
and solution(s) to the problems associated with the minimum configuration have been found,
the additional circuits, cables, or equipment can then be connected one after the other and any
additional problems solved in a stepwise manner.
Bench tests on individual circuit boards separated from the equipment/system are often
helpful in isolating and locating circuit-level emissions and susceptibility. Bench tests are partic-
ularly useful when circuit-level problems are masked by equipment-level conducted or radiated
emissions. For example, relatively low-noise linear power supplies and low-noise signals from
an oscillatorlfunction generator may be used to supply the circuit in a bench test.
EM1 81 EMC Control, Predictions, 81 Computational Modeling 755
Once the source of the problem has been found, one or more solutions can be proposed
or temporarily or permanently implemented. One problem is to find a modification acceptable
to the engineering manager, the packaging engineer, Q.A., and production. One or more of these
people often want a fix with no modifications at all!
The following case studies are intended to provide examples of effective EM1 investiga-
tions that have produced timely results with acceptable modifications to equipment and circuits.
12.2.1. Case Study 12.1: EM1 investigation into Intra-equipment

Susceptibility
This case study illustrates the importance of understanding the significance of an increase or
decrease in EM1 when implementing changes to equipment, for once the significance is under-
stood, the source of EM1 may be located. The case study also emphasizes the importance of
drawing an equivalent circuit in order to find the coupling path.
The equipment under investigation is a spectrometer instrument with an ionization detector
contained in a vacuum housing. The output of the ionization detector is fed into the input of a
gain of 10 amplifier, the output of which is applied to a discriminator. The second input to the
discriminator is a DC reference level, which is adjusted by a potentiometer to discriminate
against noise picked up by the ionization detector and amplified by the gain stage. The problem
was that excessive noise resulted in a setting of the reference level, which was so high that low-
level signals were also discriminated against. The instrument generated high power levels at 27
MHz, and this was considered the most likely source of noise.
The required discriminator reference level was 95 mV before discrimination against the
noise was achieved. The noise level referenced to the input of the gain stage (assuming the
noise source is a 27-MHz sinewave) is therefore:
Reference level -
v,,,,,.,,,
=2 x
Gain of first stage
- 2 X
10
= 19 mV pk-pk
When referring to noise level in this case study, the reference level at the input of the discrimina-
tor is quoted and not the noise level at the input of the first gain stage.
The gain stage and discriminator equivalent circuit are shown in Figure 12.la The differen-
tial output of the discriminator is connected to the remaining circuits in the instrument by a
ribbon cable with integral shield that was connected to a drain wire in the cable.
Tests and fixes were tried in the following sequence with the following results:
1. Routing the ribbon cable through a ferrite balun had the effect of reducing the noise
level from 95 mV to 75 mV.
2. Adding a shield over the ribbon cable with the shield disconnected from DC return
but connected to chassis at both ends increased the noise level from 95 mV to 103
mV. The main chassis was then isolated from the framework with no decrease in
noise level; also, connecting the shield at only one end did not help.
3. Disconnecting one end of the drain wire in the ribbon cable and connecting it to DC
return, i.e., connecting the shield to the DC return, increased the noise from 95 mV
to 145 mV.
4. Floating the shields of the cables connecting the differential output of the discrimina-
tor to the ribbon cable from the ground plane at the discriminator reduced the noise
from 95 mV to 78 mV.
756 Chapter 12
ion
detector
Alummum plate
t
pF Feedthroughcapacitance
Two 1/4"
*
13 nH
0.001 OF
0.0022pF 0.0022pF capacitor
0.001 pF
=lOnH
n
>,"\I
Man chasas
b
l I
1 -
plane Ground DC common
Real andparasitic components at the input of the detector pre-amp
Figure 12.la Equivalent input circuit of the gain stage and discriminator.
The conclusion to be drawn from the results of the steps 1, 2, 3, and 4 is that a common-
mode current is flowing in the ribbon and other interconnection cables, probably in the shields.
This conclusion is based on the following:
Addingachassis-connectedovershield that wasconnected to the groundplaneat the
discriminator end increases the noise, indicating that the RF currents are flowing in
the chassis and on the shield.
The shield current increases with application of the overshield because the impedance of
the shield and the chassis connection is lower than that of the ribbon cable shield.
The balun has the effectof reducing the level of common-mode current by increasing
the impedance of the ribbon cable shield.
5. In an attempt to reduce RF current flow into the gain stage and discriminator circuits,
0.12-pH chokes were added into the +5-V, -5-V, and return line (because the dis-
criminator output is differential, adding an inductor in the supply return should have
no adverse effect), however, the noise increased to 315 mV.
6. Removing the choke in the return but retainingthem in the +5-V and -5-V lines,
with additional 1-Q resistors to eliminate the possibility of series resonance, reduced
the noise to its original level. This reduction was entirely due to the removal of the
choke in the DC return. Clearly, in the overall grounding scheme the location of the
connection of the DC return to the chassis at the detector circuits is important. An
attempt was made to measure the chassis current flow in the two 'h-inch ground straps
EM1 & EMC Control, Predictions, 81 Computational Modeling 757
by use of a current probe. This was found to be impossible due to the approximately
100 mA at 27 MHz measured by the shielded probe when held in the vicinity of the
chassis. That is, the probe was measuring the ambient electromagnetic field and not
conducted currents.
7. Disconnecting the input from the detector to the gain stage reduced the noise level
to 13 mV.
8. Replacing the two 1/4-inch ground straps connecting the groundplane to the chassis
with a 10-pF inductor increased the noise level to 1 V.
9. Reconnecting the ground straps and removing the two high-voltage connections to
the detector decreased the noise level by 8 mV.
The results from step 7 indicate that the majority of the noise is not conducted or radiated
coupling to the gain stage or discriminator but is picked up by the detector. The detector is well
shielded so the coupling is unlikely to be radiated. The capacitance of the vacuum feedthroughs
was measured at 8 pF on an LCR meter, and these values as well as lead inductances and the
self-inductance of the capacitors were included in the equivalent circuit of Figure 12.la.
A simplified equivalent circuit showing the impedance of the equivalent circuit to chassis
is shown in Figure 12.lb. An important impedance not shown in the equivalent circuit is the
impedance of the ground plane. The shield of the ribbon cable is connected to the ground plane
and therefore RF current flow on the shield flows across the ground plane and to chassis. The
majority of the current flows to chassis via the two %-inch ground straps. However, alternative
paths exist through the approximately 1 . 8 4 impedances of the two high-voltage capacitors and
the approximately 6 6 3 4 impedance of the feedthroughs. The current path that results in EM1
0 10 pH choke (X L = 1.8 kfl) trled at thls polnt
0 The 0.001 pF capacitor comblned with 11sself and lead Inductance

forms a serles resonance clrcult at = 27 MHz
Note: All Impedances at 30 MHz
Figure 12.1b Simplifiedequivalentcircuit

758 Chapter 12
0.001
1 I
Ground plane
Figure 12.2a Developing a common-mode noise voltageinsteadof differential.
is via the 5 10-R resistor at the input of the gain stage and to chassis through the impedance of
the feedthrough.
The preferred approach in combating EM1 is to reduce at source. However, in this case
study, as in many others, reduction at source is ruled out due to the difficulty and cost of imple-
menting changes in production equipment. Adding a balun on the ribbon cable was found to
reduce EM1 but not to any great extent.
A better solution would be to incorporate a 5 1 0 4 (or variable), resistor in series with a
0.001-pF capacitor, in series with an 8-pF capacitor to chassis. The differential input to the gain
stage is then developed across the existing resistor, shown in Figure 12.2a, and across the addi-
tional resistor shown in Figure 12.2a. Approximately equal noise currents are developed in the
two resistors, as is noise voltage developed across them. Therefore approximately equal noise
voltages, that is, a common-mode voltage, are applied to both inputs of the gain stage, and the
noise appears at a much reduced amplitude at the output of the stage. Another potential solution
is to move the physical location of the ground straps to the ribbon cable shield connection and
to connect an inductor from the chassis connection to the ground plane. Additional inductors
would also be required in the +5-V and -5-V supply connections to the board, because the
noise current is common mode. In the location first tried for the connection of the inductor to
chassis, a very high voltage was developed across the inductor, and the noise current through
the 51042 input resistor increased. In the proposed location, a low impedance to chassis for
noise currents is achieved by the ground straps, and a high impedance, approximately 1.7 kR
for a 10-pH inductor, is introduced in the input path of the gain stage. Figures 12.2a and 12.2b
illustrate the two fixes.
12.2.2. Case Study 12.2: Reducing Radiated Emissions on a Computing

Device to FCC Class A Limits
In the initial configuration, the equipment was contained in an enclosure constructed with closed
metal sides and a perforated metal top and bottom. The front and rear of the enclosure was
open, with a motherboard, located at the rear of the enclosure, to which the PC boards were
connected. The boards are plugged in to the frontof the enclosure with ametal faceplate mounted
on each of the boards. The metal faceplate was not electrically connected to the enclosure, and
a gap existed between adjacent faceplates, as illustrated in Figure 12.3
Chassis
10 pH +5 v
114” ground
straps
l 0 pH
\
Ribbon cable
shield
Ground plane
I 10pH
-5 v
Figure 12.2b Moving the location of thegroundstrapsandaddinga 10-pHinductorintheground

plane. .
Two coaxial cables are connected to BNC connectors on the metal faceplate of one of
the boards. Both cables are used to carry a l-MHz signal. A second connector mounted on a
second board is usedto connect an RS232 cable. The additional DC power and multiconductor
cable connections to the equipment are made throughthe rear of the enclosure. The multiconduc-
tor connections terminate on the motherboard inside the enclosure, and none of the cables enter-
ing the rear of the enclosure are shielded.
The measurements were. made in a shielded room using a tunable dipole and a 6-cm
balanced loop antenna, which was usedto locate specific sources of emissions, i.e., from cables,
apertures in the enclosure, and PCBs. A Hewlett-Packard near-field probe was used to locate
emissions from individual tracks on PCBs.
The common-mode current on interconnection cables was measured, and the current was
then used to predict the radiated emissions from cables.
Multiconductor cables
Coaxial cables(1 MHz slgnal)
Figure 12.3 Equipmenttestsetup for radiated emissions.

760 Chapter 12
The equipment was positioned on a nonconductive table at a height of 1 m above the

floor of the shielded room. The enclosure ground and digital ground were separately connected
to the shielded room floor via two # l 6 AWG wires, which is the grounding scheme used in the
equipment installation.
Measurements of the radiated emissions fromthe equipment were made with the balanced
loop and tunable dipole. The magnetic field measured by the balanced loop was converted to
an E field magnitude at a distance of 30 m (the FCC-specified distance) by a computer program.
The dipole measurements where made at the location where the dipole was calibrated in the
room, at a distance of 1 m from the equipment. The E field was then extrapolated out to the
30-m distance. Themaximum amplitude emissions measured using the dipole and loopantennas
were compared. Where a good correlation existed between the two measurement techniques,
the maximum amplitude of the two measurements was taken. When a poor correlation existed,
the reason, such as room resonance andreflections, were examined and suitable corrections and
an engineering judgment were made on the results. Table 12.1 shows the source and magnitude
of worst-case emissions converted to a distance of 30 m and compared to the FCC limits.
The major sources of emission were the front-panel-terminated coaxial cables and RS232
cables, with predicted emissions from these sources alone as high as 270 p V/m at 30 m. The
reason for the high-level emissions are not the differential signals carried by the cables but high
common-mode current flow on the coaxial shields and the RS232 unshielded conductors. The
current flow is caused by noise voltages appearing between the enclosure, which is connected
to the shielded room floor, and the digital ground on the boards, to which the coaxial cable
shields and signals are referenced.
The shields could not be directly connected to the enclosure, because DC isolation was
a requirement for this type of equipment. Instead, for the purpose of diagnosis, a shield made
of aluminum foil was constructed over the front of the equipment, with two insulated islands
of aluminum in the shield that were connected to the BNC connectors. The islands were bridged
by 1000-pF capacitors with short leads, and thus the connectors and shields of the cables were
RF grounded to the enclosure but DC isolated. The resonantfrequency of the capacitors is
approximately 50 MHz and was chosen to coincide with the worst-case emission at 49 MHz.
The maximum emissions from the front of the enclosure and the cables with the addition of
the shield and capacitors reduced to 31.7 pV/m at 49 MHz, 100 pV/m at 70.9 MHz, and 113
pV/m at 113 MHz, and it was clear that further improvements were required. Shielding the
power cable and adding baluns on the cables exiting from the rear of the enclosure reduced
emissions further, with only one frequency remaining too close to the limit.
The out-of-specification frequency was traced to PCB tracks using the HP near-field probe.
Ideally a ground plane connected to digital ground should be incorporated under the tracks in
Table 12.1 Measured Fields Converted to a Distance of 30 m and

Compared to the Specified Limits
Measured Specified
Frequency(converted to 30 m) at 30 m
Location [MHz] [ ~ V l m[ Pl V I ~ ~ I
Front of enclosure and cables 49 403 30
Front of enclosure and cables 52 170 30
Front of enclosure
138 and cables 99.8 50
Rear of enclosure only 82.7 60 30
EM1 81Control,
EMC
Predictions, & Computational
Modeling 761
order to reduce board emissions.The addition of a second ground plane connected to the enclo-
sure but isolated from the board is also likely to reduce emissions.
A makeshift ground plane was constructed from aluminum foil, placed on the track side
of the board, and isolated from the tracks by cardboard. The ground plane was connected to
the enclosure only. A reduction at 59.9 MHz of 8 dB was achieved by the addition of the
provisional ground plane.
Further reductions were achieved by adding a ground plane to the motherboardat the rear
of the enclosure or shielding the rear of the enclosure with foil. Closing up the apertures at the
top of the enclosure reduced emissions slightly at 70.4 MHz but not at 59.9 MHz.
The initial fixes of the 1000-pF capacitors connected to a totally shielded front to the
enclosure wereconsideredimpractical by themanufacturersand alternative solutions were
sought.
In an attempt to reduce the common-mode voltage appearing between digital ground (and
therefore all signals) and chassis, 82-pF capacitors were connected between the digital ground
connections of all PCBs in the enclosure and chassis. The capacitors were located at the rear
of the edge connectors on the motherboard as shown in Figure 12.4.
The enclosure was improved by adding a metal shield to the rear of the enclosure, after
which no backplane was required on the motherboardto reduce emissions from the rear of the
enclosure. Additional perforated shields, which allowed air flow, were added to the top and
bottom of the card cage inside the enclosure. The unshielded cables at the rear of the enclosure
were a source of emissions, and adding a shield around these cables reduced emissions at 83
MHz by 9 dB and at 90 MHz by 8.7 dB. Because these cables were commercially available
and were pluggedinto the equipment, i.e., could be removed and replacedby unshielded cables,
unshielded cables had to be used in certification tests, in accordance with FCC guidelines.
Some of the conductors in thecables were unused, andthese were connectedto the enclo-
sure at the equipment.The ideal location for the connection of these conductors is to the outside
of the enclosure, which was impractical. Even with the conductors connected to the inside of
the enclosure, at the motherboard, radiated emissions were reduced, but notto the same extent
- Copper
-
\ Screw connectionto chassis 7
Figure 12.4 Method of connecting FW ground capacitors between the digital ground and the enclosure.
762 Chapter 12
as achieved with shielded cables. Ferrite baluns were built into the rear of the enclosure at the
location at which the cables entered the enclosure, which resulted in a significant reduction in
emissions.
The digital grounds on PCBs were connected to the metal faceplate by 82-pF capacitors,
with the faceplate connected to the frame of the card cage via beryllium copper finger stock
material. The board, which had benefited from the addition of a ground plane, was relaid out
with an additional ground plane layer. These modifications were made to a production piece of
equipment, and from measurements made in the shielded room, with the cable arranged for
maximum emissions, the prediction was that the equipment would pass FCC limits when mea-
sured on an open-field test site.A subsequent certificationtest, using theidenticalpiece of
equipment and identical peripheral equipment on a specific open-field test site, resulted in peak
measurements at least 6 dB below the FCC limits.
An emphasis is laid on the correlation of shielded-room measurements to specific open-
field test site measurements because of the up-to-26-dB variation measured in field strength
from identical computing systems at six sites and recorded in Ref.1. Although identical systems
were measured, it is not clear that exactly the same piece of equipment was measured at all six
sites, for if not, a variation must be expected from one piece of equipment to the next.
This case study illustrates that EM1 solutions can be found that are acceptable to a manu-
facturer and that in this case did not require either a totally shielded enclosure or shielded cables.
12.3. EMC PREDICTIONS: GENERAL APPROACH

Too often the management and planning of EMC is not included in the electronic equipment
or system design. It is only when equipment is adversely affected by EM1 or fails an EMC test
that a manufacturer is forced to consider either a redesign or somemodification to achieve EMC.
It may be argued that the incidence of EM1 problems has increased over the last 20 or so years,
attributable, among other factors, to an increase in the level of electromagnetic ambient, in
communications spectrum occupancy, in the number of electronic products, and in the speed
of logic and switching-power supplies. Therefore the traditional approach of relying on good
design practice without specifically designing for EMC is proving inadequate.
As a result of the increased incidence of EMI, the statement that you either pay for EMC
design now or you pay later (and usually pay more) for EM1 solutions has become almost a
truism.
An EMC prediction should be made as early in the equipment-, subsystem-, or system-
level design as possible and then further refined as the design proceeds. The analysis should
take into account the sources of potential problem emissions and the coupling path to a poten-
tially susceptible unit. The geometry of the source, receptor, and coupling elements, such as
circuits, cables, or apertures, with values for the impedances in the source to receptor path, are
important details to be used in the prediction, and therefore the information obtained should be
as specific as possible. The receptor may be an antenna in a radiated emission prediction or a
10-pF capacitor or LISN in a conducted emission prediction.
The frequency and amplitude of sources and, for an intraequipnlent, subsystem, or system
analysis, the bandwidth and susceptibility of receptor circuits must be known for a prediction
of EMC. The sources are both those inherent in the operation of the equipment, subsystem, or
system and susceptibility test levels, if these are a requirement of the design. The purpose of
the prediction is one or more of the following: to highlight problem areas as early as possible,
to aid in cost-effective design, to support a waiver request. Often when specific information is
missing, a simple breadboard-level test may be required, for example, of a susceptibility level,
EMI & EMC Control, Predictions, & Computational Modeling 763
attenuation, shielding effectiveness, impedance, or coupling. Where possible, predictions should

be validated by measurements.
If the results of a prediction is within 6 dB of a correctly controlled measurement, then
the level of accuracy achieved by the prediction is acceptable. More frequently, an EMC predic-
tion will lie within +/-2O dB of measurements. When the correlation between the two is worse
than 20 dB,either the prediction or the measurement techniques should be examined for sources
of error.
In reviewing the first editionof the book, Mr.Jeff Eckert gave the following telling simile:
“Two Texans, both blindfolded, are standing in a cow pasture, surrounded by a herd of steer.
The first Texan listens intently for a few seconds and drawls, “I reckon there must be five head
of cattle out there.” The second Texan takes a deep whiff of the air and says, “There’s 500
head of cattle onthis hererange.” They remove their blindfolds and offer mutual congratulations
because, after all, both estimates are correct. If you think there is something wrong with that
story, consider that the Texans are not cowboys but are EMC engineers from Austin. Welcome
to the world of EMC modeling, in which any answer is “correct” as long as it falls within a
multiple or dividend of 10 relative to the true value.”
Of course, + / F 2 0 d B is far from ideal, but it is the, obviously unpalatable, reality. In 22
years of experience of EMC and in reviewing EM1 predictions, this is the typical magnitude of
the errors I have seen. In one analysis the common-mode current flowing on a surface was
ignored as a source of radiation and the error was 61 dB. In another instance, in which the
current induced by an incident radar pulseon a cable enclosed in a metal conduiton a composite-
skin aircraft was calculated, the error was close to 1000 dB! The problem was that the skin
depth of the conduit at gigahertz frequencies was calculated and the transfer impedance of the
shield-to-connector and connector-to-enclosure mating surfaces was ignored. Because the con-
duit carried control signals to the aircraft front landing wheel, this error could have resulted in
adisaster.Whenthemodelingtechniquesin Chapter 6, Refs. 23 and 9, are compared, the
correlation between shielding effectivenesses was between 5 and 8 dB, and this was considered
by the authors to be acceptable. Also, the errors in using sophisticated PCB electromagnetic
radiation computer programs, as discussed in Chapter 1 1, are unacceptably high. In many cases
errors occur due toa simple lack of reliable data. For instance, the very sophisticated modeling
and measurements made on the electric field radiated by the WISP experiment on the space
shuttle were based on an input power to the antenna of 250 W into a conjugate 5 0 4 load. The
reality was that due to the use of an antenna matching unit, the power amplifier could deliver
1000 V into the dipole antenna when it was not a resonant length, resulting in a potential error
of 19 dB. The WISP analysis is described in Case Study 12.5.
The goal throughout this book has been to find simple analysis techniques that achieve
an accuracy of 6 dB and in many instances the measurement errors are of the Same order of
magnitude, although I imagine even 6 dB would be unacceptable when counting cows!
12.3.1. Case Study 12.3: EMC Predictions for Meeting RTCA-DO 160
Requirements on an “A” Model Fiber-optic Plotter
This EMCprediction was based on an examination and simple measurements made at the manu-
facturer’s location. The test equipment available was limited to an oscilloscope with current
probe and a digital voltmeter (DVM).
The plotter is constructed of ‘116-inch-thick aluminum and contains a number of cutouts
for the purpose of ventilation and for the paper cartridge. The aluminum was anodized, and
when the resistance between the front panel and the side panel was measured with the DVM,
764 Chapter 12
an open circuit was registered. The CRT and deflection yoke are completely enclosed by a ‘/M-
inch-thick mumetal case, and this will prove excellent shielding against the deflection-yoke-
generated electromagnetic field.
High current pulses are generated by the deflection yoke drive circuits, and a mumetal
shield had been installed between the yoke drive PCB and the adjacent stepper motor drive
PCB. Due to the high level of currents flowing inside the “A” model plotter it is mandatory
that the plotter case be improved in its function as an EM1 shield in order to meet radiated
emission levels.
A snlaller plotter (the “B” model) that uses approximately 4’/?-inch-wide paper has been
tested to DO-160A EMC levels and passed, except for some narrowband emissions in the radi-
ated emission test. The “B” plotter utilizes EMC gaskets between mating surfaces and a honey-
comb ventilation opening for the fan. It also incorporates differential inputs and some input
filtering to increase the noise immunity of the control lines. These differential circuits are exam-
ined later in this case study.
12.3.1. l . AC-Line Noise Current Measurement

A measurement of noise currents generated by the “A” series plotter was made in order to
isolate the source of the major noise generator within the unit,to aid in the selection of a suitable
line filter, and to calculate the worst-case radiated emission level.
A P1 circuit EM1 filter was utilized as shown in Figure 12.5. The filter provides a path
for HF current flow via C: and C! and isolates EM1 noise present on the AC line from the
current probe.
The AC-linenoisecurrent shown in Figures 12.6 and 12.7 wasmeasured with a peak
current of SO mA and the fastest edge at approximately 20 p . The ramp appearing between
the negative and positive transitionshas a duration of approxilnately 3.2 ITIS, and this corresponds
to the horizontal sweep rate.
The steppermotor drive was disconnected to isolate any component of the noise waveform
that was caused by the stepper motor current, and the noise waveform was unchanged. It was
expected that both the stepper motor drive and the HV supply inverter would cause noise cur-
rents; however, when the current probe was connected to the +30 V applied to the HV inverter
and to the +24-V supply applied to the stepper motor drive PCB,negligible noise was measured.
With the current probe connected around the +24-V supply wire to the horizontal drive
Tektrontx
oscilloscope
0 n
Model
AC Llne Plotter
Figure 12.5 AC-line noise currentmeasurementtestsetup.

L
40 n1AIdic
T I I
Figure 12.6 AC-linenoise current.
PCB, a large 440-mA current spike was measured, as shown in Figure 12.8. This current spike
has the same repetition rate as the noise current measured on the AC line. However, although
it was expected that the AC transformer, rectifiers, and 27,000-pF capacitor would modify the
transformer primary reflected current pulse, it is unclear why the 3.2-ms ramp and trailing edge
currents are not seen on the +24-V line.
12.3.1.2. AC-Line Filter Selection
In choosing a filter, the equivalent load on the AC line presented by the plotter must be known
and is shown in Figure 12.9. The load is not constant and changes impedance because the heaters
are controlled by triacs.
The purpose of filtering the AC line is to isolate the noise currents from the AC line in
order to meet the conducted and radiated emission tests and to isolate the plotter from both the
200-V transient injected directly into the power line and the electromagnetically induced spike.
It may be more economical and space saving to achieve the major lower-frequency, i.e., 10-
200-kHz, filtering at the AC input to the system in which the plotter is used and to filter out
at the individual units the high-frequency currents generated by the units.
0.5ms-l k=
3.2ms- 4.8 ms ___)(
Figure 12.7 AC-line noisc current with stepper motor and horizontal sweep in operation.
Chapter 12
IA
Figure 12.8 Current spike on +24-V line to deflection yoke driver PCB.
II
+24 V
0
AC "
"
line :':662 Cl
Restive
0 - - == 10,ooOpF load
'._________..___""_~
Transformer
Tnac
switch
Heater
R=llOn
L = 1.2pH
Z=llOn@2200kHZ
Figure 12.9 Reflected load on AC line.

In case of the “B” model plotter, a PI filter model was employed; however, this type of
filter has caused instruments to fail the radiated emission tests due to high current flow in the
enclosure.
A T filter is preferred to a PI because this isolates the noise current both from the AC
line and from the instrument into the AC line. The only disadvantage of the T filter is that more
noise voltage appears across the ACline internal to the unit. The noise voltage can be calculated
on the basis that with one T filter installed on the line and a second on the return, approximately
20 pH of inductance is in series with the line and approximately 0.01 pF across the line. The
noise current generated by the plotter results in a voltage of V = L dildt across the inductors.
Considering the capacitor to be low impedance and using the fastest edge of 20 ps shown in
Figure 12.7, the noise voltage is approximately
20 x 10-6 H x 50 x 10” S = 5o
20 x 1 0 6 S
Because the AC cabling inside the plotter is shielded, it is not predicted that the noise
voltages will cause problems internal to the unit, although care should be taken to continue the
shield as far as possible on the cable to minimize the length of unshielded cable.
One area where the AC line is unshielded and where of necessity the plotter case contains
an opening for the recording paper is at the platen heater. Possible emissions from this area are
considered under radiated emission and radiated susceptibility considerations in the following
section.
12.3.1.3. Radiated Emissions Predictions

Shielding
Based on the area covered and the thickness of the aluminum case, it is feasible to make the
unit into a shielded enclosure. The type of finish would require changing from anodizing to
either Iridite, Oaktite 36, or Alodine 1200, in order to make the surfaces conductive. The fan
would require a honeycomb filter, and the ventilation apertureswould require wire mesh screens.
The corner apertures and other small holes should be covered by copper adhesive tape. The
mating surfaces of the front,bottom,back,and sides, which containaperturesbetween the
surfaces, should be made EM1 tight by use of EM1 gaskets.
The paper cartridge that contains the platen heater, stepper motor drive unit, and paper
rolls is inserted into the body of the plotter and is held by a hinge at the bottom and two catches
at the top. It is unlikely that a good electrical connection exists between the cartridge and the
case, so the cartridge finish should be changed from anodizing to a conductive finish. An EM1
gasket should be included at the interface and flexible bonding straps provided between the
bottom of the cartridge and the inside of the case. Because emissions levels could increase
considerablywiththecartridge hinged down, i.e.,when the paper is changed, to avoid the
requirement of testingwith the cartridge down, a switch that automaticallydisconnectsthe
supply when the cartridge is lowered may be a requirement, or an operational requirement that
the recorder be switched off before changing the paper may be sufficient.
The worst-case emission emanating from the AC power-line connection to the heaters
and radiating via the approximately 1.5 X 10-inch gap in the shielding at the heater platen has
been calculated.
The step function in the noise voltage exhibiting a rise time of approximately 20 ps will
produce the highest amplitude in the frequency domain. The spectrum occupancy due to this
edge has been calculated, and the broadband component at a frequency of 190 kHz (which is
the lowest frequency specified for radiated emission E field testing) has been obtained using
768 Chapter 12
the equation for a step function in Section 3.1.2. The broadband component at 50 kHz is 0.05
pV/Hz and, due to the 20-dB/decade fall in amplitude from the 50-kHz point, the amplitude
at 190 kHz is approximately 22 dB down, i.e., 0.004 pV/Hz. Using the broadband reference
bandwidth of 1 MHz, the voltage is 4 mV/MHz.
The MINCO heater, HR5046A281, which is representative of the type of load presented
to the AC line, has a resistance of 103.93 R, an impedance measured at exactly the same value,
and an inductance of 1.3 pH.The load can thus be considered resistive at approximately 100
R, which results in a noise current flow, in the heater cable of 4 mV/MHz/100 R = 40 pA/
MHz.
The DO-160A limits for broadband emitted E field measured 3 m from the source at 190
kHz is 98 dBp V/MHz/m, or 80 mV/MHz/m.
A relatively low-noise current flows in the heater wire, which is an imperfect antenna;
therefore the prediction, using the loop antenna or electric current element equations of Sections
2.2.4 and 2.2.5, is that the E field due to this noise source will be at microvolt levels measured
3 m from the source, and well below the limit.
Current noise spikes causedby the AC-line triacs have been ignored during this investiga-
tion because the triacs are switched at the zero-crossover point. However, if the zero-crossover
detector does not supply sufficient gate voltage to switch the triac at the true AC-supply zero
point, a large current spike with a rise time in the order of a microsecond may result. This type
of current pulse with a high-amplitude high-frequency component would cause problems in
meeting the emitted radiation levels, especially because the allowable limits are reduced at higher
frequencies. If it is found that the triacs do not switch at exactly zero, one possible solution is
to include some additional inductance between the triac and the line filter.
Although the magnetic field produced by the deflection yoke is likely to be well contained
by the mumetal shield, some stray field may be emitted via the face of the CRT and via the
gap in the shielding at the heater platen.
Test Setup
Normally individual units comprising a system are tested along with interconnecting cables and
with the units spaced out above a ground plane. This configuration is common to both radiated
susceptibility and radiated emission levels. The argument can be made that if individual units
are normally mounted in a rack that acts as an efficient shielded enclosure, the tests should be
conducted with thisrack enclosing the units. However, the frontof the plotter will not be shielded
by the rack, and whichever test setup is decided upon, it is the plotter front panel that is the
least well-shielded surface and will be the one facing the antenna during radiated emission and
susceptibility tests.
Radicrted Susceptibility Tests: E Field Susceptibility

The plotter case is recessed behind the paper cartridge and is solid, i.e., is a good shield; the
only wiring inside the cartridge that is exposed to the radiated RF field is the stepper motor
drive wires and the heater AC wiring, both of which are predicted to be immune to radiated E
fields.
If the units comprising the system are tested with interconnectingcables and power cables
exposed to the field, then the effect on the recorder interfaces must be considered. Generally
speaking, if the interfaces can function during the interconnection cable induced susceptibility
levels and meet the radiated emission limits, then they are likely to pass the equipment radiated
susceptibility tests.
A correctly chosen or designed AC power-line filter can very adequately take care of
noise voltage picked up on the AC line during the radiated susceptibility tests.
Interconnection Cable Induced Susceptibility Tests

These tests must be carried out on interconnections between units in different racks and may
be required between units in the same rack. The tests consist of wrapping spirals of wire around
interconnecting bundles of cables and either running a current through the cable or applying a
voltage to one end of the cable. The bundle is subjected to current at audio frequency ranging
from 30 A/m at 400 Hz to 0.8 A h at 15 kHz. The bundle is subjected to 360 V/m at 380-
400 Hz as well as a voltage spike test.
AC-Line Noise Itnrnunip

A filter designed for use on a 400-Hz power line is obviously ineffective at filtering AF noise
at 400 Hz and not very effective at 15 kHz. The filter will, however, be effective at filtering
out the spike that is electromagnetically coupled into the power line.
The plotter utilizes large smoothing capacitors in its DC unregulated supplies and linear
regulators in the stabilized supplies, and therefore no problem is foreseen with power supplies
due to theinduced AF noiselevels. However, if the zero-crossoverdetectioncircuit is not
sufficiently noise immune, the induced noise may cause misfiring of the triacs, and thus high
radiated noise levels within the unit, which may result in interequipment EMI.
Control-Line Noise Itnmunity

CABLESHIELDING: A 1 2 5 4 characteristicimpedancetwisted-shielded-pair cable
with a high shielding effectiveness and tight twists in the pair will provide a high degree of
immunity to induced noise. An additional overall shield over the entire cable bundle is to be
preferred to shielding individual cables, with a concentric connection made to the backshell of
the connector and to chassis at both ends.
INPUT AND OUTPUT CIRCUIT: Presuming that the model “B” differential circuits
are available for use in the model “A” plotter, it is these circuits that will be considered. The
circuits are shown in Figure 12.10. The differential circuit provides a minimum of +/-2.5 V
of DC noise immunity and some limited filtering at high frequencies achieved by the ferrite
beads, L.
During the spike test the ferrite beads represent some small inductance and are lossy, but
the beads present an insertion loss only over the frequency range IO- 100 MHz, which assuming
a maximum bead impedance of 50 R is limited to 6 dB. The differential circuit i n the “B”
Sync”
etc.in, ”
+ +
L = Ferrite beads
U2 = AM261 LS32DM
Figure 12.10 Differentialreceivercircuit.

770 Chapter 12
plotter has been tested with DO-160A radiated susceptibility test levels using twisted-pair un-
shielded cables of 10-12-ft length. Thus, using shielded cable, the circuits should besufficiently
noise immune, with a good safety margin. However, to be absolutely safe, it would be compara-
tively easy to build and test a breadboard driver and receiver circuit, using a representative
length of shielded cable between the circuits, and to test for noise immunity. The equipment
and test circuits necessary to provide the test levels must be available for system-level testing
and can be used and tested on the breadboard interface. Radiated susceptibilitytest requirements
may be met with unshielded interface cables in the “A” plotter, and the major reason for the
use of shielded cables is to meet radiated emission requirements that the model “B” plotter
had failed.
AC-Line Conducted Noise Susceptibility Tests

These tests comprise an audio frequency level, a spike, and an AC voltage modulation test, all
levels to be directly coupled into the AC-line voltage. The AC-line filter will only be effective
in reducing the 10-ps transient voltage (spike) test level.
The amplitude and frequency modulation supply levels andthe audio frequency conducted
susceptibility test levels are not modified by the line filter, and the recorder must function cor-
rectly when subjected to the test levels. Of particular importance is the operation of the zero-
crossover detect circuit, as previously discussed. In addition to noise, the AC line is subjected
to surge voltages up to 180 Vnns for 0.1 S and to undervoltage of a minimum 60 Vrms for 10
seconds. Correct operation of the unit is determined after the surge or undervoltage is removed.
Because the AC-line conducted noise levels and under/overvoltage levels are easily generated,
it is recommended that the plotter be tested at these levels prior to delivery, if possible on a
standard plotter with the addition of the chosen line filter.
Conclusiotr
To achieve a high degree of confidence that the Model “A” plotter will pass the RTCAIDO-
160 EMC requirements, the following measures are recommended:
1. The plotter case should be upgraded to an effective shielded enclosure by changing

the finish and using EM1 gaskets and honeycomb and mesh air vent filters.
2. SuitableAC-line filter components should be chosen.
3. The plotter should be subjected to the AC-line conducted noise and over/undervoltage
conditions. Particular consideration should be given during the conducted noise tests
to the operation of the zero-crossover detector and triac trigger circuits as well as the
high-voltage and stepper motor drive functions.
4. The manufacturer should breadboard a line driver and receiver and test with RTCM
DO-l60 interconnection cable induced susceptibility test levels.
12.3.2. Case Study 12.4: EMC Predictions on a Power Controller

These predictions were made at the very initial design stage, before the design was finalized,
and therefore concentrates on providing estimated EM1 levels and guidelines to be followed in
the design. The next iteration of EMC prediction for the equipment will be based on more
accurate inforlnation on structure and layout.
Fields Getrerated by the Irlternnl 20-kHz Distribution System

The radiated fields generated by the 20-kHz power distribution system internal to the enclosure
are predominantly magnetic. The magnetic field strength is to be measured at a distance of
7 cm from the enclosure at points likely to emit high field levels (i.e., seams, slots, apertures,
etc.), as required by MIL-STD-462 Method REO1. The magnetic field at low frequency and
close to a loop of current-carrying wire is given approximately by
(12.1)
where
H =magnetic field [A/m]
I' = radial distance to point of measurement [m]
S = area of loop = W X /[m']

I = magnitude of current [A]
An average supply current for a wire within an enclosure that carries current to all load
power converters is 100 A, and this was used in the calculation. In reality a number of wires
will be used to carry the 100-300 A of current; however, when the wires are bundled together,
they may be replaced, as in our analysis, with a single wire. We assume that the supply and
return wires are widely separated within the enclosure and that the current-carrying wire is
routed around the inside of the enclosure in the form of a loop. The size of the loop is then
close to the interior dimensions of the enclosure, which is 0.762 m X 0.432 m.
From Eq. (12.1) the magnetic field generated by the current-carrying wire at 10 cm is 135
(164 dBpT) A/m.In order to predict the level of magnetic field measured at a distance of 7 cm
from the outside of the enclosure, the shielding effectiveness of a typical enclosure must be
estimated at 20 kHz.
The shielding effectiveness of an enclosure to an H field incident on the enclosure may
be found from the ratio H J H , , , , where H,,,,,is the magnetic field on the outside of the enclosure
and H,,, is the magnetic field on the inside of the enclosure. The equations used to calculate the
ratio of H ,,,,,/H,,, are presented in Section 6.4.3.
The attenuation is dependent on the enclosure area and will lie in the range of 53-60 dB.
Assuming a worst case, the magnetic field is attenuated by 53 dB when the enclosure is inserted
between the field source and the magnetic field loop. Therefore the external field is
_ 135
_ _ _ - 0.29[A/m](53dB = 466.12)
466.12
Converting to dBpT for comparison to the limit: 0.29 A/m = 1 11 dBpT. Comparing this to the
limit at 20 kHz (REO11 of 110 dBpT, this worst-case scenario would be close to the limit.
The preceding data is calculated for a current loop with each arm of the loop running
within 3 cm of the enclosure walls. The length of the enclosure was taken as approximately
0.75 m, with a height of 0.38 m and a width of 0.43 m. While a loop may not be a realistic
wire layout, it does demonstrate that the generation of high levels of magnetic field is possible
and must be controlled in the design.
If the same layout was used but 10 AWG twisted-pair wiring was used to distribute the
power, as shown in Figure 12.11, the following formula could be used to predict the magnetic
field at 10 cm:
H , = -54.5
I'
- - 201og - 3Ologp - lolog I' + 9.8[dBgauss/l ampere] (12.2)
P
772 Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 1 Geometry of the twisted-pair wiring.
where
CI = radii of helixes, inches = 0.08"
p = pitch distance, inches = 1.6"
r = radial distance from the axis of the pair to the measurement point, inches = 4"
This formula gives the magnetic field per ampere of current, which is, in our example, - 159
dBgauss/l ampere. Therefore, for a 100-A current, the magnetic field is - 119 dBgauss = 112
pT = 41 dBpT.
This is a reduction of 123 dB from the magnetic field produced by a large loop of wire.
Thus, using twisted-pair wiring would eliminate any problems associated with magnetic field
emissions at 20 kHz appearing outside of the enclosure.
Fields from hternnlly Generated Signals Above 20 kHz
Radiationfrom the powerdistributionabove 20 kHz would stemfrom three fundamental
sources:
1. Harmonics of the 20-kHzpowersupply
2. Digitalclockingfrequencies and harmonics
3.Intermodulation products of the abovefrequencies
Magnetic field emissions are monitored to a maximum frequencylimit of 300 kHz. Electric
fields are measured from 10 kHz to 10 GHz.
The magnetic field shielding effectivenessof the enclosure increases with frequency, there-
fore it would require a substantial amount of power at any frequency above 20 kHz to exceed
the limits. The probability that this would occur is minimal, since the 20-kHz AC power is the
only source with sufficient power associated with it by design.
The magnetic field shielding effectiveness of our example enclosure is:
at 300 kHz = 83.79 dB
at 1 MHz = 95.7 dB
The limit for emissions (magnetic) at 300 kHz (REOI) is 20 dBpT; therefore an internal
source of emissions would have to be 84 dB (84 dB = attenuation of enclosure at 300 kHz)
above this limit (104 dBpt) to fail (104 dBpt = 0.13 A/m). Again the assumption is made that
this current flows in a large loop of the same dimensions as used in the prediction for the 20-
kHz power supply current. Since the total harmonic distortion voltage of the 20-kHz power
supply is limited to 2.5% and 300 kHz is the 30th harmonic, there is a low probability of failure
to meet REO1 limits above 20 kHz.
Above some frequency, typically 50 MHz, the predominant radiation ceases tobe magnetic
and becomes either E field or plane wave. As the size of the enclosure becomes a fraction of
a wavelength, it may sustain enclosure resonances. Where apertures exist in the enclosure, they
can function as slot antennas.
Thus, at high frequencies, meeting R E 0 2 emissions limits becomes the major problem.
For our example enclosurewithoutaperturesandignoring the contribution due to cables, a
source of considerable energy would have to exist, i.e., RF power source, high-power high-
speed converter with capacitive or inductive load, within the enclosure to fail R E 0 2 limits.
Radiated Etnissior1.s from Interconnecting Cables
The radiatedemissions from interconnecting cables are causedprimarily by common-mode
current on the shield of the cable. Thelength of cable tobe tested (see MIL STD 462 METHOD
RE02) is 2 meters. From this length the frequencies of resonance (i.e., h/2, 2 X h/2, 3 X h/2,
etc. when the shield is connected to the ground plane at both ends) can be calculated approxi-
mately as follows:
Frequency
Integer of Wavelength [MHz1
h12 = 2 m [meters] = 300/h [m]
1 4 75
2 2 150
3 1.333 225
4 1 300
etc.
At a resonant length the effectiveness of the transmission line as a transmitting antenna

is much higher than at nonresonant lengths. This is offset to some extent above the frequency
at which h/2 = 2 m, i.e., 75 MHz, by the change in phase of the field down the transmission
line. In addition the transmission line is positioned not only above the ground but below the
ceiling and in front of the walls of the shielded room, so multiple reflections occur.
The total field at the measuring point is thus the superposition of all field sources. The
R E 0 2 test method requires location of the test antenna at maximum pickup, i.e., the position
at which the majority of field sources are in phase. The transmission-line equation used has
been validated by tests in an undamped shielded room in which the predicted E field is within
+ 10 dB to - 1 I dB of the measured E field.
The predicted maximum level of common-mode current allowed on the shield before the
limits for narrowband emissions are exceeded for each of the resonant frequencies is given in
Table 12.2.
The maximum common-mode current on the inner conductor(s) of the cable and inside
of the shield can be determined using the current on the outside of the shield and the transfer
impedance of the specific cable to be used, once this is determined.
Conducted Emissions
Conducted emissions are those signals that appear on cables at other than required operating
frequencies. These emissionscan either be continuous (CW) or transient in nature. From experi-
774 Chapter 12
Table 12.2 MaximumCommon-ModeCurrentonInterconnectingCables

Frequency
Max. C/M current E Field
at 1m Spec E Field at 1 m
(MHz) (FA) (WVW (WV/m)
75 22 63.5 63
150 19 109.7 110
225 18 156.0 160
300 17 196.2 200
ence, systems utilizing circuitry that generates emissions rich in harmonic content (i.e., DC-
DC converters) or that switch currents are almost certain to fail the requirements. This implies
that some type of EM1 reduction technique be included inthe original design to reduceconducted
emissions.
Two fundamental approaches are available, either reduction at source or the inclusion of
filters. In extreme casesboth approaches are required. Those circuits that are potentially sources
of high-level emissions will be designed for emission control that is compatible with perfor-
mance requirements.
Susceptibility of Internal Circuitry to Internally Generated Fields (Crosstalk)

The phenomenon of a system’s being susceptible to its own radiated emissions inside an enclo-
sure is difficult to predict, because crosstalk and radiated coupling are very dependent on exact
geometries. However, a number of estimations of crosstalk using distances of 1 inch, 2 inches,
and 6 inches between power PCB traces and interconnecting cables at a height of 2 inches ( 5
cm) and 0.06 inches (0.15 cm) above a ground plane were made. The source wire used in the
prediction was a 10 AWG circular conductor in order to achieve a low source resistance. The
receptor wire type and gauge are changed,as are the victim source and load impedance, to show
the effects of the changes on the level of voltages induced in the victim circuitry.
Ideally the wires carrying the 20-kHz power and return should be twisted over the com-
plete length. However, due tothe large gauge of the wire and the requirement to make terminal
or similar connections, some length of the wires will be untwisted. It is the untwisted length
that, causes maximumH field generation and therefore maximum potential crosstalk. The lengths
of untwisted 10 gauge wire used in the examples range between 1” and 6”, which are considered
practical best- and worst-case lengths. The height above the ground plane in the equations con-
tained in Section 4.3 is also used to describe the distance between the source power wire and
its return.
At a very worst case, the average 100-A-load current may be switched as fast as 50 ns,
and this was the value used in the initial prediction. Where the switching time is made longer
than 50 ns, the peak transient voltage induced in the victim wire is considerably reduced, as
shown in Example 6.
Exumple l : Here the coupling is toan unshielded receptor wire over a distance of l”, with
the receptor circuit exhibiting a sourceimpedance of 250 R and a load impedanceof
1000 R, which is typical for an analog circuit. The peak crosstalk voltage is a mas-
sive 24 V when the two wires are only 1” apart.
Example 2: Here the wires are separated by 2”, with all other parameters constant. The
induced voltage reduces to 13.5 V.
Example 3: Increasing the distance between wires to 6” decreases the crosstalk voltage
to 3.1 V.
Example 4: Maintaining the 6" distance between wires and increasing the coupled length
to 6" increases the voltage to 18.6 V.
Exllmple 5: Maintaining the 6" distancebetweenwiresandthe 6" coupledlengthbut
decreasing the distance between the source power and return wires to 0.06'' (i.e. the
insulation of the two wires is touching) and the height of the receptor wire above
the chasis to 0.06'' results in a decrease in the crosstalk voltage to 2 v.
Example 6: The Same geometry is used as in Example 1. But here the rise time is in-
creased to 100 ns, which causes a reduction in crosstalk from 23.8 v to 12.2 v.
Increasing the rise time further to 1 PS results in a reduction in crosstalk to 1.26 v.
E,yample 7: Here the distancebetweenwires is l", the height above thegroundplane
is 2", the coupled length is a worst-case 6", and an RG59A/U shielded cable is used
for the victim wire. The load and source impedances are also changed, with the load
matched to the coaxial cable characteristic impedance, which is a typical configura-
tion for RF or video circuits. The predicted peak transient is 63 mV.
Example 8: This is the same configuration as example 7, only the distance between the
Source and receptor wires is increased to 6" and the maximum peak transient is 8.2
mV.
The transient crosstalk voltage from Example 8 (8.2 mV) may be acceptable in high-level
RF signals. And even where low-level analog or video signals are concerned, the short-duration
spike may not cause an EM1 situation because the circuit may not be perturbed by the spike.
Where a potential EM1 condition does exist, the noise immunity of the receptor circuit may be
increased, typically by filtering or/and by increasing the rise time of the source current. Where
the coupling is to PCB traces or ICs, the shielding is more difficult.
However, shielding of sensitive circuitry in enclosures and EM1 hardening of sensitive
circuitry are two approaches that will be considered, even at the PCB level.
Susceptibility of intert~al circuitryto externally generated fields
The effectiveness of cables and enclosures are examined separately.
The enclosure: In the section dealing with the enclosure radiation at 20 kHz, a worst-case
magnetic field attenuation of 53 dB was arrived at. From inspection of the formula it can be
seen that the enclosure attenuation will increase with frequency.
The current flow in a wire wrapped around the enclosure during the 20-kHz power fre-
quency test (RS02) is 3 A. The impedance of the enclosure is very low, so approximately 50%
of the 3-A wire current flows in the outside of the enclosure. The distance between the loops
of wire wrapped around the enclosure is specified as 30 cm, in accordance with MIL-STD-462.
The current density in the outside of the enclosure is therefore 1.5 A/0.3 m = 5 A/m.
The definition of magnetic field attenuation used in deriving the %-dB minimum attenua-
tion for the enclosure is the ratio I,,,,,/I,,,,where I,,,, is the current flowing On the outside of the
enclosure and I,, is the current flowing on the inside of the enclosure. I , , is therefore 53 dB
down on 5 A/m, which is (5 A/m)/446 = 0.01 1 A/m. Thenarrowest dimension of the enclosure
is approximately 0.43 m, so the current density across this interior dimension is
11 mA/m X 0.43 m = 4.7 mA/0.43 m
Assuming a loop of unshielded wire 3 cm from the inside walls of the enclosure and
routed around the enclosure, the crosstalk voltage picked up on the wire at 20 kHz will be very
approximately 0.6 mV, assuminga load resistance of 1000 R and a source resistance of 250 Q.
Pickup from sources within the enclosure are likely to be higher than the predicted 0.6
mV induced in the RS02 test. Therefore sensitive signals will be routed via shielded cables. If
776 Chapter 12
thewire is used foracontrolline, 0.6 mV in acontrolsignal is unlikely to cause an EM1

problem. The decision on the use of shielded or twisted pair for control lines will be based
on the level of the interior ambient. Based on measurements, the current spike test results in
approximately 100 A of current flow in the test wire around the enclosure; however, the duration
of the resultant positive and negative spike is short ( I O p ) . The low-frequency component of
the spike has a current amplitude of approximately 2Ad, where A is the peak amplitude and d
is the pulse width. The external current flow is thus 2 X 100 X I O X IO-' = 2 mA/0.43 m,
i.e., lower than the 20-kHz power frequency test. The high-frequency components of the spike
are attenuated to a greater extent than the low-frequency ones, because the shielding effective-
ness of the enclosure increaseswith increasing frequency. We concludetherefore that our sample
enclosure provides adequate shielding for the RS02 test levels. The level of common-mode
voltage induced in four different types of shielded cables are shown in Table 12.3.
The impact of these levels of common-mode transferred voltage (V,) depends to a large
extent on the EMC classification of the circuit class, i.e., the sensitivity of the receiver. A poten-
tial EM1 problem exists when V , is close to the sensitivity of the receiver. A second potential
problem occurs when a wire in the shielded cable is connected, either directly or via a low
impedance, to chassis inside the enclosure; in this case appreciable current can flow due to V,,
and radiation from the wire inside the enclosure may result in EMI.
An important point to note is that it is typical in RS03 tests to modulate the carrier at
frequencies of maximum susceptibility, e.g., I O kHz for audio circuits, 1 MHz for the 1553 or
similar digital busses, etc. In addition, when high levels of RF are applied to integrated circuits,
which may have a bandwidth much lower than the test frequency, DC offsets may occur due
to nonlinearities inherent in the IC input stage.
As the design progresses, the implicationof the predicted noise voltage shouldbe assessed
for each enclosure layout and interface circuit, and appropriate filtering or shielding will be
incorporated.
RS02 spike test induced voltnge: When a transient induced voltage is considered the time
constant of the source wire controls, the current flow in the source wire. Likewise, when the
Table 12.3 Common-Mode Voltages Induced in Shielded Cables Exposed to RS03 Test Levels
(Cable Length = 2 m)
~
Distance fromCable
Cable
Height
Cable
Cable
above
antenna (m) structure (m) type 1" type 2" type 3' type 4' f
1 0.05 3 mV 1 mV - - 30 MHz
1 0.05 13 mV 12.6 mV - - l MHz
1 0.05 1.48 V 0.163 V 0.144 V 0.144 V 1.05 GHz
(4.8 pV) (1.4 pV)
1 0.05 1.7 V 0.92 V 0.71 V 0.17 V 9.975 GHz
(1.2 mV) (0.1 1 mV)
" D-typc connector.
l'BNC-type connector.
' BNC-type connector.
Cable type 1 is a standard bralded cablc exhibiting a transfer impedancc of I O mR/m at 100 kHz. I O 0 mR/m at 75
MHz, 600 mR/m at 1.05 GHz. and IS R/m at 9.975 GHz. Cable type 2 IS a twisted shlelded palr, suitable for the
1553 data bus communication link, exhibiting one of the lower transfer Impedances (i.e., an average shielded cable).
The transfer Impedance is I O mR/m at 1 0 0 kHz, 100 mR/m at 30 MHz. l mR/m at 75 MHz. 14 R/m at 1.05 GHz,
and 133 R/m at 9.975 GHz. Cable type 3 is a double-braided coaxial cable exhibiting a transfer impedance of 7 rnR/
m at 1 GHz and 2 R/m at 9.975 GHz. Cable type 4 IS a copper solid-wall tube exhibiting a transfer impedance of 2
mR/m at 100 kHz and cffectively 0 mR/m at 30 MHz and above (i.e.. a semrlgid cable). Figures in brackets are for
an (N (D/U))-typc connector.
Table 12.4 RS02 Test Induced Voltage

Common-mode
Cable type Shield induced voltage
RG58C/U Single braid 0.14 V
RG 180/U Single braid 0.17 V
RG59A Single braid 0.12 v
RG8A/U Single braid 0.55 V
RG223/U Double braid 0.08 v
RG9B/U Double braid 0.033 V
victim cable time constant is longer than the applied pulsewidth, the induced voltage divides
not only between the source and load resistors but in the cable inductance. Thus theworst-case
induced voltage is not caused by the 100 V, > 0.1 5-ps spike but by the 200-V > IO-ps spike
in the shielded cables under consideration due to both the longer time constant of the I 0 - p ~
spike and the higher peak voltage. The current flow in the shield of a cable subjected to a 200-
V > IO-ps RS02 test has been measured at +30 AI-30 A, and therefore 30 A was chosen as
a typical value for the shield current in the prediction.
The cable crosstalk computer program was used to simulate the source of the spike and
to predict the voltage induced in a shielded cable. Initially the current flowing in an unshielded
wire with the same diameter as the shielded cable was modeled, and the current flow in the
source wire was adjusted until 30 A flowed in the victim wire. The victim wire was then replaced
with the shielded cable, and the voltage induced in the shielded cable with a 30-A peak shield
current was predicted by the program. The type of shielded cable used for interface connections
on the system is not yet known; therefore the induced voltage was calculated for a number of
different types of shielded cable. Table 12.4gives the level of induced voltage, which is almost
independent of whether the receptor cable is terminated in a high-impedance load or is termi-
nated with its characteristic impedance, for the induced voltage is the same for a wide range
of receptor load impedances when the emitter source impedance is low.
The voltages shown in Table 12.4are common mode, thus, where twisted-pair shielded
cable with well-balanced differential inputs are used with sufficient common-mode noise rejec-
tion to a 10-vs-wide transient, the induced voltages will not cause an EM1 problem.
12.3.3. Case Study 12.5: Antenna-to-cable Coupling on the Space Shuttle

(Orbiter)
Cables on an experiment that is carried in the cargo bay of the space shuttle are exposed to the
E fields generated by an antenna mounted on the experiment. The approximate worse case with
the antenna nonresonant, values of E field, generated by the experiment at distances of 1 m, 2
m, 4m, and 8 m are shown in Table 12.5.(These values are higher than published levels as
described in Section 12.3.) The interference voltage induced in the inner conductors of a shielded
cable when the cable runs some length in parallel with the antenna and parallel to and above
the shuttle cargo bay structure is calculated for a number of cable lengths, heights above the
cargo bay, and distances from the antenna.
The cable shield is connected at both ends to the shuttle structure, via the connectors and
instrument case. For the sake of these calculations the shuttle structure is considered a perfectly
conducting ground plane. The characteristic impedance of the transmission line Z, is given by
( 1 2.3)
778 Chapter 12
Table 12.5 E Field Generated by Experiment at

Distances of 1, 2, 4,and 8 m
E field [V/m] at distance r
Frequency Im 2m 4m 8m
100 kHz-6 MHz 1000 2 125 16
10 MHz 1000 125
39 79
15 MHz 1000 125
39 79
30 MHz 1000 158
39 79
where
2'= distributed series resistance of the two-wire lines
(2'for a 0.5-cm-diameter braided shield is taken as 10 mR/m)
1' =
k = - 2n
!9 In
7c (3
- (12.4)
h
4n X 10" [H/m]
=
f = frequency [Hz]
h = height of cable above the structure
In the frequency range 100 kHz to 30 MHz the characteristic impedance is constant with
frequency and varies with the height of the cable above the structure and the diameter of the
cable. For convenience the illumination of the cable is considered to be plane wave, with the
plane of incidence coincident with the plane of the loop formed by the cable and thestructure,
using the following values in eq. (12.4) for h = 10 cm,
The value for k at 30 MHz = 6.28/10 m = 0.628. Therefore, from Eq. (12.3), for h = 1 cm,
2,. = 168 R, and for h = 10 cm, 2,= 441 R.
Shield Current
The current flowing in the cable shield due to the incident wave, ignoring re-radiation from the
wire structure and resonances in that structure, is given by
I=" 4E h
z,.
where E,, is the amplitude of the plane wave.
The shield current is independent of cable length as long as the complete length of the
cable is equally illuminated. The shield currents for the two values of height 1 cm and 10 cm
and a cable diameter of 0.5 cm are calculated as follows:
Example: The cable shield current for a distance of 2 m from the antenna where the E
field is = 125 V/m is for h = 1 cm:
4 X 125 V X 0.01 = 3o m
I=
168 Q
and for h = 10 cm:

4 X 125 V X 0.1 = llom
I =
441 sz
N.B.: From the foregoing it is clear that cables should be kept as close to the shuttle structure
as feasible when the cables are in the proximity of the antenna.
Common-ModeInterference Voltage
The transferred common-mode voltage V, induced in the center conductorsof the shielded cable
due to the shield current is a function of the transfer impedance of the shielded cable, which
in turn is a function of frequency. Three types of cable are considered:
1. Astandardbraided cable exhibitingatransferimpedance of 10 mQ/m at 100 kHz

and 100 mQ/m at 30 MHz
2. A braided multilayer foil type exhibiting a transfer impedance of 8 mQ/m at 100 kHz
and 10 mQ/m at 30 MHz
3. A copper solid-wall tube exhibiting a transfer impedance of 2 mQlm at 100 kHz and
effectively 0 mQ/m at 30 MHz
The common-modevoltage induced is directly proportional to cable length. However, the
induced shield current beginsto reduceat cable lengths beyond 4 m, for thefield strength begins
to reduce at these distances from the source.
For a shield current of 30 mA, V, for cable, 1 per meter, is
at 100kHz = 30 X X I O X lo-’ = 0.3 mV/m
at 30 MHz = 30 X 10” X 100 X lo-? = 3 mV/m
For a shield current of 110 mA, V , for cable, 1 per meter, is
at 100 kHz = 1 mV
at 30 MHz = 11 mV
Compensation for Cable Resonances

At specific frequencies, resonances in the termination currents due to the short-circuited nature
of the transmission line must be expected. The induced voltages shown in Table 12.6 are four
times the amount calculated, to compensate for cable resonances.
Common-Mode Voltage
The induced voltages appearing across the pair in a twisted shielded pair are common mode,
thus if these voltages are applied to the input of a balanced receiver that has a reasonable
common-mode noise immunity, the noise signal is canceled. If the cable is a coaxial type, then
the induced noise voltage will appear at the input of the receiver. Triax cable will provide some
attenuation of the center core induced noise voltage.
Table 12.6 shows noise voltages induced in the center conductors of shielded cables run-
ning parallel to the antenna for distances fromthe antenna of 1 , 2 , and 4 m and for cable lengths
of 1, 2, and 4 m at frequencies of 100 kHz and 30 MHz and. cable heights above the structure
of l cm and 10 cm. Thetransfer impedances of the cables are typical for the three types shown.
780 Chapter 12
Table 12.6 InterferenceVoltageswithDiffcrentCablesandConfigurations
CableCableCableCableabove
Height
Distancc
structure
from h length L type I , Type 2 Type 3
antenna d [m] [cm1 [m1 V, [mVl V, [mV] Frequency
V, [mV]
1 1 1 9.6 7.6 1.9 100 kHz
1 1 1 96 0.96 Neg. 30 MHz
1 IO 1 36 28 7.2 100 kHz
1 IO 1 360 3.6 Neg. 30 MHz
2 1 2 2.4 1.9 0.48 100 kHz
2 1 2 24 0.24 Neg. 30 MHz
2 IO 2 8 6.2 1.6 100 kHz
2 10 2 88 0.8 Neg. 30 MHz
4 1 4 2.9 2.3 0.58 100 kHz
4 1 4 29 0.28 Neg. 30 MHz
4 IO 4 12 9.2 2.3 100 kHz
4 IO 4 120 1.2 Neg. 30 MHz
Transfer impedance
Cable 100 kHz 30 MHz
types Description [mR/m] [ m R / m]
1 Standard braided IO 100

2 Braided multilayer foil 8 10
3 Copper solid-wall tube 2 -0
V, = transferred tnlerfcrence vol~age;Neg. = ncgligihle.
Cotdusiotm
The values shown in Table 12.6 are approximate values useful for evaluation of any possible
EM1 problem. For example, with care given to termination of the shields at the connector, all
the proposed options of digital interface circuits available for use in the experiment will provide
sufficient immunity to the noise source under consideration.
Should a more exact value for theinterference voltage V, and the frequencies of resonance
be required, the physical details of the cable layout and use of a computer program that includes
cable resonance effects should be used.
Case Study 12.4 was confined to frequencies below 30 MHz. When high-intensity fields
as frequencies above 30 MHz are incident on flexible cable, the interference voltages induced
will be higher than those shown in Table 12.2becausethetransferimpedance of the cable
increases with increasing frequency.
12.3.4. Case Study 12.6: Coupling from Radar to the Landing Control
Signal on an Aircraft
In one example it was predicted that the landing control signal cable used on a composite-skin
aircraft would be exposed to an E field of 200 V/m from 14 kHz to 100 MHz, 5 100 V/m from
100 MHz to 2 GHz, and 3 1000 V/m from 2 GHz to 2 1 GHz. The reason the signals could be
exposed to such high levels is that the composite skin of the aircraft provides little shielding
and the aircraft may fly close to high-level radar. The decision was made to run the signal cable
in a solid copper conduit with an 0.05-cm wall thickness. Calculations were made based on the
skin depth of the copper tube,and a levelof shielding in the thousands of decibels was predicted
EM1 81Control,
EMC Predictions, 81 Computational
Modeling 781
from 2 GHz to 21 GHz. The calculation may have been valid for a tube soldered, welded, or
brazed to an enclosure in which the members of the enclosure were similarly joined.
In reality the copper tube is soldered to an EM1 backshell, attached to a connector that
is mated to a receptacle mounted on the enclosure. Each of the mechanical interfaces exhibits
a transfer impedance as described in Section 7.8. The current at the end of a cable disconnected
from ground is zero. However, the cable in question is attached to an enclosure that is several
wavelengths long at the higher frequencies of interest. The current flow through the transfer
impedances is therefore at a maximum at critical frequencies.
Assuming the cable is run at a distance of 1 meter or greater from a ground plane or
grounded conductor, the approximate voltages induced in the control cable conductors, due to
the skin depth of the conduit at low frequency and the transfer impedances of the connections,
is given in Table 12.7
The actual attenuation of the conduit with connector is 54 dB at high frequency and not
the thousands of decibels initially predicted! Additional filtering was required at the connector
to ensure EMC in this example.
12.3.5. Case Study 12.7: Coupling from an AM Transmitter to a Satellite

Communication System
In this example a ground-based system receiving a satellite transmission at a frequency of 1.5
GHz exhibited EM1 due to the high electromagnetic ambient. The receiving system was located
40 m from a 50-kW transmitter operating at a frequency of either 4.8 MHz or 2.2 MHz. The
signal at 1.5 GHz was not directly interfered with due to the frequency separation between the
received signal and the interfering signal, the poor out-of-band response of the antenna, and the
inclusion of a bandpass filter between the antenna anddown-converter. It was this apparent lack
of a potential EM1 problem that caused the system to bebuilt so close to a transmitter. However,
the receiving system uses a IO-14-kHz time code receiver to obtain the accurate time required
to track a satellite, and this exhibited EMI. In addition the antenna control signals and IO-MHz
IF signal, carried on shielded cables between the antenna and the IF receiver and computing
equipment, were susceptible.
The equipment was housed in a nearby building and the shielded cables carrying the IF
and control signals between the antenna pedestal and the building were illuminated by the field
generated by the 4.8-MHz or 2.2-MHz transmitter. The incident field induced a current flow
on the cable shields, which in turn resulted in a common-mode noise voltage on the center
conductor/s developed by the transfer impedance of the cable and the terminations.
The resultant level of noise voltage developed in the coaxial cable carrying the IF signal,
developed at the output of the down-converter, corrupted the IF to the extent that the received
Table 12.7 Voltages Induced in Control Cable

Conductors Due to the Skin Depth of the Conduit
at Low Frequency and the Transfer Impedances
of the Connections
Interference
E field Frequency voltage
200 V i m 14 kHz 140 mV
200 Vlm 7.5 MHz 2.7 mV
5,100 Vim 100 MHz to 2 GHz 10 v
3 1,000 V/m 2 GHz to 21 GHz 64V
782 Chapter 12
signal was lost in thenoise. In addition, the noisevoltage developed in theshielded cables
carrying the signals used to control the antenna drive was sufficiently high that movement of
the antenna was inhibited.
The EM1 voltage developed on the Omega time code antenna resulted in compression
and amplitude modulation in the high-input-impedance preamplifier connected to the antenna,
and the integrity of the time code signal was destroyed.
With the receiving system totally inoperable due to EMI,the first reaction of the engineer
in charge of the installation was to move the entire system to an alternative site with a lower
electromagnetic ambient.
Despite the availability of an alternative site with a suitable building the estimated cost
to disassemble, move, and reassemble the equipment was $100,000, with a resultant delay of
at least a month in the startup date for the system.
The equipment manufacturer was persuaded to commission an EM1 investigation, which
resulted in the implementation of modifications and thereby an operational system within one
week, although the solution to the time code receiver problem took a further two weeks.
A local radio technician was able to make a measurement of the field developed by the
transmitter, which was approximately 4 V/m.
In calculating the V, from the current flow and the transfer impedance of the types of
cables used, the predicted voltage was well below the susceptibility threshold of the interface
circuits and signals. This illustrates the importance of conducting a simple EMC prediction. If
the results from the prediction indicate that an EM1 problem should not exist, then the installation
must differ from the assumptions used in the prediction. In this installation the high transferred
voltage in the installation was not developed across the transfer impedance of the shielded cable
but across the poor shield termination and the poor ground to which the shield was connected.
The knowledge gained in understanding how to improve the immunity of the system was
just as valuable as the EM1 cure. The modifications to the equipment went as follows. Thetime
code receiver required a simple filter, the design of which is described in Section 5.1.10.10,
contained in a small, sealed enclosure inserted between the antenna and the preamplifier. The
cable coupled EM1 was cured by an improvement in the antenna and building groundingscheme,
the shield termination, and the level of cable shielding.
After the proposed modifications were correctly implemented (many EM1 fixes are less
than effective due to incorrect implementation), the system functioned correctly. It continues
to function without EM1 10 years after installation.
Anumber of lessonswerelearnedfromthe EM1 investigation,whichresulted in the
following modifications to the standard version of the system.
The improved grounding scheme and shield termination methods are implemented in all
production equipment regardless of the ambient.
Ambient site surveys are now conducted on almost all of the proposed installation sites.
The site survey measures the ambient over the frequency range of 10 kHz to 18
GHz and, in addition to the low-frequency type of problem described in this exam-
ple, examines the potential for in-band EM1 at 1.5 GHz, cross-modulation, passive
intermodulation (PIM), adjacent channel, harmonic, IF, and image interference. If
the ambient site survey results in a prediction of EM1 to the time code receiver,
then the antenna filter is installed. For close to in-band EM1 problems, the inclusion
of a narrower bandwidthfilter between the 1S-GHz antennaand the down-converter
may be required. For in-band EM1 due to PIM,relocation of the antenna or conduc-
tive structures in close proximity may be required, or the use of all-weather absorber
foam or anti-PIM coating may be necessary.
EM1 &Control,
EMC Predictions, & Computational
Modeling 783
When in-band EM1 cannot be corrected for at the proposed site, an alternative site may
be chosen prior to installation.
The site survey is designed to reduce the cost of the equipment and installation because
filters, absorber foam, anti-PIM coating, welded conduit for cables, etc. are incorpo-
rated only when the electromagnetic ambient warrantsthem. In addition, the estimate
of the time required toinstall the system is more accurate when based on an ambient
site survey.
12.3.6. Case Study 12.8: Spurious Response in a Transmitter/Receiver

Switching-power-supply noise resulted in EM1 in the equipment that contained a transmitted
receiver. The EM1 appeared as spurious emissions during transmission, displaced from the car-
rier by the power supply switching frequency and harmonics thereof. In the worst case the
spurious emissions were only 6 dB down on thecarrier; in this example a $700,000 late delivery
penalty was contained in the contract and the EM1 problem was cured two weeks prior to de-
livery.
The choices, common in all EM1 problem solving, are to incorporate source reduction,
reduction in coupling, an increase in receptor immunity, or a combination of these.
In the example, the EM1 solutions included the design and building of a power supply
filter, elimination of a common ground path, and reduction in crosstalk between the output
filtered power lines and unfiltered lines. These solutions were implemented in six days, and the
equipment passed acceptance testing just prior to the stipulated delivery date.
The transmitterheceiver contained a switching-power supply that provided+5 V for digi-
tal logic, +/- 15 V for RF and analog circuits, and +28 V for RF circuits and the RF power
amplifier.
Switching-power supplies. are notorious generators of high-level and wide-frequency-
range noise. In this case both radiated and conducted noise sourced by the supply resulted in
EMI. The spectrum occupancy of the noise started at the switching frequency of 70 kHz and
extended up to 100 MHz.
In the original design the power supply was not shielded. After the EM1 problem had
been identified, the manufacturer built a prototype shielded enclosure that only marginally im-
proved the EM1 problem. The prototype enclosure was constructed of an aluminum base plate
and a steel cover. A strip type of connector protruded through a 0.105-m aperture cut into the
rear of the enclosure, which was 0.1 1 m wide. The edges of the steel cover at the rear, close
to the connector, were attached to thesides of the cover by pop rivets, as shown inFigure 12.12.
The prototype enclosure under test was unpassivated, and the proposed surface finish was the
relatively high-resistance zinc dichromate. Both the pop-riveted seams at the rear of the enclo-
sure and the 0.105-m slot were identified as potential leakage paths for radiation. The sources
of radiation within the enclosure, such as the transformer and switching semiconductors, emit
the highest fields at the switching frequency. Due to the low frequency and the close proximity
of the sources to the enclosure, thefield impinging on the inside walls of the enclosure is
predominantly magnetic.
The inside of the enclosure forms a wide loop, with an impedance determined by the
inductance of the loop and the frequency of the currents flowing in it. A current flows as a
result of the incident field. Some of the current diffuses through the enclosure material due to
its AC resistance. When seams are present, as in our example, the current also diffuses through
the seam impedance, consisting of the DC resistance, the contact impedance, and the inductance
of the seam. The diffused current then flows in the loop formed by the outside surface of the
enclosure and generatesa magnetic field. Whenan aperture is present, the magnetic field couples
784 Chapter 12
Shield
0 . 1 0 5 m wide slot
for connector
Connector
Lnterconnection wires
Figure 12.12 Originalpowersupply and RF board configuration.
through the apertureand contributes tothe external field. Section 6.4.3 describes the mechanism.
We shall compare the shielding effectiveness of three enclosure configurations. One is a totally
sealed version with welded seams and the dimensions 0.13 m X 0.1 1 m X 0.24 m. The material
used to construct the enclosure has a thickness of 5 mm a relative permeability of 485, and a
relative conductivity of 0.1. The predicted shielding effectiveness of the totally sealed enclosure
is 100 dB at 70 kHz. Examining the shielding effectiveness of the same-size enclosure with
two pop-riveted seams in the current path and with useof either unplated metal or the relatively
high-resistance zinc dichromate finish, the predicted shielding effectiveness reduces to 31 dB.
By adding the 0.105-m aperture for the connector,the shielding effectiveness reducesto approxi-
mately 25 dB. The proposed improvements to the enclosure entail closing the aperture for the
connector, closing the seams with screw fasteners in close proximity, and passivating the mate-
rial with a high-conductivity finish such as tin or zinc, which should increase the shielding
effectiveness to approximately 55 dB.
The magnetic field measured with the top cover of the enclosure removed, at a distance
of 2.4 cm above the transformer, which is the source of maximum emissions, is 6.5 A/m at 70
kHz. The magnetic field measured close to the 0.105-m aperture and the pop-riveted seams was
130 mA/m to 140 mA/m. Thus the measured effectiveness of 33 dB is close to the predicted
of 25-31 dB. This close correlation between measured and predicted attenuations, using the
simple analysis method, has been seen in a number of experiments. Therefore, assuming the
magnitude of the source had been known, the field at the rear of the enclosure could have been
predicted with some accuracy. However, thefield at the rearof the power supply was not directly,
or the sole, source of EMI. The susceptible circuit was located on the RF board on which a
magnetic field was developed as a result of common-mode currents flowing on the interconnec-
tions to the board. This current had two sources: one was the leakage field from the power
supply enclosure coupling to the interconnections between the power supply and the RF board,
and the second was the conducted C/M noise currents generated by the power supply.
The magnitude of the magnetic field at the susceptible location on the RF board was
measured at 13 mA/m at 70 kHz and 0.2 mA/m at 28 MHz. The 28 MHz isa spectral emission
with a repetition rateof 70 kHz and therefore
is also a candidatefor the 70-kHz spurious emission
EMI. The level of magnetic field at 70 kHz induces a current of approximately 30 FA into a
2-cm X 2-cm loop formed by tracks on the PCB, and the 28-MHz level induces approximately
17 FA in the same-size loop.
In finding the source of EMI, one of the diagnostic methods used in the investigation was
to move the interconnectionwiresaway from the rear of thepowersupplyenclosure. This
resulted in reduced coupling to the interconnections, a lower magnetic field on the RF board,
and, as a consequence, a lower level of spurious emission.
Numerous attempts were made both to filter the power supplies on the RF board, close
to the edge of the board near the connector, and to locally shield susceptible areas of the board,
with limited success.
As a result of the pressure to find a quick solution that had a high probability of success,
it was decided to improve the shielding effectiveness of the power supply enclosure and include
both common-mode and differential-mode filter components in the power supply on the +5-
V, + l - 15-V, and 28-V supply and return lines. The filter was designed to preclude insertion
gain by selecting a resonance frequency much lower than 70 kHz. A second feature of the
design was the capabilityof supplying the high peak current required during transmission with a
minimum reduction in supply voltage and with no generation of transient voltages. The measured
attenuation of common-mode anddifferential-mode noise voltage andcommon-mode noise cur-
rent for the filter is shown in Table 12.8.
The filter components were mounted on a PCB contained within a small sub-enclosure
that was connected to the inside cover of the power supply as shown in Figure 12.13.
The leakage from the seams of the power supply enclosure was reduced by the use of a
high-conductivity finish (both tin and zinc were tried) with fasteners at 2-inch spacings along
the bottom of the enclosures. These modifications reduced the AC resistance and contact im-
pedance of the joints, and thus a higher level of shielding effectiveness was achieved. The
leakage from the rear of the enclosure, closeto the power supply interconnections, was reduced
by welding the seams. The modified enclosure, as shown in Figure 12.13, covered the PCB-
mounted connector used to make the internal connections to the filter subenclosure, and thus
the 0.105-m slot for the connector was eliminated. Instead, a small aperture was made at the
location of the filter sub-enclosure to bring the filtered supply interconnections out of the enclo-
sure.
With the filter and modifications made to the prototype enclosure, the magnetic field mea-
sured at the rear of the enclosure close to the interconnections was 12 mA/m at 70 kHz. this
represents an improvement of 21 dB over the pop-riveted enclosure with 0.105-m slot and a
total shielding effectiveness of 55 dB, which is uncharacteristically close to the predicted value
of 55 dB!
Table 12.8 Filter Performance
Attenuation
Common-mode
Differential-
Common-
Frequency voltage
mode voltage mode
current
~~
70 kHz 50 dB 50 dB 37 dB
3.01 MHz 40 dB 50 dB 22 dB
6.02 MHz 63 dB - -
15.05 MHz - 32 dB -
17.99 MHz - - 22 dB
21 .OO MHz - 50 dB -
28.00 MHz - 25 dB -
29.96 MHz 45 dB - -
786 Chapter 12
PCB
Welded seams
Screw fasteners
1
/ close together
Figure 12.13 Modified power supply and RF board configuration.
The improved enclosure and filter achieved a reduction in the spurious emission to an
acceptable 40 dBc, i.e., 40dB down on the carrier, which represents a 34-dB improvement over
a nonmodified power supply.
12.4. EMC,COMPUTATIONALELECTROMAGNETICMODELING,
AND FIELD SOLVER COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Computer programs are useful in the prediction of EMC and in EM1 investigations because
they reduce the probability of arithmetic error and speed up the computation. The use of a
computer program to assistin an EMC analysis is atime-saving tool and may be theonly
practical method to deal with the multiplicity of potential EM1 situations in large systems or
complex equipment.
The dangersin overreliance on computer programs arewell known and are the belief that
the results computed by the program must be right even when the input data is invalid and the
application of inappropriate modeling techniques is made, because they are embedded in the
program. The limitations on a modeling approachare usually frequency and geometry, andwhen
the computer program does not recognize these limitations the result can be a solution with
large errors. The limitation on the computer codeused is particularly true for simple programs,
whereas the more complex programs require a great deal of decision making by the user, which
can also result in large errors. If a simple conductive structure carries a known RF current or
is exposed to an incident E field, simple antenna theory may be used to provide a “sanity check”
on the radiated field or surface current. If the radiated field or induced current is higher than
predicted, then the computer modeling is suspect.
For example, a simple cookbook-type program asks whether a wall is present between a
radiation source and a receptor and, if the answer is yes, applies a fixed attenuation factor to
the coupling equation. The type of material of which the wall is made and the presence of
apertures, such as windows, will affect the real level of attenuation drastically. This effect is
discussed in Section 6.8, in which the attenuation was seen to vary by as much as 40 dB when
EMI 8, EMC Control, Predictions, & Computational Modeling 787
the fields measured at distances of 1 m from the interior walls of a building were compared to
the field 15 m from the interior wall.
The more complex and powerful computer program can calculate the attenuation accu-
rately, based on the conductivity and permittivity of external walls, and account for apertures
and internal walls, etc. The problem with the more complex programs is the amount of time
required to accuratelyinputthegeometry of thestructures and describe the coupling paths
required to be modeled. The computing time for large structures at high frequency may also be
prohibitive.
Whatever the type of program used, it is imperative that the magnitude of the results be
examined for consistency with either measured results or engineering experience. The modeling
method and assumptions made in the program mustbe available to the user to enable a judgment
on the applicability of the method to the problem. The accuracy of the results obtained by use
of a program should be known in order to add a safety factor when a worst-case analysis is
required. An overdesign may result when the accuracy of the prediction is low, with a potential
increase in cost.
The differential-mode currents in a circuit are typically orders of magnitude higher than
the common mode, and it is often difficult too see how these common-mode currents are gener-
ated. As discussed in Chapter 11 on PCB radiation, it is often the common-mode currents that
are the prime source of radiation, and many commercially availablePCB radiation computational
programs ignore this important source.
The argument may be made that the use of EMC programs requires more engineering
judgment, not less. A simple measurement may be possible that will allow validation of the
program and increase confidence in its use. Measurements may have already been made, such
as those described in Section 10.2.1, that compare the use of IEMCAP and measurements made
on antenna-to-antenna coupling.
Another primary limitation on the use of computational electromagnetic modeling (CEM)
and EM field solvers is the amount of computing resources or the time required to make a full
wave simulation. This is often determined by the level of geometric complexity, the volume of
the objects, or the distance from the objects. Because many codes require that the structure
under consideration be divided up into elements that are a fraction of a wavelength in size, the
limitation may be on theupperfrequency that canbeperformedusingthesoftware. Some
guidelines follow.
If the code uses only transmission-line models, it may calculate only fields generated by
the differential-mode currents and ignore the common-mode current as a source.
First perform an analysis/prediction of the potential EM1 problem areas and assess the
criticality of the problem. Use numerical modeling techniques only when the initial
analysis shows a potential EM1 problem.
Ensure that a measurement on the equipment or system is not going to provide a faster
and more accurate results. Consider the use of a brass scale model when the system
is very large or complex.
The source of radiation must be as simple as possible but must still include the actual
return path for grounds.
It may be more efficient to model a chassis using an electromagnet boundary with an
equivalent surface impedance, instead of a 3D model.
The dielectric constant of PCB or cable insulation affects resonant frequencies, imped-
ances, and field strength and should be included in the model where possible.
The proximity of conductive surfaces and nonsymmetries can result in common-mode
current flow, and here a 3D model may be required for accuracy.
788 Chapter 12
The geometry of the problem should be made as simple as possible, depending on the
fidelity required of the analysis.
Many field solvers are available for the analysis of signal integrity incircuits and on PCBs.
They are used in timing simulations to compute delays andnear-field coupling/crosstalk. These
field solvers are often quasi-static, meaning that although the structure guides signals that are
fundamentally propagating waves, the interconnect model is usually modeled as a lumped ele-
ment or transmission line. These can be determined from seperately solved valuesof capacitance
from a static electric field solver and inductance from a static magnetic field solver which pro-
duce the quasi-static values of inductance and capacitance. For this reason two separatemethods
of simulation may be required when both radiationfrom a circuit and signal quality are required.
The following information on available software and suppliers of software was accurate
at the time of going to press. However, the names of software developerdsuppliers change, or
they are bought out by another company, or even the name of the software may change. Some
suppliers of complex software have bought up software packages from other developers and
combined them into a hybrid with a different name. Internet sites exist that describe both com-
mercially available software and freeware,and these, or the suppliers’ own websites, should be
consulted to find out what is currently available. One such site is (or was) emlid.jpl.nasa.gov/
emlib/files.html and another is (or was) http://www.emclab.umr.edu/codes.html. Information
on computer modeling and a newsletter are available by joining the Applied Computational
Electromagnetics Society (ACES). Write toDr. Richard W. Adler, Code 62AB, Naval Postgrad-
uate School, Monterey, CA 93943.
The “EMC Analysis Methods and Computational Models” book is published by John
Wiley and Sons and contains four computer programs which are available free from the web
at www.tesche.com/book.htm, These programs are:
NULINE: Program to analyze the behavior of an above ground transmission line excited
by either transient or CW lumped voltage or current source anywhere on the line
or by an incident EM field.
RISER: Program to computethe voltage and current in a load atone endof a field-excited,
above ground transmission line, modeling the ends (risers) of the line as smaller,
vertical transmission lines.
LTLINE: Program to compute the load voltages and currents at each end of an above
ground transmission line that is excited by a nearby lightning strike.
TOTALFLD: Program to evaluate the total above ground and below ground E and H
fields produced by an incident EM plane wave. Both CW and transient results for
a number of different user defined waveforms are present.
Information on commercially available PCB radiation programs, crosstalk prediction, and
CAD programs are also provided in Section 11.8, although many of the computer programs
described in this section are capable of modeling PCB radiation.
12.4.1. Simple Computer Programs
Simple programs written in BASIC are appended to several chapters in this book and have been
found to be invaluable in predicting cable emission, coupling, and inductive crosstalk problems.
These programs are available free from EMC Consulting Inc. Many more of the simple equa-
tions contained in the book have been used in computer programs that, as an example, predict
attenuation of enclosures with apertures and seams.
As seen in Section 11.8, it is very important that a benchmark problem be presented to
the supplier of a commercially available EM program before purchasing or relying on theoutput
data. The benchmark should have been measured under carefully controlled conditions, using
EMI 8, EMC Control, Predictions, & Computational Modeling 789
reliable, repeatable test methods, and the measured data compared to the data provided by the
EM program. In some instances engineering judgment and experience can be used to test the
validity of predicted data.
12.4.2. Large-System-level and Complex Analysis Computer Programs

A number of programs exist that are designed for determining EMC in large Systems col1tai1lil%
multiple enclosures, cables, antennas, etc. located on a structure such as a building, vehicle,
spacecraft, aircraft, or ship. Other programs are not specifically for EMC analysis but for electro-
magneticanalysisandallowdetailedmodeling of both largeandsmall complex structures,
sources, and receptors.
12.4.2.1. Large-System EMC Programs

Large-system-level programs that allow modeling of the predicted or specified electromagnetic
environment are useful in compatibility analysis, in waiver analysis for the impact of out-of-
specification emissions and susceptibility, and in tailoring EMC requirelnents to a realistic envi-
ronment.
Two of the most versatile large-system analysis programsare Systemand ElectroMagnetic
CompatibilityAnalysisProgram (SEMCAP) andIntrasystemElectroMagneticCompatibility
Analysis Program (IEMCAP). Theseprograms use a transfer function approach betweensources
and receptors (victims). The spectrumof the source is calculated, along with the coupled energy
via the transfer function and the received spectrum and voltages that are compared to threshold
levels of circuits to determine compatibility.
IEMCAP wasdeveloped for aircraft, withan emphasis onantenna-to-antenna and antenna-
to-wire coupling and is applicable to ground, aircraft, and space systems. The system is divided
into subsystems that are groups of equipment. Energy may enter or leave the equipment cases
by portsdesignated as emitters or receptors or both. The ports may be intentional,such as
connectors, or unintentional, such as seams. The location of equipment cases, cables and their
terminations, ground planes, and structures is entered by use of a coordinate system. For each
emitter port, a broadband power spectral density, which represents low-repetition-rate wide-
frequency-range emissions, and a narrowband power spectrum, which represents discrete emis-
sion at a few frequencies, are represented.
The spectrum is defined by a math model or by the user. Spectrum types and transfer
functions are shown i n Table 12.9, which compares the IEMCAP, SEMCAP, and GEMACS
programs. IEMCAP uses a sampled spectrum technique in which each spectrum amplitude is
sampled at various frequencies across the range of interest up to a maximum of 300 over a
range from 30 Hz to 18 GHz.
The receptormodel is a spectrum representingsusceptibilitythreshold over frequency
range. Some of the advantages of IEMCAP are that the program can generate EMC specifications
to supplement or replace MIL-STD-461, and tradeoff and waiver analysis may be achieved by
comparing received power and susceptibility threshold, including those froln previous runs.
One of the disadvantages of IEMCAP is that the field-to-wire coupling analysis allows
only the coupling to bare wires, single-shielded wires, or double-shielded wires without the use
of the transfer impedance of the cable or connectors. Thus the effect of differentshielded cables
and connectors cannot be included in the analysis, although losses in wires are included. The
limitations at frequencies above 1 GHz on the diffraction model and fuselage and wing shading
used in IEMCAP are illustrated in Section 10.2.1. Antennas modeled by IEMCAP are dipole,
whip, slot, loop, parabolic dish, log-periodic, horn, phasedarray, and spiral, with the subparamet-
ers of gain,size,-3-dB vertical half-beamwidth, 3-dB azimuth half-beamwidth, and major
790 Chapter 12
Table 12.9 Comparison of Intrasystem EMC Prediction Programs

SEMCAP and IEMCAP and the Electromagnetic Analysis Program
GEMACS
Program
SEMCAP IEMCAP GEMACS
Interference analysis X X
Waiver analysis X X
Culling routines X
Model routines
CIWIAMIFMIFSK X X
Pulse/ramp/step X X
Digital modulation X
Noise X
MIL-STD levels X
Trcrn.$er functions
Wire to wire X
Inductive
Capacitive
Conductive
E Field X
H Field X
Transmission line X
Field to wire X
Case to case X
Case to wire X
Antenna to antenna X
Near/far surface wave X
Internal to external ambient X
External to internal ambient X
Aperture to ambient X
Enclosure internal fields X
Aperture shielding X
Cavity resonance X
Cavity loading
Susc'eptors
Linear
Single filter X X
Multiple tilters X X
Harmonics X
sidelobe gain. Up to seven types of filters used with either source or receptor models may be
specified, plus a user-specified response. The maximum number of elements that can be used
with IEMCAP Version 6.0 are
Number of segments: 160
Number of bundles: 160
Number of bundle points: 320
Number of wires: 320
Number of segmentdwire: 45
Number of frequencies: 300
EM1 & EMC Control, Predictions, 81 Computational Modeling 791
SEMCAP allows a wire-to-wire coupling analysis, which includes the modeling of cable
harnesses,pigtail lengths,wire shielding, groupshielding, bulkheadshielding,andground
return/common path resistances. Antenna-to-antenna and antenna-to-wire coupling requires the
definition of fields rather thanantenna description. Receptor models are voltage thresholds com-
bined with a frequency response curve. Up to two filters of three types may be used for each
Source and receptor.The received spectrum islimited by the receptor bandwidthand is integrated
Over the frequency range of interest. It is the integrated EM1 voltage that is used in the suscepti-
bility analysis. As with IEMCAP, the input data contains the equipment and harness locations
and the wire data. SEMCAP can handle up to 240 sources and receptors, and a large computer
such as an IBM-360 must be used to run the program.
Further information on IEMCAP is available in Ref. 4 and on SEMCAP, and additional
large-system programs, in Ref. 5.
The Electromagnetic Environment Effects Expert Processor with Embedded Reasoning
Tasker (E’EXPERT) is an expertsystem preprocessor that monitors the signal environment in the
time domain and selects interference rejection schemes.E3EXPERTis a moderately conservative
system-level culling tool based on enhanced RF coupling models resident in IEMCAP. Certain
experimental modifications were made to IEMCAP to more accurately calculate geodesic path
isolation for RF antenna-to-antenna and external field coupling. E’EXPERT applies artificial
intelligence to solvesophisticated EMC problems such asthe scenario of colocated spread spec-
trum transceivers on anairborne platform. Efficientmethods areused to sift through and identify
EM1 conditions in both the time and frequency domains, rank the severity of the predicted
interference, classify the dominant interference sources by type (i.e., broadband modulation,
CW, harmonic, etc.), and select an appropriate EM1 solution. E’EXPERT is configured to run
on a Windows NT personal computer and integrates a commercial expert system, a Windows-
based graphical user interface, for user data/command entry, and a #D viewerlrenderer incorpo-
rating a graphical editor.The editor provides a primary man-machine interface(“1) to graphi-
cally manipulate displayed geometry models.In developing the electromagnetics engine,certain
modifications were made to the IEMCAP geodesic path loss models based on enhanced formal-
isms resident in the Aircraft Inter-Antenna Propagation with Graphics (AAPG) computer pro-
gram. These geodesic models are based on geometric optics (GO), geometric theory of diffrac-
tion (GTD), and the uniform theoryof diffraction (UTD). When complete information regarding
the interference is unavailable, the postprocessor expert system provides the receptor with a
knowledge-based capability to monitor the environment and determine the interference process
along with all necessary parameters. Based on a set of expert system rules, the knowledge-based
processor selects one or more suitable interference-rejection schemes. The selection is made
from a library of preselected techniques. In effect the system reacts to the EM interference
environment so as to maximize performance. The Integrated Processing and Understanding of
Signals (IPUS) is usedprimarily for applicationswhereuncertaintiesexistabout the signal
environment. The E’EXPERT work was sponsored by the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory/
IFSA, and more informationon E’EXPERT is available in Ref. 7. The Electromagnetic Compati-
bility Analysis Program, EMCAP Version 4.0 9/30/1998, is available only to U.S. government
agencies and contractors from Commander, Dahlgren Division, Attn Code J53 EMCAP, Naval
Surface Warfare Center, 17320 Dahlgren Rd, Dahlgren VA 22448-5100; Tel (540) 653-8021;
email: emcap@nswc.navy.mil. EMCAP is useful in ensuring that Navy radar systems do not
cause harmful interference to shore-based civilian or commercial systems (e.g., FAA air traffic
control radars, broadcast and satellite cable TV, cellular phones etc.). EMCAP uses genetic
algorithms to balance the supply and demand for spectrum resources and calculate compatible
frequencies for systems to use. EMCAP provides graphical views of the radar platforms’ posi-
tions (user selectable), with the interference level between platforms indicated by color-coded
792 Chapter 12
lines. System(s) affected by EM1 may be displayed for assistance in tactical decision making.
A cumulative display of each radar system’s spectrum is also available. The EMCAP database
contains a vast array of parametric data for military radar systems; not much of this data is
releasable to activities outside of the U.S. Department of Defence.
EMCAP outputs naval messages (MTF format) for promulgation to all radar platforms,
to provide the frequency assignments for each system’s use. These frequency assignments are
calculated to increasesystemeffectivenesswhilesimultaneouslyminimizinginterference to
other systems, including both military and civilian systems. EMCAP also outputs a Standard
Frequency Action Format (SFAF) file, which interfaces with other government software pro-
grams for spectrum management. The displays of interference interactions and spectrum usage
may also be captured for output. The source code isin C + + and will run on 486- or Pentium-
(recommended) based PCs using Windows 95/98 or Windows NT systems.
The Space andNavalWarfare Systems Center providesnoncommercialsoftware. The
software includes high-fidelity EM propagation models, databases, and DOS/Windows 95/NT-
based assessment systems for evaluating the effects of complex atmospheric environments and
terrain upon 100-MHz to 57-GHz propagation.
12.4.3. Computer Programs for Numerical Electromagnetic Analysis

Several computer programs are available for analysis of fields generated by current-carrying
conductors and fields coupled to conductive surfaces by the use of numerical techniques. Using
this type of program, antennas or any current-carrying conductor are modeled by a wire mesh,
plate, or barrier and not by antenna parameters.
12.4.3.1. Method of Moments Analysis

One of the comnoli analysis techniques for couplingto a structure and radiation froma structure
that can be modeled by wire segments or metal plates is the method of moments (MOM) tech-
nique. This is a frequency-domain technique that predicts a single frequency, although much
of the available software allowsiteration over a number of frequencies by repeating the analysis
at a different frequency, with a resultant increase in computing time.
The moment method is a technique for solving complex integral equations by reducing
them to a system of simpler linear equations. The molnent method uses a technique known as
the method of weighted residuals, which has become synonymous with the moment method
and with the “surface integral technique.” The MOM technique generally does an excellent
job of analyzing unbounded radiation problems and analyzing perfect conductors or structures
with a given conductivity. They are not well suited to structures with mixed conductivity and
permittivity, although they can be used for homogeneous dielectrics alone or for very specific
conductor-dielectric geometries. The MOM technique can be used to analyze a wide variety of
3D electromagnetic radiation problems.
The MOM technique requires that a structure be broken down into wires, which are in
turn subdivided into small wire segments that are typically no larger than h/10. Metal plates
are divided into a number of surface patches, which again must be small. The current on every
wire and every segment is calculated and displayed. The compositeE field at any point in space
can then be calculated by the contribution from each of the wire segments and patches. The
magnitude of the RF current on the structure can be reviewed to ensure that it is not unrealisti-
cally large or small. For example, if at some wire location on a closed structure the current
changes from a ndliamp to an amp value and then immediately returns to a lower value, the
structure has almost certainly not been accurately modeled. The method of moments allows
discrete conlponents to be inserted into a model by simply defining the impedance desired on
any given wire segment. Thus a 50-52 load can be inserted in the center of a dipole antenna;
MOM assumes the current on the wire segment or patch to be the same throughout the conduc-
tor’s depth. Therefore using MOM to determinethe effects of an aperture with fields both inside
and outside is difficult, and often a hybrid approach must be used. Because the MOM analysis
is an iterative process, the larger the number of patches and wire segments, the longer the time
required for analysis. With modern PCs, running at 500 MHz or above, the computation time
has reduced significantly. But if after each iteration the partial solution is saved to the hard
drive and new data is retrieved, it is this process that takes the time and may also affect the
life of the hard drive when continuous.
Some of the programs that allow frequency-domain analysis and use MOM techniques
are the Numerical Electromagnetic Code (NEC), MININEC, and the General Electromagnetic
Code forAnalysis of Complex Systems (GEMACS),which uses a number of techniques, includ-
ing MOM.
NEC: The NEC program allows modeling of EM radiation, antenna perfonnance, radar
cross sections with accurate field emission, and field source computation. The NEC program
uses MOM techniques for the numerical solution of integral equations for the currents induced
on a conductive structure by sources or incident fields. The outputs include current distribution
on wires, surfaces, coupling between antennas, and near-far-field magnitudes. There are at least
four versions available from Nittany Scientific, 1700 Airline Highway, Suite 361, Hollister, CA
95023-5621; PH 408-634-0573; email: sales@nittany-scientific.com. NEC with NEC-2 emerged
in 1981; NEC-4 appeared in 1992. NEC-2 is the highest version of the code under public domain.
NEC-2 is a widely used 3D code developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory more
than 10 years ago. NEC-2 is particularly effective for analyzing wire-grid models, but it also
has some surface patch modeling capability. NEC-2is available from Ray Anderson’s Unofficial
NEC Archives. NEC-4 remains proprietary with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and
the University of California. It requires a separate licensee for use. Some of the Windows-based
versions are NEC-Win Basic, Nec-Win Plus, Nec-Win Pro, and GNEC. GNEC is available only
to users licensed from Lawrence Livermore National Labs to use NEC4 and include all of the
NEC-Win pro features plus more! Nec-Win Basic is designed for beginners, with each of the
other versions enhanced by additional commands and geometry visualization, etc. For more
information on the relative capability of all of these versions, contact the supplier at hrrp://
~vw~v.nittar7y-sc~ientific.com.NEC-Win Basic includes:
Simple user interface for easy data entry and configuration

View or printing of graphical representations of antennas
Azimuth and elevation plot generation
The ability to use multitask in the Windows environment
NEC-WIN Basic combines NEC2 with Microsoft Windows and is composed of three
parts: NEC-VU, NEC-Plot, and NEC Geometry. NEC-Geometry is where the antenna is built.
The coordinates of the wire are entered along with the specific data concerning frequencies and
ground parameters. The following features are included:
Transmission lines
Linear or multiplicative frequency sweeps
Networks
Predefined or define-your-own wire conductivity & gauge
Translate/rotate/scale Antennas
Predefined or define-your-own grounds constants
Series/parallel RLC or complex loads
794 Chapter 12
Sommerfield ground
Voltage/current sources
Linear/radial cliff or radial wire screen grounds
Tabular data for VSWR and input impedance
MININEC: MININEC was written becauseamateurradioenthusiasts who wanted to

design antennas did not have access to large-frame computers on which to run NEC. Expert
for Windows is ideal for the novice, student, or hobbyist. Expert MININEC Professional for
Windows is suitable for the experienced student, hobbyist, or professional engineer, whereas
Expert MININEC Broadcast Professional for Windows is atool for the advanced student or the
professional broadcast engineer. The Expert MININEC series is available from EM Scientific
Inc. at 2533 N. Carson Street, Suite2107, Carson City, NV 89706. For more information contact
hrtp://www.emsci.com/mininec.htm.
The Expert MININEC Series of computer programs is for the analysis of wire antennas
using Microsoft Windows and is available on compatible IBM personal computers (PCs). The
accompanying texts provide descriptions of the software and present the theory with relevant
examples and validation data. The text for Expert MININEC for Windows is entirely online.
Using the method of moments, the Expert MININEC Series solves an electric field formulation
for the currents on electrically thin wires using a Galerkin procedure with triangular basis func-
tions. This formulation results in an unusually compact and efficient computer algorithm. Radia-
tion patterns, near field, charge distribution, impedance, and other useful parameters are com-
puted from the current solution.
The user interface to Expert MININEC is through Microsoft Windows. Input data screens
provide spreadsheet-like entry in individual windows. Output products are displayed in both
tabular and graphics forms. The integrated graphics of the Expert MININEC Series include:
3D geometry display with rotation, zoom, and mouse support

3D current and charge displays
Linear, semilog, and log-log plots of currents, coupling, near fields, impedance, and admit-
tance
Linear and polar pattern plots
The actual computational algorithms are implemented in FORTRAN for greater speed
and makemaximumuse of availablememorytoset array sizes. The formulation has been
changed from earlier versions of the MININEC formulation to use triangular basis functions.
This results in greater accuracy. The short segment limit is machine accuracy. Square loops
and Yagi antennas may be solved with confidence. In addition, a Fresnel reflection coefficient
approximation improves the calculation of currents in the vicinity of real ground.
System Requirements
There are a few minimum requirements to runthe Expert MININEC Series. The computer must
be an IBM-PC or compatible. A 486 processor or better is recommended. The minimum internal
memory requirement is four megabytes. Eight megabytes or higher is recommended. Approxi-
mately 5.33 megabytes of disk drive are required to store the program. Problem definition and
results files can accumulate quickly, requiring furtherhard disk space. The graphics card should
be VGA or super VGA. Microsoft Windows 95 or Microsoft Windows NT is recommended.
In the use of any Microsoft Windows program, a mouse is recommended. In the display settings,
the small font size is recommended.
Modeling Process
The Expert MININEC Series modeling process has five principal steps:
1. Geometry descriptiondefinition
2. Electricaldescriptiondefinition
3. Modelvalidation
4. Solutiondescriptionsdefinition
5. Output display
A wire is subdivided into segments, with currents expanded as triangles centered at adja-
cent segment junctions. The endpoints of a wire have no triangles. If a second wire is added
to the model, the second wireis subdivided into segments, with currents expanded as triangles
as in the case of the first wire. In addition, if the second wire is attached to the first wire, a
triangle is automatically located at the attachment end. Half of the additional triangle extends
onto wire 2 and half onto wire 1. The half of the triangle on wire 1 assumes the dimensions
(length and radius of the half segmentof wire l), while the half of the triangle on wire 2 assumes
the dimensions of wire 2. Wire 2 overlaps onto wire 1, with a current triangle at the junction
end. Additional wires may also overlap onto wire 1. It can be shown that for a junction of N
wires, only ( N - 1) overlaps with associated currents are required to satisfy Kirchhoff’s current
law. The convention in the MININEC Professional Series is that the overlap occurs onto the
earliest wire specified at a junction. A wire junction is established whenever the user-defined
coordinates of a wire end are identical to the end coordinates of a wire previously specified.
As mentioned previously, the choice of the number of segments is critical to the validity
of the computation. It was suggested that segments around 0.02 wavelengths are a reasonable
choice.
Since the conductance and susceptance values both converge as the number of segments
increases, the convergence test can be used to determine the accuracy that can be expected for
a given segmentation density (i.e., the number of unknowns per wavelength of wire).
Expert MININEC modeling geometry constructs include:
Cartesian, cylindrical, and geographic coordinate systems
Meters, centimeters, feet, or inches selection
Straight, helix, arc, and circular wires
Wire meshes
Automated canonical structure meshing
Node coordinate stepping
Symmetry options
Rotational and linear transformations
Numerical Green’s function
Automated convergence testing
Electrical description options include:
Free space, perfect ground, and imperfect ground environments
Frequency stepping
Loaded wires
Lumped loads
Passive circuits
Transmission lines
Voltage and current sources
Plane-wave source excitation
796 Chapter 12
Solution description options include:

Near fields
Radiation pattern
Two-part coupling
Medium wave array synthesis
Output products are displayed in both tabular and graphics forms. The integrated graphics
of Expert MININEC include:
3D geometry displays with rotation, zoom, and mouse support
3D currents, charges, and patterns displays
Linear, semilog, and log-log plotsof currents, coupling, nearfields, impedance, and admit-
tance
Smith chart plots of impedance and admittance
Linear and polar pattern plots
As a summary, Expert MININEC solves for:
Currents and charges on wires (peak or rms)
Impedance, admittance, S1 I and S12
Effective height and current moments
Power and voltage losses
Multiport (antenna-to-antenna) coupling
Near electric and magnetic fields
Radiation patterns (dBi or electric fields, power or directive gain)
Medium wave array design
Auxiliary calculations of ground wave, stub matching, and tower footing impedance
It has been shown from the selected examples that MININEC gives comparable results
to NEC. This is not a complete picture of the comparison of these codes, but it gives the reader
a glimpse of the results to be expected. A more thorough analysis of MININEC shows that for
a wide variety of problems, MININEC and NEC provide comparable results.
Expert MININEC for Windows: ideal for the novice, student, and hobbyist
Expert MININEC Professional for Windows: suitable for the experienced student, hobby-
ist and the professional engineer
Expert MININEC Broadcast Professional for Windows: a tool for the advanced student
and the professional broadcast engineer
Expert MININEC for Windows
File handling
Open, save, and delete problem files
Print setup
Geometry constructs
Geometry points defined in meters, centimeters, feet, inches, or degrees
Geometry points iteration
Environmental options, including free space, perfect ground, and real ground
Straight wires
Electrical constructs
Frequency stepping
Ground options
Lumped loads
EM1 81 EMC Control, Predictions, 81 Computational Modeling 797
Loaded wires
Voltage/current sources
Solution space
Currents, charges
Impedance/admittance
Radiation pattern
Diagnostics
List of current nodes
Geometry guidelines
Definition evaluation and summary
Online and context-sensitive help
Online tutorial
Run options
Current
Near fields
Radiation patterns
Frequency iteration
Display types
Text and interfaces to most available spread sheets
3D geometry, 3D currentdcharges, 3D patterns
Linear plots
Polar plots for patterns
Smith chart
Display options
Admittance, impedance, S 1 1, S 12
Effective height and current moments
Power and voltage losses
Current/charge on wires (peak or rms)
Radiation patterns
Problem limits: 1250 unknowns and 500 wires
The High-Frequency 3D Planar EM Solvers from Sonnet, Liverpool, NY
3D Planar Solver Products:
em: 3D Planar Electromagnetics Analysis Engine
emlets: Incremental Licensing Feature for Sonnet em
emgen: Netlist Interpreter Option for Sonnet em
Availability of Solver Products:
em: Sonnet 3D Planar Electromagnetics Analysis Engine
This program is particularly useful for modeling PCBs and circuits.
e m 8 is the electromagnetics analysis engine. It uses an FFT-based method of moments
technique based on Maxwell’s equations to perform a true three-dimensional current analysis
of predominantly planar structures. (Note: predominantly planar refers to planar structures with
vias.) em will perform an automatic subsectioning of the circuit, allowing faster analysis to
occur, but you can control how that subsectioning takes place. In addition, em provides the
following features:
798 Chapter 12
Complete control of the properties of any number of dielectric layers

Complete control of the DC and RF conductivity properties of any number of conductors
independently
Output X-, Y-, or Z-parametersin formats compatible with the major circuit theory simula-
tors
Outputequivalent SPICE parameters for use in SPICE circuitsimulators(particularly
useful for the analysis of crosstalk in digital circuits)
Control circuit port impedance for analysis
Automatic de-embedding of circuits using TEM-equivalent impedances, if desired
Include the effects of stray coupling, parasitics, and EM radiation
Perform the analysis in a true shielded environment, to simulate enclosure effects, or in
an open environment
Size of circuit that can be analyzed limited only by the size of your computer-software
has no circuit size limits.
MOMIC
MOMIC is a user-oriented method of moments PC program suitable for analyzing the
electromagnetic behavior of arbitrarily shaped wire antennas and scatterers, modeled
by piecewise linear segments, in free space. Capabilities of MOMIC include evalua-
tions of the currents induced/excited on the wires, impedance/admittance parame-
ters, near fields, and far-zone radiation and scattering patters. MOMIC can analyze
various antennas and scatterers composed of electrically thin straight and curved
wires, and wire-grid models of conducting surfaces. The target platform for MOMIC
executable is an 80486 (or Pentium) running under MS-DOS in 32-bit protected
mode. MOMIC is available on the Web.
Matra Systeme Information, Toulouse, France
EMC2000 is a 3D electromagnetic code in the frequency domain using MOM based on the
EFIE triangles, linear elements, and surface-to-wire junctions. The code uses various Green’s
functions, and a hybrid IPO asymptotic technique is linked with the MOM kernel. The software
runs on PC platforms under WINNT. The MOM codeis parallelized for multiprocessor PC and
provides excellent run times. A GUI monitors the application and allows the user to focus only
on the technique.
Zeland Software, Fremont, CA
IE3D is a full wave, method of moments, 3D and planar electromagnetic simulation and optimi-
zation package for circuit and antenna applications.
Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg Germany
CONCEPT is a 3D moment method that models lossy dielectrics as well as conductive surfaces
and wires.
12.4.3.2. GEMACS Hybrid Solution for Large, Complex Structures
GEMACS allows modeling of EM radiation and scattering, antenna performance, and radar
cross section with accurate field predictions, including sources, reflections, and scattering. Out-
puts include current distribution on wires, surfaces, coupling between antennas, farhear fields,
antenna terminal characteristics, scattering on conductive surfaces,cavity behavior, and aperture
coupling.
Although GEMACS is not an EMC analysis program, it is compared to IEMCAP and
SEMCAP in Table 12.9 in order to illustrate the relative strengths of the two types of pro-
grams. Both programs use the method of moments (MOM) physics model, which in the case of
GEMACS is supplemented by geometric theory of diffraction (GTD) and the finite element
EM1 8, EMC Control, Predictions, & Computational Modeling 799
method (FEM). GEMACSmodels complex structuresby a hybrid using combined MOM/GTD/

FEM techniques. These three techniques are implemented in GEMACS as follows.
GEMACS inputs are in two categories: the command language, which directs the program
execution, and the geometry language, which describes the geometrical properties of the struc-
ture being analyzed.The command language controls the analysisused and describes the electric
field, voltage or antenna excitation, and the reflected/scattered electric field. The incident, scat-
tered, or total field may be computed for both near- and far-field conditions as a magnitude in
either a spherical, cylindrical or Cartesian coordinate system. Two types of structure geometry
are defined: thin-wire, wire mesh, or patch geometry used in the MOM analysis and the plate
or cylinder geometry used in the GTD analysis. A mix of these is allowed in the MOM/GTD
hybrid analysis. In the MOM analysis the structure under consideration is divided up into a
group of thin-wire segments and/or surface patches. The choice of current distribution on these
segments and patches is made, in the GEMACS MOM implementation specifically, in order to
ease the numerical integration burden. It is now possible to compute the field at any point in
space due to the current on any object of the structure, and the contribution from all parts of
the structure may be added by superposition to form the total field. The currents on the structure
may be due to excitation by plane or spherical waves. The MOM technique is used for electri-
cally small objects. Because the current between the centers of wire segments are approximated
by an expansion (basis) function and because near-resonant segments must be avoided, for the
sake of accuracy, physical limitations are placed on the segment length and the mesh area.
Generally these limitations are:
Mesh circumference 0.5h
Meshlength < O.lh, although good results have been achieved with long subsection
lengths to 0.25h and with square mesh to 0.14h
Adjacent subsections to differ in length by no more than a factor of 2
Angles between subsections to be no less than 20"
Wire radii < 0.001 X subsection length
The wire subsections used in the MOM geometry need not be perfect conductors but may
be loaded by either a fixed impedance (as a function of frequency), lumped loads, series or
parallel RLC networks, and finite segment conductivity. Quasi-aperture coupling occurs between
the apertures in a wire mesh. Patches may be used to reduce aperture coupling and to simulate
ground planes, but patches are modeled as conductive surfaces only. The wire segment is speci-
fied by coordinates (Xl, Y , , 2 ,)that define one end of the wire segment and ( X z , Y?,Zz) that
define the other end of the wire segment. The position of the wire segment in the coordinate
system allows the construction of complex structures. The geometrical theory of diffraction is
a high-frequency ray optics approach that has been extended to include diffraction effects from
surface discontinuities and waves creeping around smooth structures. The basic geometry objects
that can be used in GTD structures are those for which reflection and diffraction coefficients
exist and for whichit is possibleto carry out theray tracing of the optics approach.The advantage
of GTD is that large objects equal to or greater than a wavelength may be modeled in bulk
instead of requiring wire griding as with MOM. Rather than calculate geometry element currents
to obtain field pattern data (the MOM approach), the scattered fields are obtained directly from
the sources and geometry by tracing all geometrical optics paths from the sources to the field
points. The waves are then reflected and diffracted as they follow these paths, from the surfaces,
edges, and corners of the elements.
The GTD techniques are used when detailed structure elements are not important and
when scattered fields are the only quantities desired. While it is theoretically possible to obtain
any level of detail with enough GTD elements, in practice the user is forced to limit either the
number of GTD elements or the number of physical interactions that are to be considered. The
800 Chapter 12
GTD analysis does not include surface waves, although creeping waves are modeled. A large
number of scattering mechanisms are possible, and with GTD these multiple scattering effects
must be explicitly included in the analysis.
With the MOMIGTD hybrid configuration it is possible to combine the best features of
MOM and GTD into a hybrid methodology. The scattering structure is modeled with both MOM
and GTD geometry objects. This allows the user to specify detail (where required) by using
MOM objects, but does not require that the entire geometry be gridded. Hence the matrix size
and number of unknowns are minimized. By use of a hybridized finite differences algorithm
with the GTD and MOM formulation, both the interior and exterior problems in the presence
of eachother are solved. This means that the external field, which may couple through an
aperture, excite aMOM or GTDstructure, and reflect back out of the aperture, canbe computed.
I believe that GEMACS is still the only frequency-domain unclassified program that has this
capability.
One major problem with GEMACS Version 5.3 was the time required to model a complex
structure. The modeling of the fuselage of an aircraft with a single jet turbine, using wire seg-
ments, with single-GHz-frequency incident field was just not realistic using a 486 PC, due to
the incredible length of time required. The alternative was to model a much simpler structure,
in which case the fidelity of the analysis could be severely compromised. The latest high-speed
PCs will almost certainly reduce the time required, probably to days for a complex structure,
but the earlier versions of GEMACS used very little RAM and made extensive use of the hard
drive. In many cases for complex structures such as ships and aircraft, a brass scale model
complete with transmitting and receiving antennas provides a faster solution when compared
to computer analysis. A new version of GEMACS called GEMACS Plus is reported to increase
analysis speed by utilizing all of RAM. Speed increases will vary based on the system and the
type of analysis being performed. GEMACS Plus can be run on a UNIX, DOS, Windows, or
OS12 system. A compiled version of GEMACS Plus is commercially available from SM&A
System Solutions.
The task of specifying the geometry and analyzing the output of GEMACS is not easy.
A program designed to lighten this task is GAUGE/MODELED, which can supply code/data
interface management, I/O simplification and guidance for geometry setup, command setup,
and execution of GEMACS. It provides integrated data analysis capabilities that include data
scaling, data editing, data comparison, and user-defined analysis. Errors in input data and com-
mands are caught and fixed. All input data/commands required for a GEMACS run are com-
pleted with syntax prompts for input data.
GAUGE is available and provides a graphic display of input geometry and output fields
and currents. The graphic display capability includes true 3D wire frame and solids, wire-to-
patch-to-plate conversions, up to 16 colors (EGA), and pan, zoom, rotate, and translate. The
structure may be modeled using GEMACS geometry for input and may be color coded by ID,
TAG, Segment. GAUGE enables model replication and provides GEMACS-readable outputs.
The output display includes color mapping of wire/surface currents, color-filled contours for
detail, polar and rectangularplots,overlays,andnear-and far-field patterns and converts
GEMACS outputs to displays. Gauge for Windows (WinGAUGE V2.0) provides a common
user interface with other Windows products and allows multiple interactive viewingof the same
geometry. WinGAUGE V2.0 is available from SM&A. WinGauge V2.0 incorporates display/
analysis using the new ray-tracing capability of GEMACS V5.3 and GEMACS Plus. SM&A
also offers installation and training at your facility. SM&A can be contacted at 4695 MacArther
Court, 8th floor, Newport Beach, CA 92660; PH: 949-975-1550.
The Ultra Corporation, P.O. Box 50, Syracuse, NY 132 10; PH: 3 15 428-81 22, under
contract with the Air Force Research Laboratory, has developed aparallel version of GEMACS.
The parallel version incorporates recent advances in high-performance computing and enables
scalable run-time speed-up ondistributed processors. The base GEMACS codeis highly portable
FORTRAN. The parallel version uses the message-passing standard MP1 and runs on the widest
possible family of parallel machines, from massively parallel supercomputers to networks of
workstations or PCs. The code modifications for parallelization are to the structure of the soft-
ware system, not to the underlying physics. In the low-frequency regime, the computation of the
interaction and Green’s function matrices are distributed, while a parallel ray-tracing algorithm
is
used for the high-frequency case. The hybrid situation employs both techniques. The run time
is reduced from daysto hours while maintaining the accuracy of the original code. The modified
GEMACS code can now solve larger, more complex problems and handle higher orders of
interactions. Like all other versions of GEMACS the code and documentation is under export
control.
The EMC/IAP programs IEMCAP, GEMACS, and GAUGE areavailable to those work-
ing on governmentcontractsand other eligibleapplicants. The PC version of GEMACS is
available from B. Coffey, Advanced Electromagnetics, 5617 Palomino Dr. N.W., Albuquerque,
NM 87120, who also offers a 4’/?-day seminar. G. Evans of Decision Science Applications In-
corporated, 1300Floyd Ave., Rome, NY 13440, offers a PC version of GAUGE and GEMACS.
Decision Sciences offer a two-day seminar on GAUGE.
Agencies in foreign countries may obtain the GEMACYGEMACS Plus programs with
approval of the U S . Air Force, Further information on availability may be obtained by con-
tacting K. Siarkiewicz, Department of the Air Force, Headquarters Rome Laboratory (AFSC),
Griffiss Air Force Base, New York 13441-5700.
The route for requests from Canada is to obtain a copy of form DD 2345, “Militarily
Critical Technical Data Agreement,” from the Canadian DSS and to contact K. Siarkiewicz.
12.4.3.3. Transmission-Line Matrix
A numerical technique suitable for solving electromagnetic problems that may involve nonlinear,
inhomogeneous, anisotropic time-dependent material properties and arbitrary geometries is the
transmission-line matrix (TLM) method. The method allows the user to compute the time-do-
main response of two-dimensional (2D-TLM) or three dimensional (3D-TLM) shaped electro-
magnetic structures to arbitrary excitation in time and space. Instead of interleaving E and H
fields, asingle grid is established and the nodesof this grid are connectedby virtual transmission
lines. Excitations at the node sources propagate to adjacent nodes through these transmission
lines at each time step. A mesh can be approximated by a lumped element model using induc-
tance and capacitance per unit length of each line in the mesh. Although the time-domain re-
sponse is computed, the frequency-domain characteristics can be extractedby Fourier transform,
and the method is then useful in modeling the response to lightning, EMP, and other events as
well as the peak response to a continuous wave incident on a structure.
The excitation source may be an arbitrary function or a continuous wavefonn. More than
one excitation source may exist at points in the mesh.The wavepropagation in a shunt-connected
TLM network, made up of a mesh of transmission lines, may be shown in which the voltage
simulate electric fields and from which the E,, H , , and H ; magnitudes can be calculated. In a
series-connected TLM mesh in which the node current simulates a magnetic field, the H , , E , ,
and E , fields may be computed. A total or partial reflection of the wave propagation down the
mesh occurs at boundaries that represent a structure. The boundaries may be lossless or lossy
homogeneous or lossyinhomogeneousmaterials.Aperturecouplingwith an external source
coupling through an aperture in the enclosure or from an internal source coupling out of the
enclosure may be modeled with this technique. Either the E or H field coupling through the
aperture may be computed. Complex nonlinear materials are readilymodeled, but large problems
that demand a fine mesh require excessive amounts of computing time.
An orthogonal combination of the shunt-connected and series-connected network types
802 Chapter 12
can be used to compute three-dimensional field problems. The TLM method allows modeling
of field magnitudes and wave impedance and the surface wave on a structure. However, the
method is not confined to wave-related problems but can be used to solve linear and nonlinear
lumped networks. A varactor diode has been implemented in 2D-TLM by W.J.R. Hoefer, who
describes both the 2D-TLM and 3D-TLM in Chapter 8 of Ref. 6. The same source provides
the listing of a two-dimensional inhomogeneous TLM program for the personal computer.
The use of a graded mesh (more dense and less dense) and multigrid techniques for the
modeling of microwave components in three dimensions showthat multigrid techniques provide
an effective means of reducing the mesh resolution away from discontinuities.
A hybrid 3D Symmetrical Condensed Node-Transmission Line Model (SCN-TLM) and
a Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) can combine the specific features of both of these
techniques. MeFisto for Windows 95/98/0T is a time-domain electromagnetic simulator based
on the TLM method and is commercially available from Faustus Scientific Corporation, Victoria,
BC, Canada.
Micro-Stripes is 3D-TLM software commercially available from Sonnett Software, Liv-
erpool, NY. Micro-Stripes obtains the time-domain impulse response and extracts frequency-
domain results and S-parameter data Postprocessing is done to obtain fields, S-parameters, far-
field radiation patterns, energy, and power flow. Control over the density of the mesh exists as
well as relative cell ratios. A brief description of the analysis method follows:
Volume is divided into elemental cells modeled as the intersection of orthogonal, three-
dimensional transmission lines.
Voltage pulses are absorbed, transmitted, and scattered at each cell, and the simulation
propagates in time from arbitrary initial field/voltage conditions.
The fields are stored for each time step at output points, and postprocessing is done to
obtain fields (E, H, energy, power), S-parameters, far-field radiation patterns, and
outputs.
A typical analysis can result in thousands of time steps. A fast Fourier transform (FFT)
then provides thousands of frequency data points.
A free version of Sonnet@ Lite can be downloaded that can be used to analyze planar
structures, such as:
Microstrip matching networks
Stripline circuits
Via (interlayer or grounded)
Coupled transmission-line analysis
Microwave circuit discontinuities
Broadside-coupled transmission lines
Microstrip or stripline filters
Mounting pad characterization
PCB trace crosstalk analysis
Spiral inductors with bridges
Planar interconnects
Sonnet Lite can provide EM analysis for 3D planar circuits up to two metal layers and
up to 4-port circuits. A number of example programs are provided along with online manuals
and tutorials.
A TLM program is available from the University of Victoria’s TLM modeling group and
is noncommercial.
One of the early problems with the TLM method was in predicting far-field radiation due
to the need for a boundary at the mesh that absorbs and simulates free space. However, this
problem Seems to have been solved in commercial versions of TLM software. But, as with all
software, the software company should be asked to run a benchmark prediction, such as far-
field radiation from a microstrip configuration,that can be compared to known data before using
or purchasing any EM software.
12.4.3.4. Finite Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) Technique
Finite difference describes a method for solving partial differential equations. Alternative meth-
ods of solving partial differential equations arethe finite element method (FEM) and the bound-
ary element method (BEM).
The FDTD method uses time-domain numerical modeling. Maxwell’s equations in differ-
ential form are modified to central-difference equations, discretized, and implemented in soft-
ware. The process is iterative, in that the electric field is solved,then the magnetic fieldis solved,
and then the process is repeated over and over until a final result has been obtained.
According to Maxwell’s differential form equations,the change in the Efield is dependent
on the curl of the H field. This results in the basic FDTD equation that the new value of the E
field is dependent on the old value of the E field and the difference in the old value of the H
field on either side of the E field point in space. Hence the name finite difference time domain.
Likewise the new value of the H field is dependent on the old value of the H field and also
dependent on the difference in the E field on either side of the H field point.
In order to use FDTD, a computational domain, which is the space where the simulation
will be performed, must be specified. A mesh or grid within thespace are defined with a material
having a specific permeability, permittivity, and conductivity. Normally the mesh must be uni-
form, so the mesh density is determined by the smallest detail of the configuration. A source
is then specified that can impinge on the space and the grid material, or it can be a current on
a conductor, an electric field between plates. Since the E and H fields are computed directly,
the data output is usually the E or H field at a point or a series of points within the space.
Because FDTD isa time-domain technique when a time-domainpulse (suchas a Gaussian
pulse) is used, a wide frequency range can be solved with only one simulation. This is valuable
when resonant frequencies or a broadband result are desired. Thus a single simulation can deter-
mine current, voltage, or fields over a wide frequency range. The frequency-domain results can
be be obtained by applying a discrete Fourier transform to the time-domain results. Arbitrary
signal wavefomx can be modeled asthey propagate through complex configurations of conduc-
tors, dielectric, and lossy nonlinear nonisotropic materials.
The FDTD technique is excellent for transient analysis. It usually does a better job of
modeling unbounded problems than FEM and is therefore often the methodof choice formodel-
ing unbounded complex inhomogeneousgeometries. Because FDTD is a time-domain technique
that finds the fields everywhere within the space, it can display moving images of the fields as
they move throughout the space.
Since FDTD uses a computational domain, this must end somewhere, which needs the
establishment of an absorbing boundary to simulate free space. The space must be gridded, and
these grids must be small compared to the smallest wavelength and smaller than the smallest
feature to be modeled. Very large spaces require very long solution times. Also, models with
long, thin features, like wires, are difficult to model because of the very large space taken up
by the wire. Because the E or H field is found within the space, the fields at very large distances
from a source require very large spacesand excessive computation time. The far-field extensions
are available for FDTD but require some postprocessing.
The FDTD technique allows apertures to be determineddirectlyalongwithshielding
effects, since the mesh can be described with different valuesof conductivity, and so boundaries
804 Chapter 12
with and without apertures an seams can be modeled. Also, the fields both inside and outside
a structure can be determined.
The only significantdisadvantage of FDTD is that, in common with most other techniques,
the problem size and the fineness of the mesh will dictate the computation time. The fineness
of the grid is determined by the dimensions of the smallest feature to be modeled, and so codes
that offer a variation in the mesh size over the structure would have an advantage. Also the
entire object, including most of the near field, must be covered.
APLAC
APLAC, a program for circuit, system, and electromagnetic FDTD simulation and design, is a
joint development of the Circuit Theory Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology,
Aplac Solutions Corporation, NokiaResearch Center, and Nokia Mobile Phones. The main
analysis modes are of circuits, but it includes an electromagnetic FDTD simulator for solving
3D field problems independently or as part of a circuit design.
EZ-EMC
EMS-PLUSDurham, NC
sales@ems-plus.com
EZ-EMC is moderately priced 3D FDTD software with a user-friendly interface and the ability
to create animations.
Remcom Inc.
State College, PA
Phone: (814) 353-2986
Fax: (814) 353-2986
XFDTD is3D full-wave finite difference time domain(FDTD) software with an X/Motif graphi-
cal interface
Sigrity, Inc.
Binghamton, NY
Phone: (607) 648-3 1 1 1
Fax: (607) 648-4020
SPEED97 is a special-purpose FDTD solver for modeling interactions in multilayer chip pack-
ages and printed circuit boards.
Penn State FDTD Code
This is a public domain FDTD code developed by R. Luebbers and K. Kunz that is de-
scribed in their book, The Finite Difference Time Domain Metlzod for Electromagnetics pub-
lished by the CRC Press.
12.4.3.5. Combined FDTD and MOM Software

EMIT@ is from the SETH Corporation
http:llwww.sethcorp.com
EMITB’s graphical interface permits users to assemble complex structures for input as
2D or 3D models. The toolbox approach of EMIT@ offers three calculating kernel
applications and two graphical processors with a variety of supporting tools.
According to the SETH corporation the optimization of the critical Adaptive Absorbing
Boundary Conditions provides “unsurpassed modeling accuracy.”
Modification of computational techniques optimizes system performance and enhances
user application.
EMITB features:
Finite difference time domain (FDTD) Method of moments (MOM)

2D and 3D modelsGraphicalinterface
Also in the SETH Corporation toolbox are the following.
ENEC: This is based on the popular numerical electromagnetics code. Models can be
created from which RF currentsat selected frequencies on the wires and conductors
may be observed. Far-field and/or near-field can be calculated and presented as an
entire complex structure.
EMFIELDS3D: This is a three-dimensional implementation of the finite difference time-
domain (FDTD) computational technique. With EMITM,rectangular grid structures
can be created and the effect of various media such as metal, air, or dielectric mate-
rial can be observed. A time-domain pulse may be used to excite the model while
observing the effects. Using the postprocessing analysis tool, the time-domain and
frequency-domain may be visualized using the animation display. Thedata then can
be manipulated to observe the simulated real-time effect.
EMFIELDS-2D: This is similar to EMFIELDS-3D, except that it is a two-dimensional
implementation of the FDTD modeling technique, allowing for analysis of more
complex structures in a quicker redraw time, thus saving time.
EMITTM PREPROCESSOR: This enables the creation of the models to be used by the
EMFIELDS and ENEC tools. The parameters of each simulation are entered using
the graphical placement of sources of RF energy, conductive surfaces, conductive
lines, dielectric volumes, and monitor points. The user can change the numerical
parameters of the model, such as material conductivity, source spectrum, dielectric
constants, and calculation detail. The graphical representation of the model can be
observed on the screen and the appropriate modifications made if necessary. The
created models may be saved and reused as templates for other applications.
EMITTM PREPROCESSOR: This offers a variety of analysis functions and displays en-
abling the examination of the results of the numerical model. For convenient com-
parative analysis of the results, the EMFIELDS can be plotted in either one time
domain or the frequency domain. The time-domain visual animation plots provide
a movie of simulated real-time effects. This animation is an excellent visual aid.
EMITTM is available on the most popular versions of UNIX and VMS platforms.
The followingproblem is one familiar to most EM1 engineers: In one casestudy a printed circuit
board (PCB) is placed inside a shielded box, with a connector protruding through the shield,
and a long cable is attached to the outside of the connector. Common-mode signals will be
efficiently radiated by the long cable/wire. The box, with its PCB, can be conveniently modeled
using FDTD. The outside segment of the problem can conveniently be modeled using MOM.
And so the overall problem is modeled in two stages, inside and outside, usingFDTD and MOM,
respectively. The first stage (inside the shielded box) is modeled using the FDTD technique. In
this problem the high-speeddata circuits were placed in the backcorner (away from the connec-
tor opening). The numerous PCB tracednetswere reduced to those either directly involved with
806 Chapter 12
the source circuits (high-speed signals), connected to the connector pins directly, or those possi-
bly serving as fortuitous conductors.
Since FDTD isa time-domain modeling technique, onlyone simulation is needed to deter-
minethe “transfer function” between the sourceandthe common-mode voltage across the
entire frequency range of interest (30-1000 MHz). The common-mode voltage found in stage
1 is used as the source and is placed between the shielded box and the long wire. The wire and
box thus formamonopole antenna, with theboxacting as the groundplane. In this MOM
model, the shielded box was converted to a wire frame box, and the long wires were broken
into individual wire segments.
12.4.3.6. Finite Element Method (FEM) and Combined FEM/MOM Techniques
The finite element method is for solving partial integral or differential equations. It is a varia-
tional technique that works by minimizing or maximizing an expression known to be stationary
about the true solution. Generally FEM techniques solve for the unknown field quantities by
minimizing an energy function.
The FEM technique uses a system of points called nodes that make a grid called a mesh.
The starting point of the method is the subdivision (discretization) of a domain (volume) into
small subdomains called elements, which are the spaces between the mesh. Although the ele-
ments need not be triangles, those subdivisions are called a friangulcrrion. An element is de-
scribed by its vertices and one point on each edge. These points are the nodes, and the FEM
mesh is constituted from nodes and elements. The great advantage of FEM is that the domains
can be conductive or a dielectric or have the properties of free space. One disadvantage is that
the entire volume must be meshed, as opposed to MOM, which only requires the surfaces to
be meshed. Often in time-dependent solutions the FEM mesh is extended to all time levels by
a finite difference method.
One weakness with FEM is that it is relatively difficult to model open configurations, i.e.,
where the fields are not known at every point. Absorbing boundary are used to overcome this
deficiency.
The major advantage with FEM is that the electrical and geometric properties of each
element can be defined independently. Thus a large number of small elements can be set up in
regions of complexgeometry,and fewer, larger elements can be setup inrelativelyopen
regions.
In general, FEM excelsat modeling complex inhomogeneousstructures (components com-
posed of differentmaterials) but is not asgoodas MOM at modelingunbounded radiation
problems. In contrast, the method of moments doesnot model components composedof different
materials efficiently. However, the advantage of FEM in describing a dielectric volume can be
combined with MOM to solve for currents on the surface of (or external to) a volume.
EMAPS is a hybrid FEM/MOM code designed primarily to simulate electromagnetic in-
terference (EMI) sources at the printed circuit board level. EMAPS is a full-wave electromag-
netic field solver that combines the method of moments with a vector finite element method
(VFEM). It employs FEM to analyze three-dimensional volumes, and uses MOM to analyze
the current distribution on the surface of these volumes.
The two methods are coupled through the fields on the dielectric surface. EMAPS can
modelthreeincidentplane waves, voltage sources (in themoment-methodregion), and im-
pressed current sources (in the finite element region). The goal of the code is to efficiently
model heterogeneous and arbitrarily shaped dielectric bodies attached to one ormore conducting
bodies. A typical example of such structures is a printed circuit board attached to long wires
or cables.
EMAPS is a 3D numerical electromagnetic modeling code developed at the University
A
n
f
dielectric body
A
n
E' H'
E 3 = H 3= O conductive body
SC
Figure 12.14 A dielectric object and a conductive object illuminated by H'and E' fields or impressed
sources F"' and M"". (01998.)
of Missouri-Rolla. The code can be freely downloaded from the World Wide Web at http://
www.emclab.umr.edu/emap5.
In one case study presented in Ref. 8 a structure shown in Figure 12.14 comprised a
dielectric volume V?,which has electrical properties (Q, p?). The dielectric volume and conduc-
tive volume are illuminated by either incident H' and E' fields or impressed sources J'"' and M'"".
A conductive volume V 3 is enclosed by a conductive surface S,.. The fields within V 3 vanish.
V , , which denotes the volume outside of V? and V3,is assumed to be free space and hence has
electrical properties (E", h),( E ~ ,p?). (E,, H,) and (E:, H?) denote the electric and magnetic
fields in V, and V?, respectively. The unit normal vectors for S , and S,. are defined pointing
outward. Tetrahedral elements are used to discretize the dielectric volume V,. The FEM and
the MOM equations are coupled through (E,,) and (l,,) By solving the two equations, all fields
within the FEM region and the surface equivalent currents can be obtained.
The EMAPS software package includes three major components: SIFTS, EMAPS, and
FAR. EMAPS is developed for research and educational use. It does not have a sophisticated
mesh generator or graphic visualization tools. SIFTS can generate simple meshes for users.
EMAPS is the FEM/MOM field solver. FAR is the far-field calculator. The Standard Input File
Translator Version 5 (SIFTS) is designed to generate input files for EMAPS. SIFTS reads a text
file in the SIFT format (1). Users can describe the structure of interest by using 11 keywords
that are discussed in the EMAPS software.
SIFTS detects inconsistent input parameters in input fields andautomatically prompts users
to correct them. EMAPS reads a file generated by SIFTS. EMAPS will print out fields within
areas specified by the siffile, one or more output files. All equivalent surface currents J and M
will be printed.
808 Chapter 12
FAR is a program used to calculate the far-field radiation pattern Far fields are calculated
equivalent surface currents J and need two input files. One is the file generated by SIFTS, and
the other is the default output file generated by EMAPS. The FAR program will prompt the
user to input the following parameters:
The observingdistance R from thestructure, in wavelengths.Usually,thevalue of R
should be higher than 20.
The observing 8 interval, in degrees in spherical coordinates.
The observing cp interval, in degrees in spherical coordinates.
When the MOM part of the code is implemented, EMAP5 must know how triangles are
linked to each other. In addition, a rule defining current direction must be specified.
EMAPS supports the following three kinds of sources:
1. Voltage sources on metal patches
2. Plane-wave sources
3. Current sources within the FEM region
EMAPS must know whether users need thedefault output. In addition, EMAP5must know how
many other output files users want.
A nonuniform mesh must be used to discretize some structures, for example, when the
width of a trace is very small compared to its length.
Although EMAPS is a FEM/MOM code, it can model configurations that require only
one method to analyze. In this case, only the MOM portion of the code is employed.
A dipole with a source located in a dielectric source is presented as an example. With
the dielectric slab set to a relative permittivity of 1.0, the model is a half-wavelength dipole in
free space. This problem requires 80 megabytes of memory and 20 hours to run on a Sun Ultra
workstation.
Students’ QuickField
Students’ QuickFieldTM,formerly known as ELCUT, is a 2D finite element simulation package
solving plane and axisymmetricproblems of electrostatics, nonlinear DC magnetics, AC magnet-
ics, current flow, nonlinear heat transfer, stress analysis, and coupled problems on any PC.
Computer Simulation Technology
Darmstadt, Germany
Tel: +49 6151 7303 0
Fax: +49 6151 718057
e-mail: info@cst.de
MA.F.I.A.4 is a general-purpose 3D solver for Maxwell’s equations, from DC to THz. Based
on the “finite integration method (FIM).”
MicrowaveStudio
User-friendly ECAD tool for HFapplications, using a “perfect boundary approximation.” Also
based on FEM.
Tera Analysis
Tarzana, CA
Phone: (8 18) 83 1-9662
Quickfield a relatively easy 2D FEM modeling code. Shareware version available.
Weidingler Associates Inc.
New York, NY
Phone: (4 15) 949-30 10
EMFlex is a a 3D finite element time-domain solver for Maxwell’s equations, with integrated
pre- and postprocessing tools.
The HP HFSS Analysis Tool

Versions 5.0 and 5.2 of Hewlett-Packard’s electromagnetic (EM) high-frequency structure simu-
lator software, theHP High-Frequency Structure Simulator (HP-HFSS)Designer, allows design-
ers for the first time to integrate electromagnetic analysis into their high-frequency circuit and
component design process.
Version 5.0 of the HP HFSSsoftware represents a departure from the firm’s earlier partner-
ship with ANSOFT (Pittsburgh, PA),in which Hewlett-Packard actually marketed theEM analy-
sis engines implemented by ANSOFT. The latest version of the HP software is developed en-
tirely at Hewlett-Packard, allowing the company to incorporate suggestions from customers on
improving speed, memory use, and drawing capabilities.
HFSS is a complete solution for EM modeling of two- and three-dimensional structures.
Structures can be any combination of electric and magnetic field boundaries. The HFSS analysis
engine is finite element method (FEM) simulation.
In operation, the HFSS analysis engine subdivides arbitrarily shaped three-dimensional
structures into small tetrahedron-shaped elements. Electric fields are represented with higher-
order tangential edge-element basis functions within each tetrahedron. The interactions between
basis functions are computed using differential forms of Maxwell’s equations. These computa-
tions yield linear equations that can be represented in a sparse matrix. The solution in turn yields
an approximation of the fields as well.
The EM software automatically decreases the size of the finite elements where strength
is greatest for increased resolution and accuracy. An improved meshing algorithm in Version
5.0 usesmemoryandcentralprocessing unit (CPU) resourcesmorepracticallyforreduced
computing time and more efficient memory consumption, avoiding the “out-of-memory” mes-
sages of previous versions.
Package predictions:The software can also be used to model fields and surface currents
within a package. The modeling tool provides S-parameter output data that can be used to model
the package lead frame and from which bond-wire capacitances as well as self-inductances and
mutual inductances can be extracted in conjunction with a circuit simulator. HFSS can model
circuit via holes, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shields, and data-bus terminals. This last
application allows prediction of crosstalk, inductive coupling from power lines, and reflections
from interconnections. The HFSS program can even be used to model high-speed probes and
probe calibration standards for advanced test applications of digital and analog circuits.
To design a structure, an operator entersthe desired geometry, adds input and output ports,
andassignsmaterialproperties(suchasthedielectric constant of substrates). The software
employs adaptive mesh-refinement techniques to solve to a user-specified level of accuracy.
The desired accuracy is a function of computing/solving time, with higher levels of accuracy
requiring more CPU time. Display functions provide animated images of EM fields, surface
current flow, antenna polar patterns, Smith charts of S-parameter information, and tabular re-
sults.
The software runs on a wide rangeof UNlX platforms, Sun SPARCstation,IBM RS/6000,
Digital Equipment Corp. Alpha workstations, IBM personalcomputers when well equipped with
memory.
The ANSOFT HFSS Analysis Tool

Because ANSOFT originally developed HFSS specifically for Hewlett-Packard, the HP HFSS
is similar to the Ansoft Maxwell Eminence program. Both the HP and Ansoft new products are
810 Chapter 12
called HFSS, and both are version 5.0! Hewlett-Packard’s HFSS is sold onits own, and Ansoft’s
HFSS can be sold by itself or as a part of the larger Maxwell Eminence package. The HP HFSS
is not using the Ansoft-developed code, but a new HP finite element and mesh engine.
The ANSOFT HFSS is a complete solution for the electromagnetic (EM) modeling of
arbitrarily shaped, passive three-dimensional structures, including RF and microwave connector
and adapter design.
ANSOFT HFSS V 5.0 features:
All-new HP EEsof, finite element simulation and mesh engines
50% reduction in the memory required to perform a simulation
Increased simulation accuracy for both simple and highly complex structures
New drawing environment
New Object Library
Unlimited Undo command and dynamic 3D views
New job control features
Improved Fast Frequency Sweep
PC and UNIX platform support
Added display capability
Dynamic rotation
Improved antenna features
The ANSOFT HFSS program computes S-parameters and full-wave fields for arbitrary three-
dimensional passive structures and is useful for microwave, millimeter-wave, and wireless de-
vice analysis.
The program will compute and display:
Characteristic port impedances and complex propagation constants
Generalized S-parameters and S-parameters renormalized to user-specified port imped-
ances
Basic electromagnetic field quantities and radiated electric fields for open boundary prob-
lems
Vector Fields 81 lnfolytica
A suite of FEM software, including TOSCA, ELEKTRA, SCALA,and SOPRANO, is commer-
cially available from VectorFields Inc. 2D codes PC-OPERAand OPERA-2D are alsoavailable
from Vector Fields Inc. The ESI Group/SEMCAP provides PAM-CEM and CEM-3D, both of
which are 3D solutions of Maxwell’s equations using FEM. Infolytica Corporation, Montreal,
Canada, offers Full Wave,a 3D full-wave electromagnetic modeling software employing FEM.
12.4.3.7. GMT,MMP,CGM,BEM, and UTD Techniques
The generalized multipoletechnique (GMT) is a method of solving partial differential(weighted
residuals) equations, and like MOM it isa frequency-domain technique. The solution is approxi-
mated by a set of base functions that are analytical solutions of the respective difference equa-
tions. However, this method is unique in that the expansion functions are analytic solutions of
the fields generated by sources located some distanceaway from thesurface where the boundary
condition is being enforced. Moment methods generally employ expansion functions represent-
ing quantities such as charge and current that exist on a boundary surface. The expansion func-
tions of GMT are spherical wave field solutions, and multipoles are in general the most flexible
and efficient expansion functions. By locating these sources away from the boundary, the field
solutions form a smooth set of expansion functions on the boundary, and singularities on the
boundary are avoided. GMT is a frequency-domain method, and solvers for electrostatics or
electromagnetic scattering can be efficiently built using GMT. It can also be combined with
MOM to provide a hybrid approach.
The multiple multipole program ( M M P ) was proposed in 1980 by Christian Hafner. It is
a semianalytical method for numerical field computations that has been applied to electromag-
netic fields. It is a code for solvingelectromagnetic scattering and for guided waves. The ampli-
tudes of the basis fieldsare computedby a generalized point-matching techniquethat is efficient,
accurate, and robust. MMP “knows” many different sets of basis fields, but multipole fields
are considered to be most useful. Due to its close relations to analytic solutions, “P is very
useful and efficient when accurate and reliable solutions are required.
The conjugategradientmethod (CGM) is another techniquebased on themethod of
weighted residuals. It is very similar conceptually to MOM techniques. Two features that distin-
guish it from MOM are the way in which the weighting functions are utilized and the method
of solving the linear equations. Iterative solution procedures such as CGM are most advanta-
geous when applied to large, sparse matrices.
The boundary element method(BEM) is also a weighted residual technique. It is essentially
a MOM technique whose expansion and weighting functions are defined only for a boundary
surface. Most general-purpose MOM electromagnetic modeling codes employ a BEM.
The uniform theory of diffraction (UTD)is an extension of the geometric theoryof diffrac-
tion (GTD). Bothof these techniques are high-frequency methods. They are accurate only when
the dimensions of objects being analyzed are large relative to the wavelength of the field. In
general, as the wavelengths of an electromagnetic excitation approach zero, the fields can be
determined using geometric optics. UTD and GTD are extensions of geometric optics that in-
clude the effects of diffraction.
MaX-l is a new graphic platform for PCs under Windows 95/NT and is designed by Ch.
Hafner of the ETHZ (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology) in Zurich, Switzerland. M a x - l
contains a new version of 2D MMP and will contain a new version of 3D MMP. A version of
MMP for static and quasi-static problems is available from M. Gnos.
The 2D MMP and a GMT textbook are available in a newer version for Windows 3.1
and this can be downloadedfor free. The 3D MMP code is a code for thesimulation of electrody-
namic fields based on the GMT technique. Its PC version for Windows 3.1 (including Fortran77
source) has been published by John Wiley & Sons (Christian Hafner and Lars Bomholt, The
3 0 Electromagnetic Wave Simulator). This version does not contain an eigenvalue solver (for
guided waves on cylindrical surfaces). It is restricted to EM scattering (including waveguide
discontinuities and similar problems that can be formulated as EM scattering) and antenna de-
sign. 3D MMP hasa graphic front end for PCsthat can be used as a platform for implementing
and test finite difference schemesand other iterative procedures. The (free for 3D MPP owners)
upgrade of 3D MMPincludes features for computing gratings and biperiodic structures, multiple
excitations, advanced graphics, etc. An eigenvalue solver for guided waves and resonator com-
putations is contained in a prerelease test version. The executable codecompiled for Windows
NT (Upgrade 3) canbedownloaded for free.Furtherinformation is availablefrom htrp://
alphard.ethz.ch/hafner/mmp.htm.
12.4.3.8. Electrostatic, Magnetostatic, and Quasi-Static Field Analysis
AnSoft Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA, offers the Maxwell 2D and Maxwell 3D, which
are electrostatic, magnetostatic,and low-frequency magnetic FEM codes,in addition
to the Maxwell Eminence, which combines FEM and the boundary element method
to simulate electrostatic, magnetostatic, and quasi-static field analysis and full-wave
simulation. The Ansoft HFSS code is described in Section 12.4.3.6.
812 Chapter 12
The ANSYS/EMAG program from ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA,is a self-contained electro-

magnetic analysis package that covers staticmagnetic analysis, both 2D and 3D, harmonic analy-
sis, both 2D and 3D, and transient magnetic analysis, both 2D and 3D.
Infolytica Corporation, Montreal, Canada. offers the Gemini 2D magnetostatic solver em-
ploying FEM, the MagNetS, which is a 2D/3D magnetostatic, electrostatic, eddy current, and
transient analysis code.
Integrated Engineering Software, Winnipeg, Canada, offers:
MAGNETO: a 2D magnetostatic solver with permanent magnet (PM) capability using
the boundary element method (BEM)
ELECTRO: a 2D electrostatic solver using the BEM method
AMPERES: a 3D magnetostatic solver with pernlanent magnet (PM) capability using the
boundary element method (BEM)
COULOMB: a 3D electrostatic solver using the BEM method
OERSTED: a 2D low-frequencytime-harmonicmagnetic field solver with permanent
magnet (PM) capability using the boundary element method (BEM)
FARADAY: a 3D time-harmonic eddy current analysis based on BEM
MARCONI: a 3D code employing BEM
Magsoft Corporation, Troy NY offers:
FLUX2D: a 2D FEM-based CAD program for static, low-frequency, or transient problems
FLUX3D: a 3D FEM-based CAD program for static, low-frequency, or transient problems
PHI3D: a 3D BEM-based electrostatic/magnetostatic field solver
WAVE2D: a FEM-based electromagnetics program capable of handling a large class of
electromagnetic wave problems in two dimensions
Quantic Labaroratories Inc., Winnipeg, Canada, offers GREENFIELD 2D,a 2D electrostatic
and magnetostatic field solver and a relatively easy-to-use 2D finite element modeling code. A
shareware version for students is available.
REFERENCES
I. G. Dash, I. Strauss. Digital EM1 testing:how bad is it'? Studies document variances. Newswatch EM
Compliance Engineering Vol. VII, issue 2, page 39, Winter 1990.
2. Li, Rockway, Logan, Tam. Microcomputer Tools for Communications Engineering. Artech House
Publications. Boston, 1987.
3. R.F. Harrington. Field Computation by Moment Methods. Macmillan, New York. 1968.
4. T.E. Baldwin, G.T. Capraro. Intrasystem Electromagnetic Compatibility Program (IEMCAP). IEEE
Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility Vol. EMC-21 1980.
5. B.E. Kciser. Principles of Electromagnetic Compatibility. Artech Housc Publications. Boston, 1987.
6. W.J.R. Hoefer. Numerical Techniquesfor Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Passive Structures. Wiley,
New York. 1989, Chapter 8.
7. A. Drozd, A. Pesta, D. Wciner,P.Varshney, I. Demirkiran. Application and Demonstration of a
Knowledge-BasedApproach to InterferenceRejection for EMC.IEEE,1998EMCSymposium
Record.
8. M.W. Yun Ji, T.H. Ali. T.Hubing. EMC Applications of the EMAPS Hybrid FEM/MOM Code.
IEEE. 1998 EMC Symposium Record.
Appendix 1
Characteristic Impedance of Conductors,
Wires, and Cables
Single wire, near ground

Asymmetric two-wire line
r(;.
For d << h,
z,,
= (g) log,,($)
Two-wire, differential-mode, near ground Symmetric two-wire line
A:&-a
h
For d << D, h,
z,,
= - (7:) (*):
log,, - (41 + (D12h)’)
1
or twisted pair
Two-wire, common-mode, near ground
For d << D , h, For D >> d ,
813
814 Appendix 1
Single wire between grounded parallel planes, Shielded two-wire, common-mode (sheath return)
ground return
For dlh < 0.75
Balanced line between grounded parallel planes Shielded two-wire line, differential mode
/ / / / / / / / / / / L
For d -e< D, h,
Coaxial line Microstrip lines
z,,
= (F) logu(;)
Characteristic Impedance of Conductors, Wires & Cables 815
Trace-to-trace impedance (no ground plane)
z,,
= (F) l o g l (b, +
( Ac)
Strip lines
4k
1
0.67xb(0.8 + clb)
Flat parallel conductions
z,=
Appendix 2
Units and Conversion Factors
Quantity Units and relationships between units
Length 1 inch = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm = 1000 mil

1 m = 100 cm = 39.37 inches
I angstrom = IO.-* cm
1 mile = 1.609 km
I micron = 1 X m = 1 X IO" angstrom
Mass (kg) 1 kg = 1000 grams = 2.2 lb
Area (m') 1 m: = 10.76 ft' = 1550 in.'
Work, energy (W) 1 joule = 0.738 ft-lb = 0.947827 X 10" BTU

= IO7 ergs = 0.239 cal
1 ft- = 1.356 X lo7 ergs
1 BTU = 1.055 X 10"' ergs = 252 cal
Pressure (Nlm') 1 newton/m' = 1 pascal = 1 dyne/cm'

lblin. = 6.8947 X 10'' dyneslcrn'
= 0.068046 atm..
1 inch mercury pressure = 0.03342 atm
1 bar = 10' dyneslcm'
Force (N) 1 newton = 0.225 lb = 1 X 10' dynes
Temperature 0°C = 32°F = 273.16 K

Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion:
Tc. = (5/9)(TF - 32)
Celsius to kelvin conversion:
K = Tc + 273
Resistivity 1 ohm/cm or 1 ohm/cm'
Permittivity of free space (eo) 1

[H/m] = 8.8 [pF/m]
36rr X 10'
Velocity (m/s) 1 m/s = 3.28 ft/sec
Magnetic flux (@)(Wb) 1 weber = 10' maxwell = 10' lines

= 10" gauss-cm'
Magnetic flux density (B) 1 Tesla (1) = 1 webedm' = 10" gauss

1 gauss = I Iinelcm' = 1 maxwell/cm'
= 7.936 X 10' A/m
Magnetic field strength (H) 1 A/m = 0.0125 oersteds

1 oersted = 79.6 A/m
817
818 Appendix 2
Quantity Units and relationships between units

Permeability of free space (F,,) p,, = 47c X 10” H/m = 1.256 pWm
Magnetization (M)
Magnetic moment/unit volume
1 where p
1 A/m
= BlH
Magnetic moment 1 Alm? = 1 joule/(weber/m’)

Magnetic motive force (F) 1 amp-turn = 1.257 gilbert = 1.257 oersted-cm
Reluctance 1 amp-turnlweber
Appendix 3
Electric Field Strength to Magnetic Field
to Power Density Conversions
Far-field conditions where
Z,, = 377 Q, W/m' = .E'/Zbr,p,,= 47~X 10" Hlm
1 Alm = 377 Vlm

= 171 dBpV1m
= 120 dBpA1m
= 25.8 dBWlm'
= 55.8 dBm1m'
= 37.7 mW/m'
= 1.26 X 10"' T
= 1.26 X 10' nT
= 0.0126 Gauss
= 0.0126 Oersted
1 Vlm = 2.65 X 10" Alm

= 120 dBpVlm
= 68.5 dBpA1m
= 2.65 mA/m
= -25.7 dBW1m'
= 4.3 dBmIm',
= -5.73 dBm1cm'
= 2.67 X 10" mW/cm'
= 2.67 X 10.' W/mL
= 3.3 x 10 gauss
= 3.33 x 10 " T
= 3.33 nT
= 3.33 x 10 Oersted
1 Wlm' = 19.4 Vlm

= 5.15 X 10 ' Alm
= 0.1mW/cm'
1 nT = 7.936 X 10" Alm

= l X 1 0 5 Gauss
1 pT = 7.936 X 10" Alm
= 1l T weberlm:
= 10'' Gauss
= 7.936 X 10' Alm
819
820 Appendix 3
1 Gauss = 1 Oersted
= 79.6 Alm
= 0.796 Ncrn
= 1 x 10-4 T
= 0.1 mT
Appendix 4
Commonly Used Related Formulas
Electric charge, coulombs (C)
Q = CV = It
Electric energy, joules ( J )
W = IVt = QC
Power density, watts per square meter (W/m')
Wave velocity in air, meters per second (m/s)
v=----"
db -
x 'OX
Wave velocity in medium, meters per second (m/s)

1
v =
GGE
Characteristic impedance, ohms (Q)
Velocity, meters per second (m/s)
v = _-
1
dLc
Inductance, henrys (H)
L = z,= Z'C
V
Capacitance, farads (F)
821
822 Appendix 4
Wavelength, meters (m)
Wavelength in air, meters (m)
where v = c = 3 X 10' m/s'

h="-3 X 10' -
-~ 300
.f[Hz1 fWz1
Flux density, teslas (T)
B = pH
Resonant frequency of LC circuit, hertz (Hz)
.f = - l
2xdLC
Reactance of capacitor, ohms (Q)
Reactance of inductor (Q)
x,.= 2qfL
Impedance of resistance and capacitance in series, ohms (Q)
Z = 4R' + (&)
Commonly Used Related Formulas 823
Impedance and resonant frequency of a resistance, inductance, and capacitance in series, ohms,
hertz (Q, Hz)
z= + +(2m - &)
2 c
Impedance of resistance and inductance in parallel, ohms (Q)
Z=
1
L
Resistance and capacitance in parallel, ohms (Q)

1
Z=
.\i(t)l + (27CfC)I
824 Appendix 4
Impedance and resonant frequency of a resistance in series with inductance, and both in parallel
with capacitance, ohms, hertz (Q, Hz)
Z=
Rl(2nfC)' + j[L/(2n.fc,2- ((27cf)L?)/C- R?/(27tfC)J
R' + [ ~ T c ~ L-. 1 / ( 2 ~ f C ) ] '
.f ! =I
27K d($) - (g)
R
Appendix 5
Data on Bare Solid Copper Wire
(Dimensions, Weight, and Resistance)
Nominal Nominal
meter Size Circular weight at 20°C (hard drawn)
AWG [inches]” [mils] [Iblmile] [Q! lOOO’]”
50 0.0010 1.oo 0.00303 -
49 0.0011 1.21 0.00366 -

48 0.0012 1.44 0.00436 -
47 0.0014 1.96 0.00593 -
46 0.0016 2.56 0.00775 -
45 0.0018 3.24 0.0098 1 -
44 0.0020 4.00 0.0121 2,700

43 0.0022 4.84 0.0147 2,230
42 0.0025 6.25 0.0 189 1,720
41 0.0028 7.84 0.0237 1,380
40 0.003 I 9.6 1 0.029 1 1,120
39 0.0035 12.2 0.037 1 880
38 0.0040 16.0 0.0484 674
37 0.0045 20.2 0.06 13 533
36 0.0050 25.0 0.0757 43 1
35 0.0056 31.4 0.0949 344
34 0.0063 39.7 0.120 272
33 0.007 1 50.4 0.153 214
32 0.0080 64.0 0.194 168
31 0.0089 79.2 0.240 136
30 0.0100 100 0.303 108
29 0.01 13 128 0.387 84.5
28 0.0 126 159 0.48 1 67.9
27 0.0142 202 0.610 53.5
26 0.0159 253 0.765 42.7
25 0.0 179 320 0.970 33.7
24 0.0201 404 1 0.22 26.7
23 0.0226 5111 0.55 21.1
22 0.0253 640 1 0.94 16.9
21 0.0285 8122 0.46 13.3
20 0.0320 10203 0.10 10.5
19 0.0359 12903 0.90 8.37
18 0.0403 1620 4.92 6.64
17 0.0453 2050 6.21 5.26
16 0.0508 2580 7.81 4.18
15 0.057 1 3260 9.87 3.31
825
826 Appendix 5
Nominal Nominal
Size diameter Circular weight at 20°C (hard drawn)
AWG [inches]" [mils] [lblmile] [Q/1000']h
14 0.0641 41 10 12.4 2.63
13 0.0720 5180 15.7 2.09
12 0.0808 6530 19.8 1.65
11 0.0907 8230 24.9 1.31
10 0.1019 10380 3 1.43 1.039
9 0.1 144 13090 39.62 0.8241
8 0.1285 16510 49.96 0.6532
7 0.1443 20820 63.03 0.5180
6 0.1620 26240 79.44 0.41 10
5 0.1819 33090 100.2 0.3260
4 0.2043 4 1740 126.3 0.2584
3 0.2294 52620 159.3 0.2050
2 0.2576 66360 200.9 0.1625
1 0.2893 83690 253.3 0.1289
1/o 0.3249 105600 319.5 0.1022
210 0.3648 133100 402.8 0.08021
" To convert from inches to millimetcrs. multiply by 25.4.
l' To convert from feet to meters. multiply by 0.3048; to convert from meters to feet, multiply by 3.28.
Index
AID converter, 737 [Antenna]

missing codes, 737 impedance mismatch, 45,48-49
Absorption, 304, 283, 288 long wire, 573
Ambient site prediction, 67 1 log periodidbiconical, 493
Ambient site survey, 671-678, 782 loop, 25-26, 32-40, 42, 412,404
Analog far field radiation, 404
grounding, 450-454, 721, 737-743 impedance, 34
immunity, 251-260, 783 inductance, 34
RF circuits, 180-213, 248, 255, 262- near field coupling error, 160
263 termination, 410-415
Analysis (see EMC prediction) loss, 44
Antenna monopole, 48-50. 56-62, 68
to antenna coupling, 648, 652, 661 opto-isolated, 579
ISGHz filter for, 661 out of band response, 654
computer programs ( w e Computer parallel plate, 575
programs electromagnctic) proximity effects, 578
HF band (2-30MHz) casc study, 657 radiation resistance, 43, 48
polarization mismatch, 654 receiving properties, 46-47, 49-52, 53-55,
shading factor, 651 56-62
to antenna isolation, 650 of isolated conductor, 55-56
balanced loop, 63-66 simple explanation of, 55
biconical, 493 shielded loop, 62-63
bow tie, 66-68 small toroid, 72
e field, 35-83 stripline, 575
to cable coupling, 679, 777, 780-781 test method, 52-55, 509
calibration, 51, 73-74 Aperture coupling (see Shielding; Cable
coupled EMI, 648 shielding)
dipole, 28, 48-51, 53-59, 68 Arc suppression, 232
antenna factor, 50-54 ARP1705/1173, 330
design, 68-73
input reactance, 58 Backshell (see Connector. backshells)
input resistance, 59 Balanced circuit, 236-248
shorted, 56 Balun, 66-68, 198-203, 262, 267, 390, 723
tuned resonant Bandwidth, N.B and B.B, 605-609
directivity, 43 Bonding
double ridged guide, 669 and corrosion, 473
effective area (aperture), 43-44, 46, 50, dissimilar metals and oxidization, 473
654 general, 465
effective height, 46, 49-5 1 methods, 466
errors in use, 567 of electrical bonding, 467, 472, 474
factor, 47-55, 57-61 MIL-B-5087 and MIL-STD-464, 465-466
gain, 43-44, 47-52 MIL-HDBK-419A, 466
used to calculate E tield, 47 test method, 475-476
helical spiral, 68-72 types, 466
impedance, 46-53 amplitude from Laplace transform, 106
827
828 Index
Broadband (see olso Fields) Cable shielding

conversion, 606 against magnetic fields, 13, 130-140, 360, 362
definition, 9-10, 98-99, 481, 605-606 against transients, 140
emission limits, 5, 109, 594 and commercial requirements, 428-430
measurements, 605, 607-609 effectivenedtransfer impedance, 357-387
noise conversion from narrowband, 97-99 frequency dependency
60 Hz H fields, 13
Cable from 60 Hz to 100 kHz. 360-364
emissions from cable and wire, 357, 403-415 from 100 kHz to 22 GHz, 364-366
radiated coupling to, 62. 679, 777, 780-781 long line effects, 383
radiation from, 104-105, 403-415 radio frequency, 179
Cable coupling, 387-403 requirements, 426-428
angle of incidence, 397 to meet MIL-STDIDO-160C
from an E field, 387, 401 and transferred voltage, 364-365, 385
at GHz frequencies, 392-398 test methods
from an H field, 363, 387, 398-403 absorbing clamp, 358
from a plane wave, 390-392 antenna site, 358
polarization, 397-3Y8 capacitive injection, 393
Cable emission reduction, 3 17, 415 line injection (IEC 96-11. 366, 367, 369
Cable radiated emission, 403-415 reverberation chamber or mode, 358
due to C/M current flow, 403-406,409-416 stirred chamber test method, 358
due to core eccentricity, 371 shielded room test method, 358
from loops. 404, 413-414 TEM cell, 358
with attached cables, 408-415 transfer impedance, 365-366
without attached cables, 408 transmission line, 371
loop termination, 409-410 test fixtures, 358, 367
from low frequency signals. 37 1, 403 quadraxial/triaxial, 367
from transmission lines, 404, 408 Capacitance formulae, 123- 124
measured from transmission line, 409 Capacitor
measured versus prediction, 392, 409 equivalent circuit, 180
and RE02 limits, 408, 428 typical self inductance, 180- 187
Cable shield (see nlso Cable, shielded; Cable decoupling, 184, 190, 230, 703
shielding) Capacitors
resonance reduction, 390 in a filter design, 210, 218, 226
resonances, 379-380, 384, 389-391 miller, 229
solid conduit, 13, 364, 381 to increase immunity, 257, 741, 747
termination, 357, 378, 385-387, 398-403. to reduce radiation, 723, 761
415-426 Case study 3.1, dc-dc converter noise, 107, 222,
with a capacitor, 402 224
with pigtails. 385-386, 394-397, 418-419, Case study 5.1, power line filter design, 216
427, 782 Case study 5.2, signal filter design, 226
other techniques, 415, 424-425 Case study 8.1, grounding for lightning protec-
with vertical section of, 391 tion, 463
cable, 390 Case study 9.1, radiated emission test set-up and
to meet class A commercial, 429 OATS comparisons, 52 1
to meet MIL-STD-461C. 428 Case study 10.1. hazardous zone around a trans-
transfer admittance, 384-385, 400-401 mitting antenna, 664
transfer impedance, 357, 359-360, 364-382 Case study 10.2, electromagnetic ambient site
near and far end, 380 survey, 655, 674
transit, 423-426 Case study 10.3, coupling into HVAC line
Cable, shielded from HF phased array, 678
double, triple braid, 364, 374-381 Case study 1 1. I , grounding analog and digital
isolated braids, 377 circuits on the same PCB, 737
long line effects, 383 Case study 11.2, good grounding technique for
RC types, 364 a video circuit on a PCB, 739
RC 58, 367, 376 Case study 113 , coupling between digital sig-
semi-rigid, 381 nals and an analog signal within the
solid copper, 364 analog shielded section of a board,
triax, twinax, 376-378 74 l
Index 829
Case study 11.4, out of specification radiated [Components]

emissions from telephone equipment, transient protectors, 269
743 used for emission reduction, 171, 228, 257,
Case study, 12.1, EM1 investigation into intra- 723, 761
equipment susceptibility, 755 used for increased noise immunity, 180, 257,
Case study 12.2, reducing radiated emissions on 741, 747
Class A limits, 758 Computer programs (see also EMC computer
a computing device to FCC programs)
Case study 12.3, EMC predictions of meeting pWave SPICE, 151
RTCA-DO 160 requirements of SPICE, 151, 216
an “A” model fiber optic plotter, Computer programs electromagnetic (see also
763 EMC computer programs)
Case study, 12.4, EMC predictions on a power 3D Planar solvers, 777
controller, 770 ANSOFT HFSS analysis tool, 809
Case study 12.5, antenna to cable coupling APLAC, 804
on the Space Shuttle WISP, 763, 777 BEM, 810
Case study 12.6, coupling from radar to the CGM, 810
landing control signal on aircraft, E’EXPERT, 79 1
780 EMAP5, 807
Case study 12.7, coupling from anAM transmit- EMC2000, 798
ter to a satellite communication sys- EMFIELDS-2D. 8.05
tem, 781 EMFIELDS-3D, 805
Case study 12.8, spurious response in a EMIT, 804
transmittedreceiver, 783 pre-processor, 804
CE mark, 530 ENEC, 804
CDN, 553-559 EZ-EMC, 804
conducted immunity tests, 552-565 electrostatics, magnetostatics and quasi static
Coupling/Decoupling Network (CDN), 553- field analysis, 81 1
559 FDTD, 656, 803, 804
Circuit classification, 178 FDTD/MOM, 804
CISPR 11, 566 (see also EM1 requirements, FEM, 806, 810
EEC, EN 550 11) FEM/MOM, 806
CISPR 13, 566 GAUGE, 800
CISPR 14, 566 GEMACS, 572, 671, 798
CISPR 16, 566 GMT, 8 10
CISPR 22, 507, 535, 566 (see also EM1 require- GREENFIELD, 8 12
ments, EEC, EN 550 22) GTD, 798
CMOS immunity, 233, 250 HP HFSS analysis tool, 809
Coaxial cable (see Cable shielding) Infolytica (company), 812
Common impedance coupling, 3, 450 Integrated Engineering Software (company),
reduction in (see Ground plane) 812
Common mode noise (see Noise, common MA.F.I.A.4, 808
mode) MAGSOFT (company), 812
Compartmentalization, 213, 349, 726 MAXWELL 2D/3D, 81 1
Compliance MININEC, 794
EN paths, to 532 MMP, 810
FCC paths to, 503 MOM, 792
Components MOMIC, 798
baluns, 66-68, 198-203, 262, 267 MicrowaveStudio, 808
capacitors, 180- 190 NEC, 657, 793
diodes, 23 1, 277 SPECTRASOFT, 392
ferrite beads, 195 SPEED, 97, 804
inductors, 190-195 SONNET 3D, 797
introduction to their use, 171 SONNET Lite, 802
lossy, 195, 211 Students QuickField, 808
manufacturers, 281 TLM, 801
parasitic elements, 180, 194, 218 Tera Analysis, 808
power line filters, 204 UTD, 810
resistors, 204 XFDTD, 804
830 Index
Computer programs, PCB radiation and crosstalk [Crosstalk]

Allegro, 736 for a step function, 135
Applied Simulation Technology (company), to twisted pair, 126
732 combined inductive and capacitive, 141
comparisons, 736 computer program for cablelwire, 15 1- 158,
EMAP5, 730, 807 161-169
EMCAD, 731 electromagnetic coupling, 121, 158- 162
EmcScan, 732 example, 129, 139-141, 146-149
errors, 732, 736 inductive, 131-141
IFS modeller, 736 between shielded cables, 134-141
Incases (company), 733 magnetic field coupling between wires and
Conducted emission measurements (see EM1 cables, 13 1
measurements) introduction, 121
Conducted immunity (see EM1 measurements) from logic transition, 149
Conducted noise on power lines, 15 in electrically long lines, 149
Conductive with mismatched impedances, 125, 13 1,
adhesivelcaulking, 297, 321, 345 141, 149
cloth, 301-303 with TTL loads, 149
coatings, 298-302, 350 long propagation delay, 149- 151, 154- 158
finishes, 296, 342 and lossy transmission lines, 122
gaskets, 328 predicting PCB tracks and wires over a
lubricant, 297 ground plane, 142
plastic, 297-301 prediction error, 122
tape, 345 reduction, 125, 139, 144, 146, 151
Conductivity, 285-287 in ribbon cable, 145
Conductors, resonant, 31. 56, 173, 176 in twisted pair, 145
Connector in twisted shielded pair, 145
38999, 392-396 typical values for ribbon cables, 147-149
ARINC, 394 using odd and even mode impedance of con-
backshells, 4 I 5 , 4 19 ductors, 142- 145
conductive elastomer, 397, 421 Current
heat shrink boot, 421 common mode, 42, 413, 684, 703. 722-725,
hose clamp, 423 760, 758
BNC, 421, 424 differential mode, 42, 412
D type 416,422-424 displacement, 27, 410, 683
effect of torque, 420-421 logic input transient, 106
leakage, 4 19 noise reduction, 17 1
N type, 420,424 spikes due to CRT deflection yoke driver, 765
SMA type, 422, 424 spikes due to diode commutation, 228
shielded, 41 5 Current diffusion, 3 18, 329
transfer impedance, 419-424 Current element, 30
Contact impedance (see Shielding) Current loop, 32 (see Antenna, loop)
Contact resistance, 342-344
Converter Damped room, 573
dc-dc, 107, 212, 222 Damping (see Quality factor)
noise, 107 Decoupling, 190, 230, 703
Conversion of A/m to dBpT, 819 Diagnostic changes, 753
Conversion from dBm to volts, 498 Differential circuit, 235-246.452-453, 705,758
Conversion of field strength, 8 19-820 Differential mode noise, 111- 1 15, 41 2 (see also
Conversion of units, 817-818 Noise)
Corrosion, 342 Digital logic, 98, 104, 232-233, 248, 705
Coupled lines, 122-142, 158 (see also Crosstalk) DO- 160 requirements, 634-637
Coupling, antenna to antenna, 648
Cost of ignoring EMC, 737, 754 Earth resistance, 438 (see also Grounding)
Crosstalk EMC
between tracks on a PCB, 142-145, 149-158 degradation, 752
between wires and cables, 123-142 electromagnetic modeling (SPE Computer pro-
capacitive, 123 g r a m electromagnetic; EMC com-
in four conductor shielded cable, 129 puter programs)
Index 831
EMC computer programs, 786-8 12 [EMC control]

AAPG, 651 system requirements cvaluation, 646
COSAM 11,656 analytical methods, 647
comparison, 786 frequency and time domain, 646
for coupling to wireslcables, 88-93, 392 interference coupling modes, 646
DECALIPECAL, 656 intersystem analysis, 646
electrostatic, magnetostatic and intrasystem analysis, 646
quasi-static field analysis (see Computer lightning analysis, 647
programs electromagnetic) magnetospheric charging analysis, 647
EMCAD, 731 reference requirements, 646
and errors, 786-787 signal and control interface circuits, 647
IEMCAP, 652, 790 simplifications, 647
large system EMC programs, 789 susceptibility requirements, 647
large system level and complex triboelectric charging analysis, 647
analysis computer programs, 789 MIL-STD-464, 640
LINCAL, 649 MIL-STD system lever requirements, 639
LTLINE, 788 multipaction, 641
and measurements, 651, 788 non-developmental items (NDI) and com-
NULINE, 788 mercial items, 642
for radiation from wiresIcables, 84-88 plans, 749
RISER, 788 powerline transients, 641
SEMCAP, 790 precipitation static (p-static), 642
for shielding, 352 quality control, 752
simple computer programs, 788 shipboard internal electromagnetic envi-
SPECTRASOFT, 392 ronment (EME), 641
TOTALFLD, 788 shock and fault protection, 644
used in crosstalk prediction, 160 system level, 639
EMC control, 749 tempest, 644
aircraft grounding jacks, 644 plan, 749
antenna to antenna coupling, 648, 652, program plan, 750
66 1 EMC directive, 530
antenna installations, 644 EMC prediction, 762
calculation of the hazardous zone, 664 error, 763
electrical bonding, 644 general approach, 762
electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 641 EM1 (see also Noise)
electromagnetic radiation hazards coupling modes, 3
(EMRADHAZ), 643 coupling path, 3
electronic protection (EP), 645 cross modulation, 655
electrostatic charge control, 642 effects, 1
emission control (EMCON), 644 harmonic, 655
external grounds, 644 IF, 655
filters and an in-band EM1 solution, 660 image, 655
general, 639 in band solution, 662
hazards safety margin, 641
of electromagnetic radiation to ordnance EM1 investigation, 753
(HERO), 644 correct approach, 753
of electromagnetic radiation to personnel and documentation, 754
(HERP), 643 limit the variables, 754
inter-system EMC, 641, 646 EM1 measurements, 477 (see ulso MIL-STD-461)
lightning, 641 and the ambient, 512, 547, 566, 618
MIL-STD-1514A (USAF) ANSI-C63.4, 508-51 1
degradation criteria, 646 test set up for floor standing equipment con-
existing designs and modifications. ducted emissions, 517
647 test set up for floor standing equipment ra-
lightning, 645 diated emissions, 5 l 8
magnetosphcric charging, 645, 647 test set up for table top equipment con-
nonstandard limits, 647 ducted emissions, 5 14
superposition, 646 tcst set up for table top equipment radiated
program plans, 640, 750 emissions, 5 15
832 Index
[EM1 measurements] [EM1 measurements]

ANSIX63.5 of radiated emissions, 521, 596, 614-619
broadband antennas, 492-495 in a GTEM cell, 584
and compression/overload. 484, 487 absorber lined room, 5 11, 521
of common mode noise, 49 I at low level, 607
of conducted emissions, 108, 501 in a MIL-STD-462D absorber lined
conducted immunity room, 521
C/M RF, 552 in a notch, 607
direct injection, 553 at a users installation, 520
via the CDN, 554, 556 in a reverberation chamber, 570
via inductive clamp, 554 sensitivity, 607
EFT, 550, 559 on an OATS 52, 508, 521
via the capacitive injection probe, 559- of radiated immunity, 542, 550, 557
560 E field in an anechoic chamber/absorber
via the CDN, 561 lined room, 550-552
electrostatic discharge (ESD), 550, 561- E field in a cell, 584-588
563 field uniformity, 550
surge test, 550, 563 H field, 557
conducted measurements. 501 radiated measurement, 496
of conducted susceptibility, 216-223, 590- of radiated near fields, 496
633 radiated with reflections, 567-569
control requirements, 477, 479 of radiated susceptibility
CS01 and CS02 tests, 628 in a damped room, 568, 570, 580
CS06 test, 630-63 1 in a shielded room, 567-570
current probes, 498-499 radio frequency colnnlon mode, 543
description ofCEO1 and CEO3 tests, 109, receivers, 488, 605
206, 590, 609, 628 REOl, RE04, RE101, 619
description of MIL-STD 461B/C, 588-633 RE02. 597, 605-609, 614-619
diagnostic, 495 RSOl and MIL-STD 461E RS101. 624-627
electrical fast transient (EFT), 542 RS02, 628
electrostatic discharge (ESD), 278, 542 RS03 test, 620
protectlon, 277 signal generator and power amplifiers, 489
emission tests, 547, 604-609 spectrum analyzer. 479, 605
and equipment perlormance tests, 599 surges, 543
errors susceptibilitylilnmunity tests, 501-502, 604,
in conducted emissions, 61 1 619-633
in conducted susceptibility, 633 at the system level noise, 640
in GTEM cells, 5 12, 587 system noise, 607
in immunity testing, 549 test methods, 477
in radiated emissions, 5 10, 52 I , 6 18 test plan, 599
in radiated susceptibility, 623 test procedure, 600
in shielded enclosures, 567 Tiawan EMC law, 566
and a functional test set, 599 voltage dips and interruptions, 543
general test guidelines, 600-604 with a current probe, 491
immunity tests, 541-547, 549 with an oscilloscope, 478
introduction to, 477 with the quasi peak detector, 486
nlagnetic field antennas, 492 EM1 regulations (see EM1 requirements)
nlagnetic field measurements, 496 EM1 requirements
of magnctic fields, 590, 597, 619 American FCC, 503
and maximum receiver scan rate, 606, ANSI C63.4, 508-51 1, 580
616 ANSI C63.5, 508
narrowband and broadband, 482. 484-485 Canadian, Industry Canada, 524
analysis, 606 certification (FCC), 506
on an open area test site (OATS), 508, 521 CFR 47 (FCC), 503
open field to shielded room comparison, CISPRI 1 (see EM1 rcquirements, EEC,
521 EN 55 01 I )
in an anechoic chamber, 508, 580 ClSPR22, 507, 525 (see EM1 requirements,
pre-amplifiers, 487 EEC, EN 550 22)
pre-scan (pre-certification), 5 14 commercial, 502-503
Index 833
[EM1 requirements] Electromagnetic fields (see Fields)

declaration of conformity (EEC), 530, 532, Electromagnetic image, 497
534 Electromagnetic interference (see EMI)
declaration of conformity (FCC), 505 Electromagnetic modeling, 786
EEC, 530 Electromagnetic noise, manmade, 8
EFT test Electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 280
EN5OOxx-x, 65 protection, 280
EN 500 81-1. 46, 72-75 Electromagnetic shielding (sec Shielding)
EN 500 82- I , 70,78, 100, 546 Electromagnetic waves (see Fields)
EN 500 82-2, 78-79, 90, 96, 100, 546, Electrostatic protection, 277
557 EM1 test equipment (see Test equipment)
EN 550 11, 71-75, 79, 82, 548 Emission control (EMCON), 644
EN 550 22, 20, 57,7 l , 72-15, 548 Emission reduction, 180. 228-232
EN 550 24, 79, 546 circuit layout, 232, 68.5-705
EN 6Oxxx-x, 66 circuit topology, 230
EN 61000-4-2, 64, 77, 103 heatsinks, 230
EN 61000-4-3, 64, 140,145-146 reservoir and decoupling capacitors, 190, 230,
EN 61000-4-4, 64, 100 703
EN 61000-4-5, 64. 107.109 signal and power generation characteristics.
EN 61000-4-6, 64 228
EN 6 1000-4-7, 64 Emissions (see Fields; Noise)
EN 61000-4-8, 96, 557 Emitters, 13 (see also Noise)
EN 61000-4-9, 64 EMP, 281, 641
EN 61000-4-10, 64 protcction, 280-28 1
EN 61000-4-1 I , 64, 78 EMRADHAZ. 643
EN 61000-4-12, 64 Enclosure resonance, 309, 567, 576
ENV ~ O X X X69, Enclosure shielding (see Shielding)
ENV 50 140, 89, 580 Equipment wiring, 178
ESD test (IEC 1000-4-2), 278, 561 external, 179
emission limits EN, 541, 546 internal,178
emission limits FCC, 504-505 Equivalent series inductance, 180-189
exemptions from CAN, 524 Equivalent series resistance, 180-189, 194
exemptions from, EE, 531 ESD, 277
exemptions from EEC, 531
German VDE, 527 Far field, 29-30, 36-37
Japanese VCCI, 530 Ferrite beads, 195-204, 262, 267
label (CE mark), 534 used as a balun, 200
marketing citation (FCC), 507 Ferrite tiles, 572, 705
military (see MIL-STD-461/2) Fiber optic interfaces, 243
notice of apparent liability (FCC), 507 Field exposure safety limit, 75-84, 664
notification (FCC), 506 American and Canadian limits, 75, 77
RTCA/DO-160. 634 and clinical studies, 75
self declaration (EEC), 532 and distance from an antenna, 664
system level, 639 dc and power frequency fields, 82
technical construction file (TCF), 535 east European limits, 79
type acceptance (FCC), 506 international non-ionizing radiation commit-
verification (FCC), 506 tee, 81
Electric current element, 30 occupational exposure, 82
Electric fields (see Fields) Field (see ~ l s oNoise)
Electric lines of force, 2 1, 27 absorption, 288
Electromagnetic compatibility (see EMC) dc and power frequency, 21, 82
Electromagnetic coupling (see Radiated cou- dc and quasi-static, 20
pling) from a loop, 25
Electromagnetic environment (EME), 5 (see electric, 20-21. 29, 36, 47
c~lsoNoise) reduction with distance, 30-37, 406-407
in hospitals, 13, 16 electric waves, 26
from intentional emitters, I3 from a cable, 486
manufacturing sites, 8-10 from a current element, 30
natural sources, 6 with image, 497
a34 Index
[Field (see also Noise)] Gain over temperature (WT), 254

from a current loop, 32 Gas discharge tube, 270-273
with image, 497 Gaskets, 333-348
from loops with and without attached cables, Gasket material
408 for connectors, 335, 415
from twisted pair wires, 22, 39 and corrosion, 340, 342
introduction to, 19-20 effective transmission width, 339
magnetic, 21-26 elongation, 340
field exposure limit, 83 moisture exclusion, 347
measured in the home, 13 relative performance, 333-339
reduction with distance, 33-34, 35-37 selection factors, 339-340
near/far interface of, 33-34, 35-37 shielding effectiveness with, 339
radiation, 28-30 sources for, 347
reduction with distance, 33-34, 35-37 standardized test methods, 329-333
reflection, 286, 497 and stress relaxation, 340
reflection and effect on antenna factor, 578 and surface finishes, 328, 342-345
solver computer programs, 786 test methods, 328
spherical waves, 30-34 correlation, 330
static and quasi-static, 20 theory, 328
strength, 20-26 transfer impedance, 328
twisted pair, 22 type, 328
Filter: 660 for uneven joints, 339
and Q, 208-21 1 waveguide, 340
connector, 227-228 when not to use, 335
ground connection, 108, 21 1, 213-214 Ground
lossy, 210-21 1, 216-222 earth, 438
power line, 204-228, 639 equipotential, 443
actual versus published performance, 206, floating, 433, 444
225 floating the analog on the digital, 451, 737
and converter stability, 212 impedance, 450
between equipment, 21 3, 639 large system, 434-436
common mode, 214 multipoint, 445, 446
for CS01 ,CS02,CS06,CE01,and CE03, plane, 171, 263, 685-703, 715-721
216-224 potential, 462
design case study, 216-224 reference, 443
equivalent circuit, 218 RF, 264-267, 447
and insertion gain, 208-21 I , 225 RF (capacitive), 443
and load and source impedance, 207, 639 safety (green wires), 434, 435, 438
and power factor. 21 1 signal, 443, 450
RC, 226-227 and its optimization, 443
selection, 214-216 single point, 444, 449
shielded, 213-214 single point dc, multipoint ac, 444, 456-457
signal, case study, 226, 661 Grounding
signal line, 225, 660-661 and ac neutral, 437
test, 204, 210, 223-225 diagrams, 454
ultimate, 213 earth grounds, 434-438
Flame spraying, 302-303 and earth resistance, 438
Fourier transform methods, 106 (see also Fre- guidelines, 453
quency spectrum) introduction, 433
Fraunhoffer region, 33-37 (see also Far field) for large systems, 434
Frequency spectrum, 106, 481 (see also Broad- for lightning protection, 454
band) case study, 8.1, 463
from Fourier transform, 106- l07 modified differential OP amp circuit, 452
reduction in, 101-103, 180, 228-232, 710- for noise reduction, 264, 437, 444, 450, 453,
714 72 1, 737-743
of a single and periodic pulse, 95-106 on PCBs, 445, 709-721, 722-724
of a step function, 106 philosophy, 444
Fresnel region, 33-37 (see ulsu Near field) power, 443, 454
Index 835
[Grounding] Inductance of a conductor, 131, 171

power ground, 443, 454 proximity effects, 133
and radiation, 301, 403, 414, 448, 702, 717- Inductance formulae, 131-133, 172-174, 194-
72 I , 722-724 196
and reduction i n earth resistance, 439-440 Inductance between wires, 132
RF circuits, 264, 720 Inductors
rods, 442 core material, 191, 194, 218-220
and safety codes, 437 equivalent circuit, 194
safety grounds, 434 in a filter design, 216-220
schemes, 456-460 Intentional emitters, l3
shell, 441 Interface circuits, 232-243
signal ground, 443, 453 Inverter (converter), 107, 212, 222-224
single point ground, 449 Investigation of EMI, 753
Ground plane, 171, 263, 685-703, 715-721
GTEM cell. 586 Joints (see Shielding)
Junction rectification (see Passive intermodula-
Harmonics (see Frequency spectrum) tion)
Hazardous fields (see Field exposure safety
limit) Lamp, filament, 121, 232
Hazardous zone around antenna, 664 LF instability, 453
HERF, 643 Lightning protection, 269-273
HERO, 644 antennas, 270, 274, 460-464
HERP, 643 DO-l60 levels, 276
Honeycomb air vent filter, 313, 324 gas discharge tubes, 270-273
grounding for, 434, 454-464
IEC 1000-4-1, 64 manufacturers, 269-273
IEC 1000-4-2, 6 4 , 103 MOV, 269
IEC1000-4-3, 64, 140. 145-146 secondary, 273, 275
IEC1000-4-4, 64, 100 surge current handling, 271-273, 454
IEC1000-4-5, 64, 107.109 Line driversheceivers, 233-248
IEC 1000-4-6, 64 Lines of force, detached, 28
IEC 1000-4-7, 64 LISN, 206-207,501,514-519,589,590,61 I , 635
IEC 1000-4-8, 94 Loop (see also Antenna; Printed circuit board)
IEC 1000-4-9, 64 connected to a long wire, 408
IEC 1000-4- 10, 64 low frequency radiation from, 25
IEC 1000-4-1 1, 64, 78 radiation from, 35-39, 404, 408-415
IEC 1000-4-12, 64 receiving properties of, 34
Immunity, 232-243 termination of, 409-41 1
circuit layout for, 740-741 uniform and nonuniform current flow in, 410
tests, 544-560 Losses:
Impedance in ferrite, 195-196. 572
barrier, 285 in filters. 21 1
characteristic (Zc), 176-178, 388, 813-815
of a ferrite bead, 196-204 Magnetic field (see Fields)
of free space, (37752), 36 Maximum permissible exposure (MPE), 77-78
of a ground plane, 171-174 Measurement, 477 (see also EM1 measurements)
of a ground strap, 174 of electromagetic field levels, 8 1-82
of a medium, 593 Metal impedance, 285
metal, 285 Micro strip
of an open circuit transmission line, 177 coupled, 143,151-153
of power lines, 204 on a PCB, 685-702
of resonant circuits, 823 Microwave absorber, 304, 570, 581-584, 677
of a shorted transmission line, 175-176 Military system requirements, 639
of soil, 593 MIL-B-5087,465, 640
of a transmission line not terminated with Zc, MIL-E-6051D, 640
177 MIL-G-83528B, 329
of wires, 171-173 MIL-STD-220A, 204, 210, 223-225
In band EM1 solution, 662 MIL-STD-285, 298, 302, 334, 569
836 Index
MIL-STD-461/2 [Noise]
bandwidth guidelines, 605-607 antenna, 254
budgeting requirements, 596 from an arc welder, 8
categories of equipment, 593 broadband. 5-12
CEO1 and CE03, 109, 206, 609 coherent, 96
CE06, 590 definition, 9, 481
CE07, 590, 597, 599 noncoherent, 96, 606
CEIOI, 595, 610-614 common mode, 42, 112,412, 684, 714, 722-
CE102, 595, 610-614 725, 758
CE106, 595 rejection of, 232-248, 452
classes of equipment, 592 conducted on power lines, 9, 16
CS01 and CS02, 216-223, 590, 628-630 cosmic, 7
CS03, CS04 and CS05, 590, 599 dc to dc converter, 1 12, 684
CS06, 216-223, 590, 591-593, 630-633 differential mode, 112, 684
CS10 and CSII, 596 immunity, 232-248
CSIOI, 595 from digital integrated circuits, 98
CS 103,595 factor, 253
CS 104, 595 figure, 253
cs105, 595 fluorescent lamp, 12
CS109, 595, 631 galactic, 6-7
CS1 15, 595 harmonically related, 95-106
CS1 16, 595 ignition, 10
emission tests 461E, 604 immunity, 232-243
errors in measurement, 611, 618, 623, 633 manmade, 8
exclusion of antennas, 597 from microwave ovens, 11
failing requirements, 596 narrowband, definition, 14
general test guidelines, 600 natural, 6-7
REOl, 590, 597, 619 reduction techniques, 171, 228-260
RE02, 596, 614-618 resistors, 25 l
RE02 to RS03 safety margin, 593 sources, 95, 260
RE04, 6 19 static, 6
RE101, 595, 619 system level, 608
RE103, 595 temperature, 254
RS02, 628 thermal, 25 1
RS03, 619-623 power, 119
RS05, 596 transient, 103
RS101, 595,624-627 transmitter, 118
RS103, 595 Noise immunity, 171, 233
RS105, 594 of analog, video and RF circuits, 25 1,256-258
susceptibility tests, 461E 604 coupling modes, 255
system/subsystem, 594 filtering, 263, 267
tailoring requirements, 594 interface circuit, 232-248
test plan, 599 of logic, 233, 250
typical test set up, 597 noise sources and levels, 254, 260
unrealistic limits, 593 RF grounding, 264, 737-743
MIL-STD-462, 588-633 RF and wireless, 259, 261-269
MIL-STD-464,465, 640 shielding, 262
MIL-STD-1377, 569 thermal noise, 251
MIL-STD-l385B, 640 of digital logic, 233, 250
MIL-STD- 1541A, 639, 645 of EIA, GPIB, 1553, IO/IOOBASE-TX, STS-
MIL-STD-1818A, 640 3C, TWISTER, 240
Motorboating, 453 of high immunity interfaces, 243
increase in, 180, 746
Narrowband definition, 481 integrated circuit response, 248
Near field, 33-34, 35-37 of interface circuits, 232
Noise PLD2 and PLR2 typical performance, 243-245
ac power transmission line, 11 receivers and drivers, 235
analog, video and RF circuit, 25 1-254 standard line drivers, 234, 237-241
intrinsic, 253 transformer coupled interface, 243
Index 037
Normalized Site Attenuation (NSA) (see OATS) [Printed circuit board (PCB)]
comparison of different layouts, 685-697
OATS, 508, 521 comparison of logic types, 705-710
VMOSFET Driver and Optocoupler Receiver, computer programs for, 729-737
243-245 connection techniques, 7 17-720
crosstalk on
PCB (see Printed circuit board) computer programs, 151, 733, 734, 736
Paint, conductive, 297 modeling techniques, 142, 730
Parasitic components (see Inductors; Capacitors) prediction, 142
Passive intermodulation (PIM), 655. 676 decoupling, 184. 190, 230, 703
reduction techniques, 677 design rules, 702
suppression coating, 678 displacement current, 683
Permeability emission levels, 685-699
of core materials, 191. 193. 195-196, 214- emissions compared to limits, 696
218 emissions corrected for clock frequency, 698
of free space, 27, 81 8, 819 emissions corrected for distance between
materials with high, 287, 290, 294, 297 traces, or trace and ground plane, 698
of metals, 285 emissions corrected for trace length, 698
relative of metals, 287 good and bad PCBground planes, 7 15-721
and saturation, 198, 203, 2 1 X segmented ground planes, 721
Permittivity grounding measurements, 716
of free space, 27, 8 17 grounding of within an enclosure, 721-724
of soil, 668-669 ground plane on, 7 14
Pigtail, 385, 394-397, 416-419, 427, 782 high frequency radiation ( 1 GHz and above),
Plane wave, 30 (see also Far field) 703-705
Plastic, conductive, 297 image plane, 689-691, 698, 701
Power density, 42-45 immunity, 248-260, 746
conversion to electric field, 47 increased PCB immunity, 248-260, 746
intensity, 42 introduction, 683
Power line filters, 204 layout, 685-724
Power line source impedance, 206 layout case studies, 737-746
Poynting vector, 42 low level radiation PCB layouts, 685-699
Predictions for EMC, 762 practical PCB layouts, 699
Printed circuit board (PCB) and recommendations, 699
addition of ground tracks to, 688 test data comparison, 685-699
attaching a cable to, 687 matching impedance, 705, 7 1 I , 7 13
and balun coupling, 722 measurements on, 729
and balun on PCB, 722 microstrip, 685
bends on, 689 piggy back PCB, 720
case study 1 1. l , grounding analog and digital power planes, 703
circuits sharing the same PCB (immu- practical layouts, 699
nity), 737 principles of radiation from, 683
case study 1 l .2, good grounding techniques radiated coupling, 149, 737, 741
for a video circuit (immunity), 739 resonances, 7 1 1
case study 11.3, coupling between digital sig- shielding a PCB, 724-729
nals and an analog signal within the stripline. 685
analog shielded section of a board, track impedance, 142-145, 814-815
74 1 Propagation, 27, 42, 649
case study 1 1.4, out-of-specification radiated
emissions from telephone equipment, Quality assurance/control, 752
743 Quality factor (Q), 18 I , 209
circuit level reduction techniques, 710-714 reduction in, 210
clock spread spectrum, 713
slowing edges, 7 12 Radiated coupling (.see d r o Crosstalk)
clock daisy chain, 704 to cables, 389-398, 777
CIM noise reduction, 721-724 to a high voltage ac power line, 678
C/M voltage developed across a PCB, 683, to a loop, 158
7 14 on a PCB, 149, 737, 741
common mode voltage developed, 683, 714 to a transmission line, 387-392
838 Index
Radiated emission (see also Fields) Safety limits, 75-84

reduction, 269 American, 77
Radiated emission measurements (see EM1 mea- CENELEC, 8 1
surements) CEU, 81
Radiated immunity measurements (see EM1 mea- ICNlRP, 80-8 1
surements) IEE C95.1 limits, 78
Radiated immunity test, 542, 550, 557 IRPA, 81
Radiated power, 42 MPE, 77
Radiation NRPB, 80
far field radiation from twisted wire pair, safety code 6, 76
39 Safety margin, 641
from a loop, 34 SAR (Specific Absorption Ratio), 76-82
low level for PCBs, 679-693 Self capacitance (see Inductors; Filter)
principle from PCB layouts, 677 Self inductance (see Capacitor; Filter)
resistance, 43 Shielded room, 566
a truism, 403 anechoic chambers, 566, 580
from twisted wire pair, 22 cell antenna, 566
from wires, 30 (see also Current element) correction for electric and magnetic dipole ex-
Received power, 43-45, 679 citation, 572
conversion to E field, 47 enclosure internal fields and
Receiver antenna errors, 567
compression in, 655 ferrite tiles and absorber loads, 579
intermodulation products, 655-656 GTEM, 584
out of band response, 649, 655 long wire antenna, 573-575
spurious response, 656 TEM and other cells, 358, 584-586
Receiving properties of isolated cable, 55-56 multiwire transmission lines, 586
Receiving properties of a loop, 34 and parallel plate antennas, 573
Reciprocity, 46-47, 293-294 near field antenna coupling in, 578
Reflection, 283, 286 (see also Antenna; EM1 opto-isolated physically small antennas,
measurements) 579
Relay, 232 reflections/resonances, 309, 567, 576
Regulations (see EM1 requirements) reduction with tuned resonator, 578
Resistance of a conductor, 825 specific location with antennas calibrated at
Resistance of finishes, 342 the same location, 569
Resistance, four wire test method, 476 stirred mode or reverberation room, 569
Resistivity transmission line, 566
of soil, 439 tuned resonator, 576
surface, 343 Shielding
Resistors, 204 absorption, 288
Resonance against low frequency H fields, 287, 290-
in circuits, 822-824 295, 296
in components, 181, 186-187, 208 aperture and distance, 309
in conductors, 173 aperture, E field coupling, 305
in filters, 208 aperture H field coupling, 3 16
parallel, 824 aperture, as an impedance, 308
in a piezoelectric beeper, 232 aperture, magnetic polarizability, 320
and Q , 209 aperture measurements, 307-313,317,325-328
series, 823 aperture, plane wave coupling, 3 13
Resonant cavity, 571 apertures resulting in gain, 308
Resonator tuned, 572 aperture, waveguide, 3 13
Reverberation chamber, 565 and barrier impedance, 285
RF circuits, 180. 213, 248, 255, 262-263, cable (see Cable shielding)
783 by compartmentalization, 213, 349, 726
grounding, 264-267 computer program, 352
RF shielding, 179, 283-328 and conductive adhesivelcaulking, 321, 345
Ripple, 108, 213 with conductive cloth and paper, 302
Riveted joint, 321, 326 with conductive coatings, 297-302
RTCA/DO-160 requirements, 634-637 conductive paints, thermoplastics, plastic coat-
Rusty bolt effect (see Passive intermodulation) ings and glue, 297
Index 839
[Shielding] Spectral lines (see Frequency spectrum)

with conductive plastic, 301 Spike generator, 63 1
corrosion effects on, 324, 342 Spring fingers (see EM1 shielding; Gaskets)
damping an enclosure, 309, 31 1 Static protection, 277, 433
degradation due to seams, joints and aper- Stirred mode, 565
tures, 304 or reverberation room, 569
effect of fasteners on, 323 Stripline, coupled, 143
effectiveness, 289 on PCBs, 685-702
of buildings, 349 Surface resistance, 285, 342
with gasket, 339 Switch mode power supply, noise reduction
and enclosure resonance, 309, 567, 576 from, 107, 212-222
examples of H field, 321-325 System level noise, 608
and gasket material for connectors, 335, 415
gaskets, 333-348 TEM cell, 358, 585
gasket test methods, 328 open, 570
with high permeability material, 297 Test equipment
with honeycomb and wire mesh filters, 320 F capacitor, 108
1 0 ~ RF
limitations, 348 antennas (see Antenna)
of enclosures broadband antennae, 492
measured, H field, 327 calibration, 5 I , 73-74
with measurements, 308-313, 321-328 coupling/decoupling network (CDN), 554,
and metal impedance, 285 556. 560
new materials, 297, 302 current probe, 491
conductive paints, 297 Em generator, 559
glue, 297 EM1 receiver, 488
plastic coatings, 297 ESD simulator/gun, 561
thermoplastics, 297, 301 electric and magnetic field probes, 62-69,
resonance effects, 309, 576 72-73. 615
prediction errors, 294-295, 307, 31 1 , 317 GTEM cell, 584
radiated emission, adverse effect on, 300, input protection, 480, 487
724-725 lightning generator, 636
reflection, 286 line impedance stabilization network (LISN),
loss, 295-296 206-207, 501, 514-519, 589, 590,
perfect conductor, 283 611, 635
practical conductors, 286 magnetic field probes, 492
re-reflection, 286 mixer dynamic range, 488
correction, 289 mixer sensitivity, 488
seams, joints, ventilation, 326-354 oscilloscope, 478
attenuation thin material with joints and parallel plate antenna, 575
apertures to H field, 316 power amplifier, 489
E field coupling through thin material, pre-amplifier, 487
305 pre-selector, 484, 489
H field attenuation of enclosures, 316, quasi peak detector, 486
326-327 signal generator, 489
measured attenuation magnetic field within spectrum analyzer, 479-487
enclosure, 327 peak hold, 607
waveguide below cut off, 313 resolution bandwidth, 481
skin depth, 285 sweep rate, 483
surface finish effects on, 296, 725 video bandwidth, 483
and surface transfer impedance, 328 stripline antenna, 575
in thick material, 285-297 surge generator, 564
in thin material, 298-300, 305 TEM cell, 358, 584
transmission line theory applied, 283 test locations
waveguide gaskets, 340 anechoic chamber, 566, 580
window material, 299 GTEM, 584
Site attenuation, 508, 521 OATS, 508, 521
Skin depth, 285 Testing (see EM1 measurements)
Snubber circuits Test plans and procedures, 599
Specific Absorption Ratio (SAR), 76-82 Thyristor, 228
840 Index
Transformer Twisted pair, 22

with electrostatic shield, 502 crosstalk in, 126
isolation, 179, 240, 242, 243, 247, 437, 502 far field radiation from, 39
Transient absorber diode, 269 magnetic field from, 22
Transient protection, 269
electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 641 Units of measurements, 45
protection, 280 Unregulated equipment, 503, 524, 531
electrostatic protection, 277
lightning protection, 270
surge current handling, 27 l Varistor. 269
Transmission line
impedance, 176-178, 388, 813-815 Waiver analysis, 789
mutual inductance, 122, 131 Wave
not terminated in Zc, 175-177 electric on wires and i n free space, 20, 26-
open circuit, 177 28
propagation delay, 149 impedance, 29
reflection coefficient, 44 spherical, 32
applied to an antenna load, 58 Waveguide below cutoff effect, 31 3
short circuit, 176- 177 Wire
theory applied to shielding, 283 emissions with loop, termination, 25, 35-39,
Transmitter 404, 408-415
intermodulation, 655 separation, 178
as noise source, 1 18, 648-655 shielding, 179, 357
radiated power, 649, 664 Wiring guidelines, 178
Triac, 228, 769 WISP experiment, 763, 777
TTL
emissions from, 98 Zener diode, 269
immunity of, 250 Zero crossover switching, 228

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ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

A Series of Reference Rooks and Tatbook7

1. Rational Fault Analysis,edited by Richard Saeks andS. R. Liberty

Additional Volwnes in Preparation

Eastern Hemisphere Distribution

World Wide Web

Copyright 0 2001 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Current printing (last digit):

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Chapter 1 Introduction to EM1 and the Electromagnetic Environment 1

Chapter 2 Introduction to E and H, Near and Far Fields, Radiators,

Chapter 3 Typical Sources and Characteristics of Radiated and

Chapter 4 Crosstalk and Electromagnetic Coupling Between PCB Tracks,

4.1 Introduction to crosstalkandelectromagneticcoupling 121

Chapter 5 Components, Emission Reduction Techniques, and Noise Immunity 171

5.1 Components 171

Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Shielding 283

Chapter 7 Cable Shielding, Coupling from E and H Fields, and Cable

7.1Introduction to cablecouplingandemissions 357

Chapter 8 GroundingandBonding 433

8.1 Introduction to grounding 433

Chapter 9 EM1 Measurements, Control Requirements, and Test Methods 477

9.1 Introduction 477

Chapter 10 Systems EMC and AntennaCoupling 639

10.1 System-level EMC 639

Chapter 11 Printed Circuit Boards 683

1 1.1 Introduction 683

Chapter 12 EM1 and EMC Control, Case Studies, EMC Prediction

Appendix 1 CharacteristicImpedance of Conductors,Wires,andCables 813

Appendix 3 Electric Field Strength to Magnetic Field to Power Density

1.l INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)

1.l .l Effects of Electromagnetic Interference

Interference to television and radio reception

1.l .2 Electromagnetic Interference Coupling Modes

Figure 1.3 A few of the intraequipment (unit) coupling modes.

1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Figure 1.4 RE02 broadband emission limits for spacecraft.

1.3.1 Natural Sources of Electromagnetic Noise

Figure 1.6 Comparativelevels of cosmicnoisesources.(FromRef. 1, 0 1969 IEEE.)

0.01 I I llllli I I I I I1111

140 Average at a distance of 1 m

Figure 1.9 Average level of radiation from fluorescentlamps.

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Table 1.1 MagnitudeofMagneticFieldsMeasuredin a Home

Table 1.2 TypicalAmbientField

Frequency Field strength

"Typical field strength m major urbancenters

Figure 1.1 1 Averageandpeakfields from radiotransmittersat a distance of 100 m.

1.3.4 Conducted Noise on PowerLines

Figure 2.1 A crosssectionbetweenparallelplates.

and illustrated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Magneticfieldaroundalongconductor.

All distances, such as x, z, r , , and r?, are in meters.

2.1.3 Twisted-Pair Wires

Figure 2.3b Fielddistributionaroundatwo-wireline.

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.18.0 1.2 1.61.4 1.8 2.0