Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS

IMPORTANT 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Sub : Physics Class : II PUC

1. Derive the expression for Electric Field at a point on the axial line of an electric dipole.
Ans: Consider an electric dipole consisting charges +q and –q separated by a distance 2a as shown in
fig.

Let,
r - distance of point P on the axis
from the centre of the dipole on the
side of charge +q.
= × 2 , dipole moment

The magnitude of electric field at P, due to charges +q and –q of dipole is given by

1 1
= =
4 ( − ) 4 ( + )
Since E and E are in opposite direction, therefore net electric field at P is
E=E − E
1 1
E= −
4 ( − ) 4 ( + )
1 1
E= −
4 ( − ) ( + )
( + ) −( − ) 4
E= =
4 ( + ) ( − ) 4 ( − )

= and net electric ield is along the direction of p.

( − )
1 2
OR E= ̂ where, = (2 )
4 ( − )
1 2p
E =
4 ( − )

1 2p
∗ For ≫ , E=
4

2. Derive the expression for Electric Field at a point on the equatorial plane of an electric dipole.
Ans: Consider an electric dipole consisting charges +q
and –q separated by a distance 2a as shown in fig. +

Let, P 
= × 2 , - dipole moment

r - distance of point P on equatorial line from the
center of dipole.
−
The magnitudes of the electric field at P, due to the two r
charges +q and –q are given by,
1 1
E = E = … . . (1)
4 + 4 + 
A B
∴ E = E … … … (2) +q O
-q
a a

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
(i) The components of fields E and E , normal to the dipole axis E sin E sin
equal and opposite and hence they get cancel.
(ii) The field components along the dipole axis E cos E cos are get add up.
∴ Net electric field at P is, E = E cos + E cos
E= E +E cos = 2E cos

, cos = (1)
( + )
1 2
∴ E=
4 ( + ) ( + )

= and is along (−p )

( + )

OR =−
( + )
1 p
∗ For ≫ , E=
4

3. Obtain the expression for electric field at an outside point due to a uniformly charged spherical
shell.
Ans : Consider a uniformly charged spherical shell as shown in
figure.
Let,
R – radius of uniformly charged spherical shell
q – total charge on the shell
r – radius of the Gaussian sphere

By the spherical symmetry electric intensity ‘E’ is along the radius and is same at all points on the
surface. Further, at every point on the Gaussian surface, angle between and area element is zero.
Therefore, electric flux passing through the Gaussian surface is,
 =  E ds cos  =  E ds cos 00 =  E ds
 = E  ds
But  ds = 4r², the surface area of the spherical shell.
  = E [4r²] …...... (1)
From Gauss’s law, the total electric flux passing through the Gaussian surface is
q
 = … … … … . (2)
ε
From Equation (1) and (2)
q
E 4r ] =
ε

From the above equation.It is clear that electric intensity at a point outside the sphere is the same as if
the entire charge were concentrated at the center of the shell.

{For the point P inside the shell at a distance r (< R) from the center O, the Gaussian surface do
not enclose any charge.   q = 0
q
 = =0 ⟹  = E(4πR ) = 0 ⟹ E=0
ε
i.e. Electric field inside a charged conductor is “zero”}

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
4. Obtain the expression for electrical potential at a point due to a point charge.
Ans: Consider a charge at + q located at origin O in free space as shown in figure.

The electric potential at point P is the amount of work done in carrying a unit positive charge from ∞
to the point P.
Let ‘A’ be an intermediate
termediate point on this path, ssmall amount of work done in moving +1 C through a
distance ‘dx’ from A to B
dW = F ∙ dx = F dx cos 180 = − F dx
1 q
But the force on + 1 C at A is
is, F=
4πε x
1 q
∴ dW = − dx
4πε x
∴ Total work done in moving unit positive (+1 C) charge from ∞ to point P is
−1 q
dW = dx
∞ 4πε x

q −1 1 1
W= dx =
4πε ∞ x 4πε x ∞

q 1 1 1 q
W= − =
4πε r ∞ 4πε r
By the definition, this work done is the potential at P due to the charge at O.

5. Derive the expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

Ans: A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a
small distance.

Let,
A – area of each plate
d –distance of separation
aration b/w plates
Q – charge on each plate of capacitor
σ = Q/A – surface charge density

Electric field in the outer region I and II is zero.

In the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric field is,
= + = − − − − − (1)
2 2
The potential difference between the plates of capacitor is given by,

= = = − − − − − (2)

The Capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is given by,

= = =

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS

6. Obtain the expression for energy stored in the charged capacitor. (3/5 M)
Ans: The energy stored in the charged capacitor is the total work done in charging the capacitor to a
given potential, by transferring charges from one plate to another plate of the capacitor.
Consider an intermediate situation of charging the capacitor,
Let q → total charge on capacitor at the intermediate situation and
V → potential difference between the two plates of
capacitor so that
′
= − − − − − (1)

Now, the small amount of work done in transferring an additional

charge dq from the negative plate to the positive plate is given by,
′
= =
Therefore the total work done in transferring charge from 0 to Q is given by,
1 1 1
= = = = −0
2 2

=
2
This work is stored as electrostatic potential energy U in the capacitor.

∴ =
2

∗ , = = =

7. Derive the expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in series. (3/5 M)
Ans: Consider two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series across a potential difference V, as
shown in fig.

In series combination of capacitors, the charge on each capacitor is same. Let Q be the charge on each
capacitor.
The potential difference applied across their combination is the sum of the potential differences across
each capacitor.
∴ V = V1+ V2
= =

1 1
∴ = + = + − − − − − (1)

For equivalent capacitor of capacitance CS , under same applied potential difference V volts,
= − − − − − − − − (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we obtain
1 1
= +

= +

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
8. Derive the expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in parallel.
(3/5 M)
Ans: Consider two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in parallel across a potential difference V, as
shown in fig.

In parallel combination of capacitors, the potential difference across each capacitor is same and is same
as that of applied potential V.
The total charge stored in the combination is the sum of the charges on each capacitor.
∴ = +
= =
∴ = + =( + ) − − − − − (1)
For equivalent capacitor of capacitance Cp , under same applied potential difference V volt,
= − − − − − −(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we have
=( + )
= +

9. Derive the expression for current in a conductor in terms of drift velocity. And hence arrive at
the expression for electrical conductivity of material of a conductor. (Assume the expression for
drift velocity)
Ans: Consider a conductor carrying steady current.
Let, x – length of a element of a conductor
A - uniform cross sectional area of conductor
n - number density of free electrons in the conductor
(free electron density)

Total number of free electrons in the element is, N =(Charge density) (volume )= n(Ax)
Magnitude of charge due to these electrons is q = (nAx) e -------- (1)
Where, e - charge of electron.
If t is the time taken by this charge to pass through the element of conductor, then current through the
conductor is
∆
=
∆
nA e ∆
= =
∆ ∆
∆
But = the drift velocity (magnitude) of conduction electrons
∆
∴ = -------- (2)

Magnitude of drift velocity is =

Where, E- electric field in the conductor, m is mass of electron & τ is relaxation time.
=

= but current density =

∴ = − − − − − (3)
From Ohm’s law (vector form) = − − − − (4)
Where,  is electrical conductivity.
From equation (3) and (4) we get

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS

=
1
 Electrical resistivity, = = 2

10. What is equivalent resistance? And obtain the expression for effective resistance of two
resistors connected in parallel. (3/5 M)
Ans: A single resistance which produces same effect (allows same current) as the combination of
resistances under the similar conditions (same potential difference) is called equivalent resistance.

Consider two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 connected in parallel across a potential difference of V
volts. In parallel combination, the potential difference (V) across each resistor is same. Let the steady
current I in the circuit divide into I1 ad I2 through the resistors R1 and R2 respectively.
Hence, = +
From Ohm’s law: = =
1 2

∴ = +
1 1
= + −−−−− (1)

For the equivalent circuit of resistance RP , under same potential difference V volt,
= −−−−− (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
1 1
= +

= +

11. Derive the expressions for equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of parallel
combination of two cells.
Ans: Consider two sources of emf (cells) connected in parallel as shown in figure.

Let, 1 and 2 − emf of two cells

r1, r2 − Internal resistance of two cells
I1 and I2 – Currents through the branches of cells 1 and 2 respectively
I – Net current in the branch AB,
The total current due to this combination of cells is
I=I +I − − − − − (1)
Terminal potential difference across the first cell, V = 1 – I1r1
ε −V
⇒ I =
r
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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
Terminal potential difference across the second cell, V = 2 – I2r2
ε −V
⇒ I =
r
ε −V ε −V
∴ I= +
r r
ε ε 1 1
I= + −V + − − − − − (2)
r r r r
If the combination of cells is replaced by an equivalent cell of emf eq and internal resistance req, then
terminal potential difference of that cell is
V = eq − Ireq
ε 1
I= −V − − − − − (3)
r r
From equation (2) and (3)

= + and = +

12. Deduce the balancing condition for Wheat stone’s network using Kirchhoff’s rules.
Ans: If the current through the galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0), the network is said to be balanced. In
this case, the galvanometer shows no deflection.
Consider the Wheatstone’s network as shown in figure.
Condition for balance:
At balanced state of network i.e. Ig = 0,
Applying Kirchhoff’s node rule for nodes B and D, we get
I1 = I3 and I2 = I4 …………. (1)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the mesh ABDA,
I1 P + 0 – I2 R = 0
 I1P = I2R ……….… (2)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the mesh BCDB,
I3Q – I4S – 0 = 0
I3Q = I4S …………. (3)
Dividing equation (2) by (3)
=

Using equation (1), the above equation changes to

This is the condition for balance of Wheatstone network.

13. Derive the expression for magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular current loop.
Ans: Consider a circular coil carrying
current as shown in figure.
Let,
R – radius of current loop
I – current in the loop
dl – length of current element AB
x – distance of point P on the axis
from the center of current loop O

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
Magnetic field at P due to current element ‘AB’ of length ‘dl’ is
sin
=
4
Here, = 90 , sin 90 = 1 = +

∴ = − − − − − (1)
4 ( + )
This magnetic field can be resolved into two components, = cos and = sin .
If the magnetic field at P is summed over the entire loop,
(a) all the perpendicular components are cancelled out and
(b) the components is adds up.
Hence the magnetic field at P due to entire current loop is
=Ʃ =Ʃ sin =Ʃ sin
4 ( + )

=Ʃ /
∵ from ig. sin = /
4 ( + ) ( + ) ( + )

= /
(Ʃ )= (2 ) (∵ Ʃ =2 )
4 ( + ) 4
( + )

= /
( + )

14. Derive the expression for the force between two infinitely long straight parallel conductors
carrying currents and hence define ampere.
Ans: Consider two infinitely long straight parallel conductors a and b
carrying currents I1 and I2 respectively and separated by a
perpendicular distance ‘d’ as shown in the figure.
The magnetic field at each point on conductor ‘b’ due to current I1 in
conductor ‘a’ is
2
=
4
Now the current carrying conductor ‘b’ is in uniform magnetic field B1.
Hence magnetic force on the segment L of conductor ‘b’ is
= sin
is directed towards the conductor ‘a’ and here = 90 , sin 90 = 1
2
=
4
Similarly conductor ‘a’ also experience same magnitude of force but in opposite direction. Magnetic
force on segment L of conductor ‘a’ is
2
=
4
The mutual force per unit length on conductors ‘a’ and ‘b’ is, =

∴ =
Definition of ampere: Thus “If two very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross section
carrying same steady current are placed 1 m apart in free space (vacuum) experience a mutual force of
2 × 10 newton per meter length of these conductors, then the current in each conductor is said to be
1 A”.
15. Using phasor diagram, derive the expression for current in the series LCR circuit in terms of
impedance Z and phase difference .
Ans: Consider a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source ε. Let
the voltage of the source to be,
= sin -------- (1)

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
If q is the charge on the capacitor and I the current, at time t, we have, from Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
+ + =
+ + = sin -------- (2)
Let the current in the circuit be = sin( + ) -------- (3)
Where, φ - phase difference between voltage across the source and the current in the circuit.
The phasor diagram for circuit at some instant of time t is as shown in figure.
Let,
- phasor representing the current in the circuit
- phasor representing voltage across resistor
- phasor representing voltage across inductor
- phasor representing voltage across capacitor
- phasor representing voltage across the source

The length of these phasors (or amplitude) of , and

are:
= , = , = ------ (4)

We know that is parallel to , is π/2 behind and is π/2 ahead of .

The phasor relation for these voltages is + + = --------- (5)
Since and are always along the same line and in opposite directions, they can be combined into a
single phasor + , which has a magnitude – .
Using the Pythagorean Theorem for fig. (b) we have:
= +( − )
Substituting the values of , , and from Eq. (4) into the above equation, we have
=( ) +( − ) = +( − ) ]

⟹ = = − − − − (6)
+( − )

Where, = +( − ) − − − − (7) is called the impedance of the ac circuit.

Since phasor is always parallel to phasor , the phase angle φ is the angle between and and
can be determined from Fig. (b):
− −
= = − − − − (8)
Equation (6) gives the amplitude of the current and Eq. (8) gives the phase angle. With these, Eq. (3) is
completely specifies the current in the circuit.

16. Derive the Mirror formula.

OR Obtain the relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length (f)
of a spherical mirror.
Ans: The geometry of formation of image B’A’ of object BA by a concave mirror is as shown in figure.

MPN = spherical mirror,

AB = linear size of the object,
A’B’ = linear size of the image,
BP = u = object distance
B’P = v = image distance
FP = f =focal length
CP= R = radius of curvature

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
′ ′ ′ ′
In triangles A′ B′ F and MPF, ∠A B F = ∠MPF = 90 and ∠A FB = ∠MFP
Hence the triangles A′ B′ F and MPF are similar
B ′ A′ B ′ F
∴ =
PM FP
B ′ A′ B ′ F B ′ P − FP
Using PM = BA, we get, = = − − − − − (1)
BA FP FP
In triangles A′B′P and ABP, ∠A′ B ′ P = ∠ABP = 90 and ∠A′ PB′ = ∠APB ,
Hence the triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
B ′ A′ B ′ P
∴ = − − − − − −(2)
BA BP
Comparing Equations (1) and (2),
B ′ P − FP B ′ P
we get, = − − − − − − − (3)
FP BP
Applying the sign conventions, B′P = –v, FP = –f, BP = –u, to equation (3) we get,
−v + f −v
=
−f −u
v−f v
⇒ =
f u
⇒ uv − fu = fv,
Dividing through out by uvf and rearranging, we get
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
This relation is known as the mirror equation.

17. Derive the relation between n1, n2, u, v and R for refraction through the spherical surface.
Where the symbols have usual meanings.
Ans: Consider a an object O placed on the principal axis of a spherical surface with centre of curvature
C and radius of curvature R, which forms an image I. The geometry of formation of image of an object O
placed on the principal axis of a spherical surface is as shown in figure.

OM = u = object distance
MI = v = image distance
MC = R = radius of curvature
Angle i = angle of incidence
Angle r = angle of refraction
ON = incident ray
NI = refracted ray
NC = normal to surface at N &
n1, n2 are the refractive indices
For small angles,
MN
tan ∠NOM = ≈ ∠NOM
OM
MN
tan ∠NCM = ≈ ∠NCM
MC
MN
tan ∠NIM = ≈ ∠NIM
MI
In ΔNOC, i is the exterior angle and  NOM &  NCM are interior opposite angles,
Therefore, i =  NOM +  NCM
MN MN
= + … … … … … (3)
OM MC
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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS
Similarly, In ΔNIC,  NCM = r +  NIM
r =  NCM −  NIM
MN MN
r= − … … … … … (4)
MC MI
Now, by Snell’s law, n1 sin i = n2 sin r
for small angles, n1 i = n2 r (since sin i  i and sin r  r)
Substituting i and r from Equations (3) and (4),
 MN MN   MN MN 
n1    = n2   
 OM MC   MC MI 
n n n n
⇒ + = −
OM MC MC MI
n n n −n
⇒ + = − − − −(5)
OM MI MC
Applying the Cartesian sign convention, OM = – u, MI = + v, MC = + R
Substituting these in Equation (5) and rearranging, we get
−
− = − − − −( )

Equation (6) gives us a relation between object and image distance in terms of refractive index of the
medium and the radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface.
RI of image space RI of object space RI of image space − RI of object space
− =
image distance object distance Radius of curvature

18. Derive of Lens Maker’s Formula.

Ans: Consider a thin convex lens of RI
n2 is placed in medium of RI n1.
Let,
R1 – radius of curvature of surface ABC
R2 – radius of curvature of surface ADC
O – point object on principal axis
I – final image of the object

The geometry of image formation by a double convex lens is as shown in figure.

The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps:-
(i) Refraction at surface ABC: The refraction at the surface ABC, forms the real image I1 in medium of
RI n2 of the point object placed in medium n1.
n n n −n
∴ − = − − − − − (1)
v ′ u R
(ii) Refraction at surface ADC: The image I1 (in medium of RI n2) acts as a virtual object for the
second surface ADC that forms the final real image at I in medium of RI n1.
n n n −n
− ′ =
v v R
n n n −n
− ′ =− − − − − − (2)
v v R
Adding Equations (1) and (2), we get
n n 1 1
− = (n − n ) −
v u R R

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1 1 n 1 1
− = −1 −
v u n R R
1 1 1 1
⇒ − =( − 1) − ∵ =
v u R R
Suppose the object is at infinity, i.e., u → ∞ then, v → f

∴ =( − ) − − − − − − (3)

This is lens maker’s formula

19. Derive expression for equivalent focal length of the two thin convex lenses in contact with each
other.
Ans:
Let,
A and B – two thin convex lenses
f1 – focal length of lens A
f2 – focal length of lens B
O – point object placed beyond focus of lens A

The geometry of image formation by combination of lenses is as shown in figure.

The image formation takes place in two stages.
(i) The first lens forms the real image at I1 of the object O. For the image formed by the first lens A,
1 1 1
− = − − − − − (1)
v u f
(ii) The image I1 acts as virtual object for the second lens B and the lens B forms final image I. For the
image formed by the second lens B,
1 1 1
− = − − − − − (2)
v v f
Adding Equations (1) and (2), we get
1 1 1 1
− = + − − − − − (3)
v u f f
If the two lens-systems is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, then,
1 1 1
− = − − − − − (4)
v u f
From equations (3) and (4)

= + − − − − − (5)

20. Derive the refractive index of material of prism in terms of its refracting angle A and angle of
minimum deviation Dm.
Ans: The refraction of a ray of light through
prism is as shown in figure.
Let, ABC = principal section of the prism
A = Refracting angle of the prism
PQ = incident ray
QR = refracted ray
RS = emergent ray
i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
r1 & r2 angles of refraction
In the quadrilateral AQNR,
 A +  QNR = 1800

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From the triangle QNR,
r1 + r2 +  QNR = 1800
Comparing these two equations,
r1+ r2 = A ....…..... (1)
The angle between the emergent ray RS and the direction of the incident ray PQ is called the angle of
deviation . The total deviation  is equal to the sum of deviations at the two faces,
δ = 1 + 2
δ = (i – r1) + (e – r2) = i + e – (r1+ r2)
i.e.,  = i + e – A ............. (2)

A plot between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence is

shown in Figure.
At the minimum deviation Dm,
We have,  = Dm, i = e which implies r1= r2
Equation (1) gives, 2r = A or r = A/2
( + )
Equation (2) gives, Dm = 2i – A or = 2
The refractive index of the prism from Snell’s law is
( + )
= = =

21. Derive the expression for fringe width of interference fringes using Young’s double slit
experiment.
Ans: Consider Young’s double slit arrangement for
obtaining interference fringes as shown in figure.
Let,
S1 and S2 - two coherent sources (Young’s double slits)
d – distance between slits
D – distance of screen from coherent sources/slits
O – center point on the screen and is equidistant from
S1 and S2

The path difference between the two light waves from S1 and S2 reaching the point O is zero. Thus the
point O has maximum intensity.
Consider a point P at a distance x from O.
The path difference between the light waves fromS1 and S2 reaching the point P is,  = S2P – S1P
2
 d
From the figure,  S2 P    S2 F    FP 
2 2 2 2
 D x  
 2
2
 d
Similarly S1P  2
  S1E    EP 
2 2 2
 D x  
 2
  d  
2
 d 
2
  S2 P    S1P    D 2   x      D 2   x   
2 2

  2     2  

 d2  d   d2  d 
  D2 + x 2   2  x      D2  x 2   2  x     = 2 xd
 4  2    4  2  
S2 P  S1P  S2 P + S1P  = 2 x d
2xd
S2 P  S1P  
 2  S1P 
S P

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Since P is very close to O and d<< D, therefore  S2 P + S1P   2D
2xd xd
Path difference,  S2 P  S1P  = = ……………… (1)
2D D
Equation (1) represents the path difference between light waves from S1 and S2 superposing at the
point P.
For constructive interference, S2P – S1P = n λ ; where, n = 0, 1, 2 ...
xd  λD
=nλ or x  n  
D  d 
 D 
i.e., The distance of the nth bright fringe from the centre O of the screen is xn  n  
 d 
 D 
The distance of (n + 1)th bright fringe from the centre of the screen is xn 1  ( n  1 )  
 d 
The distance between the centers of any two consecutive bright fringes is called the fringe width of
bright fringes. The fringe width is given by,
 λD  λ D  λD
β = x n+1  x n = (n+1)    n =
 d   d  d

∴ =
Similarly for dark fringes also we obtain the same expression for fringe width.

22. Write the experimental observations of photoelectric effect. ( 3/5 M )

Ans: The experimental observations of photoelectric effect are,
1) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
2) For every photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the
incident radiation below which there is no photoelectric emission. This minimum frequency is
called the threshold frequency.
3) Above threshold frequency, the photo current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
4) Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
5) Above the threshold frequency, saturation current is proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
6) The photo current decreases with increase in negative potential of collector and reaches zero at a
negative potential known as stopping potential.

23. Write the Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Using the equation, explain any two experimental
observations of photoelectric effect. (3/5 M)
Ans: Albert radiation energy is built up of discrete units called quanta of energy of radiation. Each
quantum of radiation has energy E= hν,
Where, h is Planck’s constant and ν- the frequency of light.
In photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a quantum of energy (hν) of radiation and the electron is
emitted with maximum kinetic energy:
Kmax = hν – ϕo where, ϕo – work function
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
(i) According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Kmax depends linearly on frequency ν and Kmax is
independent of intensity of radiation.
(ii) Since Kmax must be non-negative, photoelectric emission is possible only if hν > or ν > ν0. Thus,
there exists a threshold frequency νo for every metal surface, below which no photoelectric
emission is possible.

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(iii) Intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of photons per unit area per unit time. The
greater the number of photons available, the greater is the number of electrons coming out of the
metal.
Therefore, (for frequencies ν>νo) photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of
incident radiation.
(iv) According to Einstein, the photoelectric effect is instantaneous process. This is because
photoelectric effect process involves absorption of light quantum by single electron, which takes
place instantaneously.
In this way Einstein’s theory successfully explains the experimental observations of photo electric
effect.

24. Obtain the expression for radius of nth orbit of H-atom, by using the postulates of Bohr atomic
model.
Ans: Consider a atom with effective nuclear charge +Ze. Let an electron revolves
around the nucleus with speed v in the orbit of radius r as shown in figure.
The necessary centripetal force on electron is provided by the electrostatic force
between the electron and the nucleus. Therefore we have,
centripetal force = electrostatic force
1 .
=
4

= − − − (1)
4
From Bohr’s angular momentum quantization rule,
ℎ
=
2
ℎ
= − − − (2)
4
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1) we have,
ℎ 4
= ×
4
ℎ ℎ
= ⟹ =

ℎ
For n orbit, =

ℎ
For H atom Z = 1 and for n orbit, =

25. Obtain the expression for energy of the electron in the nth orbit of H-atom, by using the
postulates of Bohr atomic model.
Ans: Consider a atom with effective nuclear charge +Ze. Let the electron revolves
around the nucleus with speed v in the orbit of radius r as shown in figure.

The necessary centripetal force on electron is provided by the electrostatic force

between the electron and the nucleus. Therefore we have,
centripetal force = electrostatic force.
1 .
=
4
1 1 1
=
2 2 4
1 1
= − − − (1)
2 4

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PE of the electron = ( potential at a distance r from the nucleus) (-e)
1
= (− )
4
1
=− − − − (2)
4
Total energy of the electron in the orbit of radius r is, E = KE + PE
1 1 1 1 1
∴ E= − = −1
2 4 4 4 2
1
E=−
8
n h ε
The radius of the orbit is given by, r=
π m Ze
1 1 π m Ze
E=− =−
8 n h ε 8 n h ε
π m Ze
πmZ e
E=−
8ε n h
πmZ e
For n orbit, E =−
8ε n h
For hydrogen atom Z = 1 & for nth orbit
me
E =−
8ε n h

26. Write a note on spectral series of hydrogen atom.

Ans: On the basis transition of electrons between orbits, the radiations emitted are classified into five
spectral series as follows.
1. Lyman series: Spectral lines of Lyman series are obtained when the electrons make transitions from
higher orbits to the 1st orbit. The wavelength of emitted photon is given by the relation,
1 1 1
= − = 2, 3, 4 ….
1
This series lies in UV region.
2. Balmer series: Spectral lines of Balmer series are obtained when the electrons make transitions from
higher orbits to the 2nd orbit. The wavelength of emitted photon is given by the relation,
1 1 1
= − = 3, 4, 5 ….
2
This series lies in Visible region.

3. Paschen series: Spectral lines of Paschen series are obtained when the electrons make transitions
from higher orbits to the 3rd orbit. The wavelength of emitted photon is given by the relation,
1 1 1
= − = 4, 5, 6 ….
3
This series lies in near Infrared region.
4. Bracket series: Spectral lines of Bracket series are obtained when the electrons make transitions from
higher orbits to the 4th orbit. The wavelength of emitted photon is given by relation,
1 1 1
= − = 5, 6, 7 ….
4
This series lies in middle Infrared region.
5. Pfund series: Spectral lines of Pfund series are obtained when the electrons make transitions from
higher orbits to the 5th orbit. The wavelength of emitted photon is given by relation,
1 1 1
= − = 6, 7, 8 ….
5
This series lies in far Infrared region.

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27. State radioactive decay law and hence deduce the expression, = .
Ans: “The rate of radioactive disintegration is directly proportional to the number of radioactive
nuclei present in the sample at that instant of time”.
Let N be the number of atoms present in a radioactive sample at any instant of time t. If dN is the
number of atom disintegrating in a short interval of time dt, then according to decay law
Rate of disintegration ∝ number of atoms present
∝

= −λ

= −λ − − − − − (1)

Where, λ −decay constant and –ve sign shows that number of radioactive nuclei in the radioactive
sample decrease with time.
On integrating the equation (1)
= −λ
ln N = −λ + ---------- (3) Where ‘c’ is constant of integration
Let initialy at time t = 0, the nuclei in the sample N = N0
Then ln N0 = −λ(0) + ⇒ c = ln N0
∴ eqn. (3) changes as
ln N = −λt + ln N or ln N − ln N = − λt
N
ln = −λt
N
taking exponential on both sides
N λ
=
N
=

28. Define half life of radioactive sample and obtain the expression for half life. (3/5 M)
Ans: Half-life of a radioactive sample is defined as ‘the time during which number of nuclei in a
radioactive sample reduce to half the original value’.
From law of radioactive decay we have, N = N e λ -------- (1)
Where, N – number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at time t
N0 – number of nuclei at time t = 0
λ – decay constant
N
When, during time t = T (half life), number of radioactive nuclei in the sample, = 20
N λ
∴ = N e
2
1 1
⟹ = λ
2 e
λ
⟹ e = 2,
taking log on both sides
λT = log 2
.
=

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29. Explain the formation of energy bands in solids. Using band theory differentiate between
conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Ans: In an isolated atom the electron exist in discrete energy levels. But when the atoms come together
to form a solid, the outer orbits of electrons from neighbouring atoms would come very close or could
even overlap. Because of this, energy levels of each electron will be very close to each other. The group
of such energy levels forming continuous energy variation are called energy bands.
 The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the valence band.
 The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band. The conduction band will be
filled by conduction electrons.
 The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called the energy
band gap (Energy gap Eg). It may be large, small, or zero, depending upon the material.

Conductors Semiconductor Insulator

Conduction and Valance band Conduction and Valance band Conduction and Valance band
are overlapped are separated by small energy are separated by large energy
gap (Eg< 3 eV) gap (Eg> 3 eV)
Conduction band is largely Conduction band is partially Conduction band is
filled by conduction electrons filled by conduction electrons completely empty
Their electrical conductivity is Their electrical conductivity The electrical conductivity is
very high lies between conductors and not possible.
insulators
Their Conductivity decreases Their Conductivity increases Their Conductivity is
with increase in temperature with increase in temperature independent of temperature
Ex: Metals and their alloys Ex: Si, Ge Ex: Plastic, rubber, glass

Conduction Band

Conduction Band Eg ~ 6 eV
Conduction Band
Energy

Energy

Energy
Eg ~ 1 eV
Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

30. What is half wave rectifier? Describe with a circuit diagram, the working of a diode as half wave
rectifier.
Ans: The device that converts half cycle of ac input into dc is called half wave rectifier.

Half wave rectifier circuit is as shown in figure.

The ac to be rectified is applied to the primary (P) of
the transformer and induced ac appears across the
secondary. A diode D and the load resistor RL are
connected in series to the free ends of the secondary of
the transformer. The output is taken across RL.

 During positive half cycle of the induced ac, the end A of

secondary is positive thus the diode D is forward biased.
Hence the diode conducts and the output appears across RL.
 During negative half cycle of the induced ac, the end A of
secondary is negative, thus the diode D is reverse biased.
Hence the diode do not conducts and no output appears
across RL.
 The cycle of rectifications repeats and the graphical
representation of input and out wave forms as in fig.
Thus the diode conducts only positive half cycles of input ac
cycle and hence it acts as half wave rectifier.

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31. What is full wave rectifier? Explain how diodes can be used as a full-wave rectifier.
Ans: A device that converts both the half cycles of ac into dc is called full wave rectifier.
Full wave rectifier circuit is as shown in figure. The ac to
be rectified is applied to the primary (P) of the
transformer and the induced ac appears across the
secondary. The diodes D1 and D2 are connected to the
free ends of the secondary of the transformer. The n-
regions of the diodes are connected to the center tap of
the transformer through a load resistance RL.
 During positive half cycle of the ac input, the end A of
secondary is positive relative to center tap and the end B is
negative. Thus the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased. Hence the diode D1 conducts and the output
appears across RL.
 During negative half cycle of the ac input, the end A of
secondary is negative relative to center tap and the end B is
positive. Thus the diode D1 is reverse biased and D2 is
forward biased. Hence the diode D2 conducts and the output
appears across RL.
 The cycle of rectifications repeats and the graphical
representation of input and out wave forms as in fig.
Thus both the halves of input AC is converted into DC and hence
the device works as full wave rectifier.

32. Describe with a circuit diagram the working of an amplifier using an npn transistor in CE
configuration.
Ans: Amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of given signal and hence increases the
strength of the signal.
Transistor as an amplifier is operated only in active region of its transfer characteristics. Hence the
‘operating voltage’ is fixed in the middle of the active region. The operating values of VCE and IB
determine the operating point of the amplifier.

The circuit of CE amplifier employing npn transistor is as shown in figure. Here C1 and C2 are coupling
capacitors which block DC and allow only AC.
Applying Kirchhoff’s laws for input and output circuits, we have
VBB = IB RB + VBE -------- (1)
VCE = VCC – IC RC -------- (2)
A small sinusoidal voltage of amplitude vi is superposed on the DC base bias VBB (so input
voltage = vi + VBB) and output is taken across collector and emitter (output voltage V0 = VCE).
 During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal the emitter-base voltage increases. As a result
the input current IB increases and hence the output current IC also increases. Consequently the
voltage drop across RC increases. The output voltage V0 becomes less positive i.e., the amplified
output signal goes through a negative half cycle.

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 Similarly during negative half cycle of the input AC, input voltage decreases, IB decreases and IC also
decreases. As a result voltage across RC also decreases. But the output voltage V0 goes through a
positive half cycle. Thus the output voltage V0 = VCE is out of phase by 1800 with the input voltage vi.
The voltage gain of the amplifier is given by
−
= where, = current ampli ication factor.

33. Explain the working of transistor as a switch. (3/5 M)

Ans: The npn transistor in CE mode is as shown in figure.

Transistor as a switch operates only in cut-off state and saturation state without remaining in
active state. The switching circuits are designed in such a way that the transistor does not remain in
active state.
Applying Kirchhoff’s laws for input and output circuits, we have
Vi = VBB = IB RB + VBE -------- (1)
V0 = VCE = VCC – IC RC -------- (2)
 When Vi = low i.e less than cut-in voltage (for Si transistor Vi < 0.6 V), the input current IB = 0 and
consequently output current IC = 0. From equation (2) we have V0 = VCC and the transistor is
switched off. The transistor is said to be cut-off state.
 When Vi = high (for Si transistor Vi > 1 V), the transistor is in conducting. The output current IC =
maximum and output voltage V0 = minimum. The transistor is switched on and the transistor is
said to be in saturation region.
When the transistor is not conducting it is said to be switched off and when it is driven into saturation it
is said to be switched on. This shows that if we define low and high states as below and above certain
voltage levels corresponding to cut off and saturation of the transistor, then we can say that a low input
switches the transistor OFF and a high input switches it ON.

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IMPT. ADDITIONAL 3/5 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
Sub : Physics Class : II PUC

1. Deduce the expressions for radius, angular frequency and time period of circular motion of a
charged particle in uniform magnetic field. (3/5 M)
Ans: Consider a particle of mass m charge q entering uniform
magnetic field B in a direction perpendicular to the field. The
magnetic force makes the path of charged particle circular of
radius r in a plane perpendicular to the field. Hence the necessary
centripetal force FC is provided by the magnetic force FB.
=

∴ , =

If  is angular frequency of revolution, then = (∵ = )

∴ = ⇒ =
/
2
Also = =2 , where is frequency of revolution, ∴ =
2
1 2
The time period of charge moving in circular pathin magnetic ield, T = ⇒ =

2. With labeled diagram explain the construction and working of a cyclotron.

Ans:

Ans: Construction: A cyclotron consists of two hollow semicircular metal discs D1 and D2 called Dees.
A source of charged particle is located at the midpoint of the gap between the Dees. The Dees are
connected to a high frequency oscillator and enclosed inside another vacuum chamber. The whole
apparatus is placed between the pole pieces of strong electromagnet.
Working: In cyclotron the charged particle move in presence of both electric and magnetic fields that
perpendicular to each other. The electric field accelerates the charged particle and magnetic field
makes its path circular.
The charged particle or ion released from source P accelerates towards the Dee which is at lower
potential at that time and describe circular path inside the Dee due to the magnetic field. The
frequency of revolution of charged particle inside the cyclotron is called cyclotron frequency, given by
=
2
Where, q-charge of charged particle or ion, m-mass of charged particle & B-strength of magnetic field
In cyclotron the frequency of applied ac voltage is made equal to the cyclotron frequency. Hence the
charged particle accelerates every time while moving from one Dee to another. As the velocity of
charged particle increases, the radius of its circular path also increases. When the radius of circular

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orbit of charged particle is nearly equal to the radius of Dee, it is deflected from its path using
deflection plate and taken out of the Dee.
The final kinetic energy with which charged particle (ion) comes out from cyclotron is,
=
2
3. Show that the magnetic field at an outside axial point of the current carrying solenoid is
equivalent to a bar magnet.
Ans: Consider a solenoid consisting of n turns per
unit length carrying a current I. Let its length be 2l
and radius a.
Consider a circular element of thickness dx of the
solenoid at a distance x from the center of solenoid.
It consists of ndx turns.
We know that, the magnitude of the magnetic field
on the axis of a circular coil is given by,

= /
2( + )
Where N is the number of turns in the coil, R is the radius of the coil and x is the distance of the point on
the axis of the coil. Here, N  n dx, R  a and x  (r-x)].
The magnitude of the field at point P due to the circular element is

= /
2( − ) + ]
The magnitude of the total field is obtained by summing over all the elements — in other words by
integrating from x = – l to x = + l. Thus,

= /
2 ( − ) + ]

Let us consider the point P very far from the solenoid, i.e., ≫ and ≫ . Then the denominator is
] /
approximated by, ( − ) + ≈ and

2
= = ] = − (− )] =
2 2 2 2

2( 2 )
=
4
The magnetic moment of the solenoid is,
= total no. of turns × current × area of cross section = ( 2 ) ( )

∴ =

This is same as the far axial magnetic field of a bar magnet. Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce
similar magnetic fields. Therefore a bar magnet is equivalent to current carrying solenoid.

4. Differentiate between the properties of diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic

materials.
Diamagnetic Materials Paramagnetic Materials Ferromagnetic Materials
They are weakly repelled by They are weakly attracted by They are strongly attracted by
magnetic field. magnetic field. magnetic field.
In the external magnetic field, the In the external magnetic field, the In the external magnetic field, the
magnetic field lines are expelled magnetic field lines are magnetic field lines are highly
out of these materials. concentrated in these materials. concentrated in these materials.
Hence resultant magnetic field Hence resultant magnetic field Hence resultant magnetic field
inside diamagnetic reduces. inside paramagnetic increases. inside ferromagnetic increases.

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Their magnetic susceptibility is Their magnetic susceptibility is Their magnetic susceptibility is
low and negative ( < 0). low and positive ( > 0). high and positive ( ≫ 0).
Their relative permeability is less The relative permeability is The relative permeability is much
than one ( < 1) greater than one ( > 1) greater than one ( ≫ 1)
Their magnetic susceptibility ( ) is Their magnetic susceptibility ( ) Their magnetic susceptibility ( )
independent of temperature. decreases with increase in decreases with increase in
temperature. temperature and at certain high
temperature they become
paramagnetic.

5. What is an ac generator? Give the principle of generator. Derive the expression for generation
of sinusoidal emf by an ac generator. Draw the graph showing the variation of the induced emf
with time.
Ans: An ac generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle: One method to induce an emf or current in a loop is
through a change in the loop’s orientation or a change in its
effective area. As the coil rotates in a magnetic field , the effective
area of the loop (the face perpendicular to the field) is cos ,
where is the angle between and . This method of producing a
flux change is the principle of operation of a simple ac generator.
Construction: It consists of a coil mounted on a rotor shaft. The
axis of rotation of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field. The coil (called armature) is mechanically rotated
in the uniform magnetic field by some external means. The
rotation of the coil causes the magnetic flux through it to change,
so an emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil are connected
to an external circuit by means of slip rings and brushes.

Working/Theory: When the coil is rotated with a constant

angular speed ω, the angle θ between the magnetic field vector and the area vector of the coil at
any instant t is θ = ωt (assuming θ= 00 at t = 0). As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the
magnetic field lines changes with time, and the flux at any time t is
Φ = ∙ = cos = cos
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is then,
Φ
=− = (cos )

Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is

= sin
Where, NBAω is the maximum value of the emf, which occurs when sin = ±1 and is denoted as ,
then =
The direction of the emf and hence current changes periodically and therefore the current is called
alternating current (ac).
Since ω = 2πν, then we can write, =
where ν is the frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil.

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6. Explain
lain the construction, working and theory of a transformer.
Ans: A transformer is a device used to vary (step up or step down) AC voltages.
voltages
It works on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction
A transformer consists of two sets of coils,
insulatedd from each other. They are wound
on a soft-iron
iron core, either one on top of the
other as in Fig. (a) or on separate limbs of
the core as in Fig. (b). One of the coils called
the primary coil has Np turns. The other coil
is called the secondary coil;; it has Ns turns.
The primary coil is the input coil and the
secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.
Working
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current produces an alternating
magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in it. The value of this emf depends on the
number of turns in the secondary.
Theory of transformer/Expression for turns ratio
Consider an ideal transformer in which the primary has negligible resistance and all the flux in the core
links
nks both primary and secondary windings.
Let φ be the flux in each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a voltage vp is
applied to it. Then the induced emf or voltage εs, in the secondary with Ns turns is
=− − − − −(1)
The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary. This is
=− − − − −(2)
But = . If this were not so, the primary current would be infinite since the primary has zero
resistance (as assumed).
ed). If the secondary is an open circuit or the current taken from it is small, then to
a good approximation =
where vs is the voltage across the secondary. Therefore, Eqs. (1) and (2) can be written as
=− − − − −(3)

=− − − − −(4)
Dividing eq. (3) by (4), we have
= = called turns ratio.
ratio

 If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is equal to the
power output, and since = , ∴ = ⟹ =
Step-up transformer: For step up transformer, turns ratio T > 1, that is, the secondary coil has a
greater
ter number of turns than the primary ((Ns > Np), the voltage is stepped up (as = and
hence Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-up transformer.. However, in this arrangement,
there is less current in the second
secondary than in the primary (Np/Ns < 1 and Is < Ip).
Step-down transformer
For step down transformer, turns ratio T < 1, that is the secondary coil has less turns than the primary
(Ns < Np), we have a step-down
down transformer
transformer. In this case, Vs < Vp and Is > Ip. That is, the voltage is stepped
down, or reduced, and the current is increased.

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7. Using Huygens principle show that angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection for a
reflection of plane wave front at a plane surface.
Ans:
MN – reflecting surface
AB – Incident plane wave front
i – angle of incidence
v – speed of light in the medium

If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if τ represents the time taken by the wave
front to advance from the point B to C then the distance BC is, BC= vτ ----------- (1)
In order the construct the reflected wave front, a sphere of radius = vτ,
τ, is drawn from the point A as
shown in the adjacent figure. The tangent plane CE drawn from the point C to this sphere represents
reflected wave front.
 AE = BC = vτ , ABC=  CEA = 90o , AC is common.
Triangles EAC and BAC are congruent.
 i = r ----------- (2)
This is the law of reflection.

8. Explain the refraction of plane waves using Huygens principle and hence arrive at Snell
Snell’s law of
refraction. ( 5 M )
Ans:

PP - surface separating medium

medium-1 and
medium-2
v1 and v2 - speed of light in medium
medium-1 and
medium-2 respectively.

Consider a plane wave front AB incident in medium

medium-1 1 at angle ‘i’ on the surface PP . According to
Huygens principle, every point on the wave front AB is a source of secondary wavelets.
Let the secondary wavelet from B strike the surface PP at C in time .
Then BC = v1.
The secondary wavelet from A will travel a distance v2 as radius; draw an a arc in medium 2. The
tangent from C touches the arc at E. Then AE = v2 and CE is the refracted wave front. Let r be the angle
of refraction.
In the figure, BAC
BAC = i = angle of incidence and ECA
ECA = r = angle of refraction
BC = v1 and AE = v2

From triangle BAC, sin = and from triangle ECA, sin =

sin ⁄
∴ = = = = − − − − − (1)
sin ⁄
Now, refractive index (n) of a medium: = where c – speed of light in vacuum.

For the irst medium: = and for the second medium: = ⟹ =

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sin
Equation (1) becomes, = sin = sin
sin
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.

9. Give the theory of interference and hence arrive at the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference.
Ans: Consider two coherent sources of light S1 and S2.
Let the displacement produced by source S1 is, y1 = a cos (t)
and the displacement produced by source S2 is, y2 = a cos (t + )
where, a – amplitude of waves
 - phase difference between the waves.
The resultant displacement is, y = y1 + y2
y = [ a cos (t) +a cos (t + )]
y = a [cos (t + )+ cos (t)]
 t +   
y = 2a cos   cos   ; Using cos C + cos D = 2cos  C+D  .cos  C  D 
 2  2  2   2 
  
y = 2a cos   cos  ωt + 
2  2
 
y = R cos  ωt +  ----------- (1)
 2

The amplitude of the resultant displacement is R = 2a cos   --------- (2)
2
The intensity at a point is, Intensity ∝ (amplitude)2

∴ The intensity at that a point will be, I = 4I0 cos2   ---------- (3)
2
Where, I0 – intensity of interfering individual wave
Conditions for Constructive Interference:
For the constructive interference at an arbitrary point P, the intensity of light at that point is to be
maximum, i.e. Imax = 4I0
 
⟹ cos2   = +1 ⟹ cos  = ± 1
2 2
OR phase difference,  = 0,  2,  4 …. Or  =  
OR path difference:  =  , (Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..)
Conditions for Destructive Interference:
For the destructive interference at an arbitrary point P, the intensity of light at that point is to be
minimum, i.e. Imin = 0
 
⟹ cos2  = 0 ⟹ cos  = 0
2 2
OR phase difference,  =  ,  3,  5 …. Or  = ( + )

OR path difference: = + , (Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..)

10. What is diffraction of light? Explain diffraction of light at single slit. (3/5 M)
Ans: The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the edges (or corners) of the obstacles and
entering into the expected geometrical shadow of the obstacle is called diffraction of light.
Consider a parallel beam of light falling normally on a single narrow slit LN of width a. The different
parts of the wave front at the slit act as secondary sources of disturbance. The secondary waves
(diffracted light) from the slit, interfere producing diffraction pattern on the screen.

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Prepared by VIJAY KUMAR HS, Lecturer in Physics II PUC PHYSICS

When single narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic source, a broad pattern with a central bright
region is seen. On both sides of central fringe, there are alternate dark and bright regions; the
intensity becomes weaker away from the centre, as shown in intensity distribution curve.
The path difference between the two edges of the slit L and N at a point P on screen is,
NP – LP = NQ = a sin θ ≈ aθ
Formation of central fringe:
At the central point O on the screen, secondary waves from corresponding parts of the slit arrive in
phase (the all path differences of secondary waves are zero) and this gives maximum intensity at O.
Hence the intensity has a central maximum at θ = 0.
Conditions for Secondary maxima:
1λ
The Secondary maxima are produced at θ   n+
 , n = ±1, ±2, ±3, …
2a
3λ
For first secondary maximum: n=1, this implies, θ   
2a 
nλ
Condition for minima: The Minima (zero intensity) is produced at θ  , n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
a

11. Define Brewster’s angle and hence arrive at the Brewster’s law of polarisation.
Ans: The tangent of the Brewster’s angle (iB) is equal to refractive index (n) of the material of the
reflector, i.e., n=tan iB
When the angle of incidence on a surface is equal to the Brewster’s angle, the reflected and refracted
rays are perpendicular to each other.
Proof: Consider a beam of an unpolarised light incident at an angle equal to the Brewster’s angle iB on
the surface of a transparent material having refractive index n.
PO is the ray of light incident on the surface of glass slab of refractive index n at an angle iB, the
Brewster’s angle. OQ is the reflected ray, which is completely polarized. OR is the refracted ray and is
partially polarised. Let r be the angle of refraction.
It is observed that the reflected and the refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
i.e. QOR = 90 -------- (1)
From laws of reflection, POM =MOQ = iB
From the figure,
MOQ + QOR + RON = 180
iB + 900 + r = 1800
 r + iB = 900
 r = 90  iB --------- (2)
sin i sin i B
From Snell’s law, n = =
sin r sin r
sin i B sin i B
 n= 
sin (90o  i B ) cos i B
 n = tan iB
This is Brewster’s law.

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