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Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture

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Corrieu G., and Béal C. (2016) Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P., and
Toldrá, F. (eds.) The Encyclopedia of Food and Health vol. 5, pp. 617-624. Oxford: Academic Press.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

 Author's personal copy

Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture

G Corrieu, Bioval Process Co., Canet en Roussillon, France
C Béal, AgroParisTech INRA, Thiverval-Grignon, France
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction subsp. bulgaricus. This fermentation leads to acidification and

milk coagulation, without addition of rennet (as in cheese),
An ancestral version of yogurt probably appeared 9000 or 8000 and allows an increase of the shelf life as a result of the low pH.
years BC in Mesopotamia and Egypt and subsequently spread The sensory properties of yogurts rely on three main characters:
in the northeast of Africa, in the Middle East, in Central Asia, (1) the composition of milk as raw material, which differs
and later in Balkan countries, offering a large variety of according to the milk source (e.g., cow, goat, or sheep; con-
‘fermented milks.’ Originally, yogurt resulted from a spontane- ventional or organic) and the fat content that can be adjusted
ous, accidental lactic acid fermentation leading to the acidifi- to obtain full-fat, low-fat, or nonfat products; (2) the addition
cation and coagulation of milk, thus resulting in an efficient of ingredients that allow modifying the sensory properties
way to preserve this raw material otherwise vulnerable to spoil- (flavor, color, and texture) of the products, such as sweetening
age. Along the following centuries, the knowledge for making agents (sugar or other sweeteners for low-calorie products),
homemade yogurts and fermented milks spread all over the flavoring agents (fruit aromas or vanilla) or fruits (small pieces
world. The first attempts to produce yogurt industrially were enriched with sugar or jam), stabilizers (pectin, starch, or
performed in Barcelona in 1919 by Isaac Carasso. Since the gelatin), or emulsifiers; and (3) the technology employed for
1950s, the production of yogurt has grown significantly thanks the manufacture, which may vary depending on the operations
to the intervention of several powerful agrofood groups setting during milk pretreatment (fat and nonfat solid standardiza-
up international activities. If ‘set-type’ and ‘stirred’ yogurts are tion, homogenization, or heat treatment) or yogurt post-
the basic products, a large number of new recipes and processes treatment (stirring, concentration, mixing, cooling, drying, or
have been created to diversify the products and address market freezing).
demands. These alternations include the modification of the Even if yogurt is the most consumed within the wider
texture, resulting in drinking, frozen, and concentrated yogurts; family of fermented milks, many probiotic fermented milks
modification of aroma and taste by addition of fruit, jam, and are traded around the world. They involve probiotic bacteria,
aroma compounds; modification of nutritional properties by which are defined according to the FAO/WHO in 2011 as ‘live
changing the fat and sugar contents; and development of microorganisms that, when administered in adequate
health-related elements with the use of probiotic strains or amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.’ As European
the inclusion of vitamins or phytostanols. The coverage of regulation has stated that these health benefits have to be
these issues has been contributing to a significant expansion demonstrated before using the probiotics in foods and supple-
of the overall consumption of yogurt and fermented milks ments, the health claims are not anymore maintained. In other
worldwide. countries, and depending on the country regulation, the fol-
As a result, the industrial production of yogurt and fermen- lowing health benefits are recognized: reduction of lactose
ted milks in the world reached about 32–35 million tons in intolerance, prevention of microbial infections, stimulation
2012, for an expected global market in 2015 of about $67 of the immune system, and regulation of immune responses.
billion. In Europe (27 countries), the annual production was
around 9.3 million tons, with Germany, France, and Spain
being the three main producers covering 20%, 18%, and 9%
of the European production, respectively. For the last 5 years in Main Types of Yogurts and Fermented Milks
Europe, the total production increased by 10%, whereas for the
Yogurt diversification is reflected by various textures (set-type
last 30 years in France, the increase was of 38%. Besides
or firm, stirred, drinking, frozen, concentrated, or powder
Europe, the main producers of yogurt are China, Russia, Iran,
yogurts), numerous flavors (natural, sweetened, flavored, or
and the United States, with 4.0, 2.5, 2.2, and 2.0 million tons
with added pieces of fruits or honey), and diverse shelf life and
per year, respectively. Production in South America and Cen-
nutritional (fat content and residual lactose content) proper-
tral America and in Africa remains low with 1.5 and 0.4 million
ties. Figure 1 proposes a synthetic scheme of the several char-
tons per year, respectively.
acters that lead to yogurt diversity.
Classification of fermented milks is also based on their
potential health properties. They are mainly related to the
decrease in lactose content in the product, as a result of lactic
Definition and Main Types of Yogurts acid production. Some strains of S. thermophilus and
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus are able to survive in the gastro-
Definition of Yogurt and Probiotic Fermented Milks
intestinal tract, thus being able to play a role in the gut health.
In essence, yogurts are fermented dairy products obtained from Finally, the development of US versions of Greek yogurt is
lactic acid fermentation by two species of lactic acid bacteria, associated to high protein but low carbohydrate contents,
that is, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii thus contributing to the weight management of consumers.

Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00766-2 617

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 617-624
 Author's personal copy
618 Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture

Type of milk: Lactose

Cow
Goat
Sheep
Conventional Fat content:
Organic Not-fat Lactose
Texture: Low-fat
Full-fat
Firm
Stirred
Yoghurt Glucose + Galactose Galactose
Concentrated diversity
Drinking 2 ADP
Flavor:
Frozen
Powder Plain 2 ATP
Sweetened Pyruvate
Storage : Flavored
Chilled (4 °C) Added with fruits 1 NADH
Dehydrated (Ambient)
Frozen (–20 °C)
1 NAD+
Lactic acid Lactic acid
Figure 1 Classification scheme for yogurts and fermented milks.
Intracellular medium Extracellular medium

Microbiological and Biochemical Mechanisms Figure 2 Simplified scheme of metabolic reactions involved in
Involved in Yogurt Manufacture homofermentative metabolism in yogurt bacteria.

Microbiological Characteristics of Yogurts

Biochemical and Physicochemical Changes During Lactic
The two thermophilic lactic acid bacteria, S. thermophilus and
Acid Fermentation
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, which trigger yogurt fermenta-
tion, are considered as ‘Generally Recognized as Safe’ in the Growth of lactic acid bacteria in milk induces many changes
United States and possess the ‘Qualified Presumption of Safety’ that are desirable in yogurt. These changes include the synthe-
status in Europe, as a consequence of a long history of safe use sis of different metabolites (lactic acid, exopolysaccharides,
in food and an absence of pathogenicity. They are Gram- and aroma compounds) and the modification of the texture
positive, anaerobic, aerotolerant, and catalase-negative, do and the nutritional value of the product.
not form spores, and have less than 55% GþC content in
their DNA. They are able to grow between 42 and 50  C, but
not at 10  C. S. thermophilus forms linear chains of rods, Lactic acid production
whereas L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus grows as ovoid cells. As a result of glycolysis, one mole of lactose is theoretically
They convert lactose into galactose that is not metabolized and transformed into one mole of galactose and two moles of lactic
glucose that is fermented predominantly to lactic acid, thus acid, together with the production of intracellular energy in the
corresponding to homofermentative metabolism. form of two moles of ATP. S. thermophilus, L. delbrueckii subsp.
In milk, these two species demonstrate a positive interac- bulgaricus, and L. acidophilus operate these reactions according
tion called protocooperation, which is mutually favorable. to a homofermentative metabolic pathway that is summarized
This phenomenon induces a more rapid growth and acidifica- in Figure 2.
tion, higher production of aroma compounds and exopolysac- Lactose is first internalized into the cell with the help of a
charides, and more pronounced proteolysis. An upregulation lactose permease energized by a proton gradient. Intracellular
of biosynthesis pathways for nucleotides and sulfur-containing lactose is then hydrolyzed into glucose and galactose by the
amino acids is also observed. Growth of S. thermophilus is enzyme a-galactosidase. Glucose is catabolized to pyruvate via
promoted by free amino acids and small peptides that arise the glycolytic pathway (Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas), whereas
from milk proteins by the action of the cell wall protease PrtB galactose is excreted out of the cell. Pyruvate is then reduced
of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. In return, L. delbrueckii subsp. into lactic acid through a lactate dehydrogenase, together with
bulgaricus is stimulated by formic acid, folic acid, and CO2 that the reoxidation of NADH formed earlier. Two different isomers
are synthesized by S. thermophilus in milk. As a consequence of are synthesized: L(þ) lactic acid by S. thermophilus and D()
this interaction, growth of S. thermophilus starts first by using lactic acid by L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. Finally, the intra-
the nitrogen compounds and stops early as this species is very cellular lactate is excreted out of the cell via a symport with
sensitive to lactic acid inhibition. Growth of L. delbrueckii protons, thus inducing acidification of extracellular medium
subsp. bulgaricus begins later but is prolonged even at low and progressive inhibition of bacterial growth.
pH, due to the better resistance of this species to acidity. Other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria may use hetero-
Probiotic bacteria involved in fermented milk production fermentative pathways to produce their intracellular energy
other than yogurt include different lactobacilli and bifidobac- together with lactic acid. L. rhamnosus, L. casei, and
teria. The main bacterial species found in commercial products L. paracasei produce one mole of each lactic acid, ethanol,
are Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. casei, L. paracasei, L. rhamnosus, CO2, and ATP from one mole of glucose. Bifidobacteria syn-
Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis, and B. breve. These bacte- thesize three moles of acetic acid and two moles of (L þ) lactic
ria demonstrate numerous interactions with the classical yog- acid and ATP, without generation of CO2 from two moles of
urt cultures, which depend on specific strain associations. glucose. These different pathways induce different acidification

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Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture 619

rates and, consequently, different sensory properties of the N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, with molecular masses ranging between
final product. 4  104 and 6  106 Da. S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus produce EPS during growth, to final concentrations
Proteolysis comprised between 30 and 600 mg l1 in milk.
During milk fermentation, the proteolytic system of lactic acid Biosynthesis of exopolysaccharides is governed by well-
bacteria degrades caseins into peptides and free amino acids characterized gene clusters. It involves the production of
that are essential to bacterial growth and participate in the precursors that are formed in the cytoplasm, related to the
generation of flavor. L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus possess sequential addition of activated carbohydrates (UDP-glucose,
the cell surface proteinase PrtB that is highly active and pro- UDP-galactose, and dTDP-rhamnose) by specific glycosyl-
motes fast growth and rapid acidification of milk. In contrast, transferases. These repeating units are coupled to lipid carriers
even if a few strains of S. thermophilus possess the cell wall and translocated across the membrane before polymerization.
proteinase PrtS, most strains are protease-negative. Growth of
S. thermophilus is nevertheless effective in mixed cultures, since Changes in nutritional value
available nitrogen compounds are supplied from the protein- Nutritional characteristics of yogurts differ from those of milk
ase of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. by the three main following aspects: (1) as a consequence of
lactic acid production, the lactose content is lower in yogurt
Flavor compound production (30 g l1) than in milk (50 g l1), which is important for
Yogurt taste is mainly characterized by an acid character due to lactose-intolerant people, by limiting the formation of organic
the presence of lactic acid in the product. Yogurt aroma is acids, hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide in the human
characterized by about hundred volatile compounds that con- gut; (2) the levels of calcium and potassium are higher in
sist of carbonyl compounds (mainly acids and esters), alco- yogurt than in milk (200 and 255 mg 100 g1, respectively),
hols, and heterocyclic and sulfur-containing compounds. as a consequence of nonfat solid adjustment; and (3) the
Among them, acetaldehyde is the major flavor compound of concentration of folic acid is higher in yogurt than in milk.
yogurt, where it confers a pleasant fresh and fruity aroma. It is The latter essential vitamin is biosynthesized by S. thermophilus
produced by the lactic acid bacteria at a final concentration in the range of 20–150 mg l1, during which it is consumed by
comprised between 5 and 40 mg kg1. Most of the acetalde- L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, thus leading to an average net
hyde is directly synthesized from pyruvate with the aid of level in yogurt of 80 mg l1, which exceeds the one in milk
pyruvate decarboxylase or indirectly from acetyl coenzyme A, (40 mg l1).
through the action of pyruvate dehydrogenase and aldehyde
dehydrogenase. L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is also able to
convert threonine into acetaldehyde and glycine, through the Yogurt Manufacture
action of serine hydroxyl-methyl transferase. In addition,
General Diagrams of Yogurt Manufacture
S. thermophilus produces a-acetolactate that is partially metab-
olized into diacetyl or acetoin through the action of a- The industrial manufacture of yogurts is organized along three
acetolactate decarboxylase that allows regulating leucine and main steps: (1) the preparation of the mix and all correspond-
valine biosynthesis. ing physical treatments such as homogenization, heat treat-
ment, cooling, and deaeration; (2) the fermentation process
Coagulation starting after inoculation of the mix; and (3) the yogurt harvest-
Acidification of milk leads to coagulation as a result of desta- ing, post-treatment, and packaging. Depending on the steps
bilization of the casein micelles. The mechanism relies on two performed, at least four types of yogurt can be considered,
concomitant phenomena. During acidification, the net nega- whose manufacture is presented in Figure 3. One has to notice
tive charge on casein micelles decreases, thus reducing electro- that each step of the manufacture affects the final quality of the
static repulsion between charged groups. In the same time, the yogurts and that, except for set-type yogurts, the product fla-
colloidal calcium–phosphate complex is solubilized, which voring and the cup filling are performed after fermentation.
results in the depletion of calcium in the micelles. Then, elec-
trostatic and casein–casein attractions increase due to
Preparation of the Mix
enhanced hydrophobic interactions. When the isoelectric
point of caseins (pH 4.6) is achieved, coagulation occurs as a Milk standardization
result of the formation of a three-dimensional network con- In order to obtain the mix to be fermented, milk preparation
sisting of clusters and chains of caseins, which leads to the involves mainly fat and protein content standardization and
formation of the yogurt gel. optional addition of sweeteners and stabilizers. Fat standardi-
zation consists of fat removal by centrifugation (at about
Exopolysaccharide production 55  C), followed by cream reincorporation to reach the tar-
Some strains of lactic acid bacteria contribute to the physical geted fat content, ranging from nonfat (0.01%), to low- or
properties of stirred fermented milks through biosynthesis of light-fat (1–2%), to whole-fat yogurts (>3.2%). Protein stan-
extracellular polysaccharides (EPS), which are either homo- or dardization aims at increasing the protein content of the mix
heteropolysaccharides. These polymers are composed of (from 3% to 5–15%) in order to improve the yogurt firmness
several hundreds to thousands of repeating units of monosac- (texture) and reduce its syneresis. It is mostly done by addition
charides such as D-glucopyranose, D-fructofuranose, D-glucose, of milk powder, which is the easier and traditional way. The
D-galactose, L-rhamnose, N-acetyl-D-galactosamine, and use of milk proteins or milk replacers as caseinates or whey

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 617-624

 Author's personal copy
620 Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture

Reception and storage of milk (4 ⬚C)

Fat standardization (not-fat, low-fat, full-fat)

Protein standardization (5–15%)

Heat treatment (90–95 ⬚C, 3–7 min)

Homogenization (20–25 Mpa at 70 ⬚C)

Deaeration (70 ⬚C)

Cooling to incubation temperature (42 ⬚C)

Inoculation (106–107 CFU ml–1)

Flavoring Fermentation in tank (42 ⬚C)

Filling (10 ⬚C) Mixing of the coagulum

Fermentation in cup (42 ⬚C) Cooling (18–25 ⬚C) Homogenization Concentration

Flavoring Flavoring Cooling at 10–12 ⬚C

Filling (10 ⬚C, aseptic conditions)

Cooling (5 ⬚C), cold storage, transportation, delivery

Set-Type Stirred Drinking Concentrated
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of the production processes of set-type, stirred, drinking, and concentrated yogurts.

powders is also common. A complete mixing of the dry ingre- Two other physical treatments of the mix, deaeration and
dients without air incorporation is recommended. Concentra- homogenization, are closely associated with the heat
tion of milk by membrane processes (ultrafiltration and treatment, and the design of the heat exchangers takes into
reverse osmosis) is an alternative method to increase the pro- account the temperature favoring their effect. Homogenization
tein content of the mix. is compulsory for yogurt quality, as it increases the gel texture
For some yogurt recipes, sugars or other sweetening agents and reduces syneresis. It provokes a reduction of the size of the
are added to the mix, generally after the physical treatments fat globules (near 2 mm) and a better link between fat and
described in the succeeding text. In some countries, the use of hydrophilic proteins. Homogenization of the mix is done at
thickeners and stabilizers (gelatin, pectin, xanthan gum, carra- high pressure (20 or 25 MPa) and at a temperature close to
geenan, starch, etc.) at concentrations varying from 5% to 10% 70  C. Associated with the heat treatment of the mix, it takes
is allowed by FAO/WHO to improve the yogurt texture. place just after the holding section of the heat exchanger.
Double-stage high-pressure homogenizers are recommended
Physical treatments of the mix for high-fat yogurts. Vacuum deaeration of the mix is per-
Heat treatment is an essential step of the mix preparation. It formed at large industrial scale to reduce its oxygen content
allows removing spoilage microorganisms, inactivating lacto- and consequently shorten the fermentation time, as to improve
peroxidases and producing stimulatory compounds in milk. In the yogurt texture and to remove off-flavors. This step is gen-
parallel, heat treatment contributes to improved yogurt texture erally performed at 70  C, before homogenization.
by allowing whey protein denaturation and interaction with
casein, resulting in a decrease of gel syneresis and an increase of
The Fermentation Process
gel firmness. During industrial yogurt manufacture, the mixes
are generally heated at 90 or 95  C for 3–7 min before cooling Inoculation of the mix
down to fermentation temperature. Plate heat exchangers, with At industrial scale, yogurts are prepared through inoculation of
a tubular holding zone, are generally used and are designed in the mix with concentrated starter cultures of the two yogurt
order to cool the mix accurately at the fermentation tempera- bacteria (S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus).
ture (between 37 and 43  C). The commercial starter cultures are composed of specific

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Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture 621

blends of selected and well-defined strains, at a concentration The acidification process is controlled by the final pH of
higher than 1010 colony-forming units (CFU) g1, and are the yogurt and the acidification rate, which are key factors to
preserved as frozen or freeze-dried formulations. The inocu- master quality. The fermentation is stopped (by a fast cooling
lated mix contains generally 106–107 CFU ml1 of bacteria. of the product) when the final pH of the yogurt is reached.
After mixing, it is transferred to the fermentation tanks (for The targeted final pH varies from 4.8 to 4.5, as a function of
stirred, drinking, or concentrated yogurt manufacture) or the type of yogurt. A significant postacidification during the
directly to the packaging machine for fermentation in cups yogurt’s cooling, harvesting, and storage has to be considered
(for set-type yogurt manufacture). in defining this target. Generally, online measurement of pH
of the mix is avoided, because the glass pH probes may break
Fermentation step inside the mix and need to be submitted to cumbersome
During the lactic acid fermentation of milk, numerous param- protocols of cleaning and calibration. Consequently, only
eters vary as a function of time, as shown in Figure 4. The manual sampling is done during the acidification process to
growth of S. thermophilus occurs first, followed by that of allow offline pH measurements, and the decision to stop the
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, reaching final concentrations fermentation by cooling requires a good expertise of the
close to 109 CFU g1 (Figure 4(a)). The consumption of lac- process. The acidification rate acts directly on the fermenta-
tose and nitrogenous compounds permits the growth of both tion time, so that its knowledge and control are very impor-
strains and leads to the accumulation of many relevant metab- tant to properly schedule industrial production. It is
olites. Lactic acid, galactose, acetaldehyde, and exopolysacchar- influenced by various factors, such as starter composition
ides are the most important ones, contributing to flavor and and activity, mix composition and physical treatments, and
texture of the yogurt (Figure 4(b)). The synthesis of extracel- fermentation temperature. However, accurate temperature
lular lactic acid provokes an acidification of the mix character- control is quite impossible during yogurt fermentation
ized by a decrease of the pH (Figure 4(a)), the coagulation of because of the coagulation phenomenon that occurs at
proteins, and the subsequent gel formation. Acetaldehyde con- about pH 5.2. As a consequence, the fermentation time can
fers to yogurt its particular aroma, and exopolysaccharides vary in important ranges. For probiotic yogurt, fermentation
contribute to its texture. time can reach 6–8 h, whereas for stirred yogurt, a 3–4 h

1,E+10 7
Bacterial concentrations (CFU ml–1)

1,E+09 6

pH
1,E+08 5

1,E+07 S. thermophilus 4
L. bulgaricus
pH
1,E+06 3
0 1 2 3 4
(a) Fermentation time (h)
Lactose and acetaldehyde concentrations

Galactose and lactic acid concentrations

50 10

40 8
Lactose
Acetaldehyde
30 6
Lactic acid
(g l–1)

(g l–1)

Galactose
20 4

10 2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4
(b) Fermentation time (h)
Figure 4 Growth of S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and milk acidification (a) and evolution of lactose, galactose, lactic acid, and
acetaldehyde concentrations (b) as a function of fermentation time.

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622 Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture

process is the common target. However, industrial manufac- maintenance permits limiting the postacidification in the prod-
turers have difficulties to master perfectly all the parameters of ucts and preserving their safety.
the process, and longer fermentation times (5 or 8 h) are
frequently attained.
Industrial Design of Yogurt Manufacturing Units
The fermentation of set-type yogurts is generally performed
in cabinets, incubation rooms, or large tunnels in which the All equipments used for milk storage, mix preparation, fermen-
pallets move forward gradually with forced ventilation of tation and yogurt cooling, and harvesting and packaging are
warm air. The fermentation of stirred yogurts is performed in especially designed to allow for the cleaning in place (CIP)
large tanks (15–20 m3 for the largest ones) equipped with procedures commonly used in dairy industry. These proce-
mixing devices for mix homogenization, starter mixing, and dures assume the existence of a CIP kitchen in the factory to
gel breaking after fermentation. automatically provide the cleaning mixtures at the right tem-
perature and for the right duration.
Yogurt fermentation is a batch process, but some opera-
Yogurt Harvesting and Packaging tions such as mix preparation and treatment and yogurt cool-
ing and packaging are designed and managed as continuous or
Cooling and harvesting of yogurt
semicontinuous processes. In industrial manufacturing units,
The first step in yogurt harvesting corresponds to a fast cooling
automation and process control systems are more and more
of the product in order to stop its acidification. It takes place
popular. They encompass (1) sensors that essentially measure
when the required final pH of yogurt is obtained. Set yogurts
physical parameters such as temperature, pressure, level, and
are cooled within 1 or 2 h to 4 or 5  C using cold air in
weight; (2) programmable logic controllers controlling valves,
ventilated cabinets, cooling rooms, or tunnels, as a function
pumps, and motors that permit the regulation of the main
of the size of the manufacturing unit. For stirred yogurt, the
process parameters; and (3) computer supervision that allows
cooling is performed in an external heat exchanger reaching an
traceability. Nevertheless, as an accurate control of the yogurt
intermediate temperature (between 18 and 25  C) in less than
acidification rate remains limited, optimization of yogurt man-
1 h (20–60 min for industrial tanks). At this temperature,
ufacture is not possible.
some additives as aroma compounds, sweeteners, and fruits
Finally, even if the acidity of yogurt contributes to its safety,
(jam, pulp, and pieces) can be added to stirred yogurts. In
industrial manufacturers observe good manufacturing prac-
modern large plants, these additions are generally performed
tices to control the microbial risk. They act mainly on food
online at the level of the packaging machine, using metering
contact surfaces that have to be cleaned and sanitized before
pumps and mixers.
use and impose clothing and hair covering for the staff.
The final texture of yogurts, especially stirred ones, is a
critical factor for consumer acceptance. As the texture is influ-
enced by many factors (mix composition, strains used, and
Control of Yogurt Quality
processing conditions), it is a real challenge to obtain the
targeted texture. The mechanical constraints exerted on stirred
Yogurt quality requires controls of the raw materials, during
yogurt by all the harvesting devices (pumps, heat exchangers,
the course of the manufacturing process and on the final
pipes, mixers, filling machine, etc.) tend to reduce its texture
products.
but can give them some smoothness.

Quality Controls of Raw Materials

Packaging of yogurt
Yogurt packaging ensures its hygiene and protection during Microbiological controls are carried out on raw materials, in
distribution. If plastic and glass cups are always used for set- particular fresh milk, powder milk, fruits, sweeteners, and
type yogurts, large up-to-date packaging units use the starters. Somatic cell counts are also verified on fresh milk. In
‘form–fill–seal’ technology. The same packaging machine real- addition, many physicochemical properties are checked: (1)
izes the three main following operations: (1) the thermo- temperature, titratable acidity, and fat and protein contents of
formation of the containers at 150–200  C, using multilayer the fresh milk; (2) the absence of antibiotics, solubility,
thermoplastic materials, (2) the filling of the preformed con- moisture, and fat content of the milk powder; and (3) pH,
tainers under a closed environment and sterile air overpressure, viscosity, and Brix of the added fruits. Acidification activity of
and (3) the thermosealing of the filled containers with an starter cultures is also assessed, mostly by using the Cinac
aluminum lid labeled to deliver product information. These system that allows determining various quantitative kinetic
high-tech packaging machines allow reaching high security descriptors such as the absolute value of the maximum acidi-
and high capacity (up to 70 000 cups per hour) standards. fication rate (Vm, in min1) and the time (tm, in min) neces-
Consequently, they correspond to the most expensive invest- sary to reach Vm. The lower the value of tm and the higher
ment in an industrial manufacturing unit of yogurt. the value of Vm, the higher the acidification activity will be.
Overpackaging is then carried out, in the form of multipacks Figure 5 shows typical acidification curves and corresponding
of 2, 4, 8, or 16 cups, with the help of an automatic tray packer. first derivatives (kinetics) of two yogurt starter cultures growing
After packaging and overpackaging, the yogurts are stored at in milk and displaying low (Vm ¼  1.33 pH unit h1;
low temperature (4 or 5  C), which is maintained during tm ¼ 2.55 h) or high acidification activity (Vm ¼  1.44 pH
transportation and commercialization. This low temperature unit h1; tm ¼ 2.05 h).

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 Author's personal copy
Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture 623

7 0

6.5 –0.2
–0.4

dpH/dt (h–1)
6
–0.6
pH 5.5 –0.8
–1
5
–1.2
4.5
–1.4
4 –1.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (h) Time (h)
Figure 5 Acidification activity of two yogurt starter cultures, displaying high acidification activity (—) and low acidification activity (—) determined
using the Cinac system.

Controls During the Process Conclusion

During yogurt manufacture, controls are accomplished to
Yogurt is an ancient traditional fermented food that has
ensure repeatability of the productions and maximal levels of
known, since half a century, a tremendous industrialization
quality and food safety of the products. They refer mainly to
of its manufacturing conditions. In more recent years, an
the control of temperature (in fermentation tanks, heat
intense innovative diversification of recipes and products
exchangers, incubation rooms, and cooling systems), pH (by
occurred, which partly explain the increase of their consump-
sampling either in the fermentation tanks or directly in cups),
tion. Although artisan production schemes persist, including
and duration of the different steps of manufacture.
homemade yogurt manufacture, the industrial manufacture of
In addition to these controls, the use of food safety man-
yogurt is now well established. Breakthrough innovations are
agement systems such as ISO 22000 or International Food
limited and the improvements in process productivity relate
Standards is requested to control foodborne safety hazards
mainly to the design and the management of the manufactur-
and guarantee the products’ safety. By implementing Hazard
ing units. Nevertheless, the interesting nutritional properties of
Analysis and Critical Control Point systems according to the
yogurts and more generally of fermented milks, their diversity,
Codex, three steps are identified as critical control points for
and the opening and increasing of new markets offer impor-
microbiological hazards during yogurt manufacture: pasteuri-
tant perspectives for their development at world scale.
zation of milk, refrigerated packaging, and cold storage. In
addition, packaging is also related to physical hazards.

See also: Bifidobacteria in Foods: Health Effects; Fermented Foods:

Quality Controls of the Final Product Use of Starter Cultures; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Packaging: Aseptic Filling;
Probiotics; Rheological Properties of Food Materials; Yogurt: Dietary
Various controls are performed on the final products at the end
Importance; Yogurt: Yogurt Based Products.
of their manufacture and during their shelf life. The frequency
of sampling is defined by each dairy factory, as stated by its
own good hygiene practices.
Counts of S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus Further Reading
are controlled to verify that the targeted value of 107 CFU g1
at shelf life is achieved. The presence of spoilage and patho- Aureli P, Capurso L, Castellazzi AM, et al. (2011) Probiotics and health: an evidence-
based review. Pharmacological Research 63: 366–376.
genic microorganisms, including Listeria monocytogenes, Salmo- Béal C and Helinck S (2014) Yogurt and other fermented milks. In: Ray RC and
nella spp., coliforms, yeasts, or molds, is also checked. Montet D (eds.) Microorganisms and fermentation of traditional foods,
Physicochemical analyses consist of the verification of the pp. 139–185. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
fat and total solid contents, the titratable acidity or the pH of Benezech T and Maingonnat JF (1993) Flow properties of stirred yogurt: structural
parameter approach in describing time-dependency. Journal of Texture Studies
the products, and the assessment of some texture parameters
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including firmness, consistency, or viscosity, depending on the Cheng H (2010) Volatile flavor compounds in yoghurt: a review. Critical Reviews in
type of yogurt (set-type, stirred, or drinking yogurt). Sensory Food Science and Nutrition 50: 938–950.
evaluations are completed with experienced panelists. The fol- Corrieu, G., Spinnler, H. E., Jomier, Y. and Picque, D. (1988). Automated system to
lowing main sensory attributes are generally employed: follow up and control the acidification activity of lactic acid starters. Fr. Pat.
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appearance (syneresis and color), texture (palatability, firm- Courtin P, Monnet V, and Rul F (2002) Cell-wall proteinases PrtS and PrtB have a
ness, and consistency), aroma and odor, and taste and after- different role in Streptococcus thermophilus/Lactobacillus bulgaricus mixed
taste (freshness, acidity, and persistency). cultures in milk. Microbiology 148: 3413–3421.

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FAO/WHO (2001) Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including Tamime AY and Robinson RK (2007) Yoghurt: science and technology. Boca Raton, FL:
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