NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY, KARACHI-75270

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
By

Dr. Amanullah Marri

Associate Professor
SYLLABUS

1. Classification and general aspects of

construction materials
2. Concrete materials
3. Metals and alloys
4. Natural stones, bricks and tiles
5. Timber
6. Rubber, plastic and bituminous materials
7. Insulating materials
2
BOOKS

1) Engineering Materials by R. K. Rajput

2) Advance concrete technology by John Newman
and Ban Seng Choo
3) Concrete technology Theory and practice by
M. S. Shetty

3
CEMENT
WHAT IS CEMENT

Material with adhesive and cohesive

properties

Any material that binds or unites-essentially like

glue.
FUNCTION OF CEMENT

to bind the sand and coarse aggregate

together

to fill voids in between sand and coarse

aggregate particle

to form a compact mass

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Good quality cement posses the following properties

(which depend upon its chemical composition,
thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding).
1. Provide strength to masonry.

2. Stiffens or hardens easily.

3. Possesses good plasticity.

4. Easily workable.

5. Good to moisture resistant.

7
TYPES OF CEMENT

There are mainly two types of cement, normally

used in building industry are as follows:
a) Hydraulic Cement
b) Non hydraulic Cement
HYDRAULIC CEMENT

 Hydraulic Cement sets and hardens by action

of water, such as Portland Cement
 In other words it means that hydraulic
cement are:
 Any cements that turns into a solid product
in the presence of water as well as air,
resulting in a material that does not
disintegrate in water.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT

Most common Hydraulic Cement is Portland Cement

NONHYDRAULIC CEMENT

 Any cement that does not require water to

transform it into a solid product.
 Two common Non hydraulic Cement are

a) Lime - derived from limestone / chalk

b) Gypsum
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT

1) Lime (CaO)
2) Silica (SiO2)
3) Alumina (Al2O3)
4) Iron oxide ((Fe2O3)
5) Magnesium oxide (MgO)
6) Sulphur trioxide (SO3)

12
PRINCIPAL MINERALS IN CEMENT

13
PORTLAND CEMENT

Chemical composition of Portland Cement:

a) Tricalcium Silicate C3S (50%)
b) Dicalcium Silicate C2S (25%)
c) Tricalcium Aluminate C3A (10%)
d) Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite C4AF (10%)
e) Gypsum (CaSO4 ·2H2 O) (5%)
FUNCTION :TRICALCIUM SILICATE
 Hardens rapidly and largely responsible for
initial set & early strength
 The increase in percentage of this
compound will cause the early strength of
Portland Cement to be higher.
 A bigger percentage of this compound will
produces higher heat of hydration and
accounts for faster gain in strength.
FUNCTION :DICALCIUM SILICATE
Hardens slowly
It effects on strength increases occurs at ages
beyond one week
Responsible for long term strength
FUNCTION :TRICALCIUM ALUMINATE

Contributes to strength development in the first few

days because it is the first compound to hydrate.

It turns out higher heat of hydration and contributes

to faster gain in strength.

But it results in poor sulfate resistance and

increases the volumetric shrinkage upon drying.
FUNCTION :TRICALCIUM ALUMINATE

Cements with low Tricalcium Aluminate contents

usually generate less heat, develop higher strengths
and show greater resistance to sulfate attacks.

It has high heat generation and reactive with soils

and water containing moderate to high sulfate
concentrations so it’s least desirable.
FUNCTION : TETRACALCIUM ALUMINOFERRITE

Assist in the manufacture of Portland Cement

By allowing lower clinkering temperature also act as

a filler

Contributes very little strength of concrete even

though it hydrates very rapidly.

Also responsible for grey colour of Ordinary Portland

Cement
WET PROCESS
 Raw materials are homogenized by crushing,
grinding and blending so that approximately 80%
of the raw material pass a No. 200 sieve.
 The mix will be turned into form of slurry by adding
30 - 40% of water.
 It is then heated to about 2750º F (1510º C) in
horizontal revolving kilns (76-153 m length and
3.6-4.8 m in diameter.
WET PROCESS

 Natural gas, petroleum or coal are used for

burning. High fuel requirement may make it
uneconomical compared to dry process.
 DRY PROCESS

Raw materials are homogenized by crushing, grinding and

blending so that approximately 80% of the raw material pass a
No. 200 sieve.

Mixture is fed into kiln & burned in a dry state

This process provides considerable savings in fuel

consumption and water usage but the process is dustier
compared to wet process that is more efficient than grinding.
DRY PROCESS & WET PROCESS
 In the kiln, water from the raw material is
driven off and limestone is decomposed into
lime and Carbon Dioxide.
limestone lime + Carbon Dioxide
 In the burning zone, portion of the kiln,
silica and alumina from the clay undergo a
solid state chemical reaction with lime to
produce calcium Aluminate.
silica & alumina + lime calcium Aluminate
DRY PROCESS & WET PROCESS

The rotation and shape of kiln allow the blend to flow down
the kiln, submitting it to gradually increasing temperature.

As the material moves through hotter regions in the kiln,

calcium silicates are formed

These products, that are black or greenish black in color

are in the form of small pellets, called cement clinkers

Cement clinkers are hard, irregular and ball shaped

particles about 18 mm in diameter.
DRY PROCESS & WET PROCESS
The cement clinkers are cooled to about 150ºF (150ºF)
and stored in clinker silos.

When needed, clinker are mixed with 2-5% gypsum to

retard the setting time of cement when it is mixed with
water.

Then, it is grounded to a fine powder and then the cement

is stored in storage bins or cement silos or bagged.

Cement bags should be stored on pallets in a dry place.

26
TYPES OF CEMENT

ASTM classification and general classification

According to ASTM classification, cement is
designated as Type I, Type II, Type III, Type IV, Type
V and other minor types like Type IS, Type IP and
Type IA IIA and IIIA.

27
ASTM CLASSIFICATION
Type I-For use in general concrete construction where the special properties specified for
types II, III, IV, and V are not required. Type I is also called ordinary Portland cement (OPC).

Type II-For use in general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulphate action, or
where moderate heat of hydration is required.

Type III For use when high early strength is required (Rapid hardening cement).

Type IV-For use when low heat of hydration is required (Low Heat Cement)

Type V-For use when high sulphate resistance is required (Sulphate resisting cement).

28
TYPES OF CEMENT
1. Ordinary Portland Cement 10. Coloured Cement
2. Rapid Hardening Cement 11. Hydrophobic cement
3. Extra Rapid Hardening 12. Masonry Cement
Cement 13. Expansive Cement
4. Sulphate Resisting Cement 14. IRS-T 40 Special Grade
5. Quick Setting Cement Cement
6. Super Sulphated Cement 15. Oil-Well Cement
7. Low Heat Cement 16. Rediset Cement
8. Portland Pozzolana Cement 17. High Alumina Cement
9. Air-Entraining Cement 18. High Early Strength
Cement
29
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most important type of
cement.
 The OPC was classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43
grade and 53 grade depending upon the strength of the
cement at 28 days when tested as per IS 4031-1988.
 If the 28 days strength is not less than 33 N/mm2, it is called
33 grade cement,
 if the strength is not less than 43 N/mm2, it is called 43 grade
cement, and
 If the strength is not less than 53 N/mm2, it is called 53 grade
cement.

30
MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The three primary constituents of the raw

materials used in the manufacture of Portland
Cement are:
• Lime
• Silica
• Alumina

Lime is derived from limestone or chalk, Silica

& Alumina from clay, shale or bauxite
MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT
There are two chief aspects of the manufacturing
process:
 First to produce a finely divided mixture of raw
materials – chalk / limestone and clay / shale
 Second to heat this mixture to produce chemical
composition
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT
 This is similar to ordinary Portland cement.
 The rapid rate of developing strength is attributed to
the higher fineness of grinding, higher C3S and lower
C2S content.
 Should not be used in mass concrete construction

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EXTRA RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

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EXTRA RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

35
SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT

36
SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT

37
QUICK SETTING CEMENT

38
LOW HEAT CEMENT

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SIEVES

40
SIEVES

41
CEMENT MANUFACTURING

42
EXTRACTION OF RAW MATERIALS

43
GRINDING AND STORAGE OF RAW MATERIALS

44
THE FIRING OF RAW MATERIALS

45
CEMENT CLINKERS
STORAGE AND GRINDING OF CEMENT

47
CEMENT

48
PACKING

49
PACKING AND SHIPMENT

50
SETTING AND HARDENING OF CEMENT

When cement is mixed with water a stiff and sticky paste is formed, which
remains plastic for a short period. With the passage of time the plasticity
gradually disappears and the cement paste become stiff due to initial
hydration of cement. This phenomenon by virtue of which the plastic cement
changes into a soil mass is known as setting of cement.

Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical
reactions still only partly understood. The different constituents slowly
crystallise and the interlocking of their crystals gives cement its strength.
Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert the portlandite (Ca(OH)2) into
insoluble calcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersion in warm
water will speed up setting. In Portland cement, gypsum is added as a
compound preventing cement flash setting.

51
SETTING AND HARDENING OF CEMENT

On setting the cement binds the

aggregates into a solid mass which gain
strength as the time lapses, till the
hydration of cement is complete. Thus,
the phenomenon by virtue of which the
cement paste, which is finally set,
develops strength is known as
hardening of cement.

52
STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST

The standard consistency of a cement paste is

defined as that consistency which will permit a
Vicat plunger having 10 mm diameter and 50
mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm
from the top of the mould. The apparatus is
called Vicat Apparatus. This apparatus is used to
find out the percentage of water required to
produce a cement paste of standard consistency.
The standard consistency of the cement paste is
some time called normal consistency (CPNC).

53
SETTING TIME TEST

An arbitrary division has been made for the setting

time of cement as initial setting time and final setting
time. It is difficult to draw a rigid line between these
two arbitrary divisions. For convenience, initial setting
time is regarded as the time elapsed between the
moment that the water is added to the cement, to the
time that the paste starts losing its plasticity. The final
setting time is the time elapsed between the moment
the water is added to the cement, and the time when
the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has
attained sufficient firmness to resist certain definite
pressure.
54
SETTING TIME TEST

Prepare a cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85 times the
water required to give a paste of standard consistency.

Start a stop-watch, the moment water is added to the cement.

Fill the Vicat mould completely with the cement paste gauged as
above, the mould resting on a non-porous plate and smooth off the
surface of the paste making it level with the top of the mould. The
cement block thus prepared in the mould is the test block.

55
VICAT APPARATUS

56
VICAT APPARATUS

57
SETTING TIME TEST

INITIAL SETTING TIME:-Place the test block under the

rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently in
order to make contact with the surface of the cement
paste and release quickly, allowing it to penetrate the
test block. Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to
pierce the test block to a point 5.0 ± 0.5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. The time
period elapsing between the time, water is added to
the cement and the time, the needle fails to pierce the
test block by 5.0 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom
of the mould, is the initial setting time.

58
SETTING TIME TEST

FINAL SETTING TIME:-Replace the above needle

by the one with an annular attachment. The
cement should be considered as finally set
when, upon applying the needle gently to the
surface of the test block, the needle makes an
impression therein, while the attachment fails to
do so. The period elapsing between the time,
water is added to the cement and the time, the
needle makes an impression on the surface of
the test block, while the attachment fails to do
so, is the final setting time.
59
AGGREGATES

60
AGGREGATES

Aggregate is the component of

a composite material that
resists compressive stress and
provides bulk to the composite
material. Typically include both
sand and gravel.

61
AGGREGATES
Essentially aggregates can refer to any granular material formed from a
natural rock substance. It is usually further defined either:

By its source: primary, secondary, recycled

By its geology: limestone, granite, sand and gravel, etc,

By its grading: coarse, fine,

By its end use: concrete aggregates, etc.

Mostly confined to sand, gravel and rock chippings.

62
CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite construction material,

composed of cement (commonly Portland
cement) and other cementitious materials
such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate
(generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel
or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite,
plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water and
chemical admixtures.

63
TERMINOLOGIES

Workability

Flowability

Compactability

Stability

Pumpability
64
WORKABILITY

Workability-that property of freshly mixed concrete or

mortar which determines the ease and homogeneity
with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and
finished is called the workability of concrete (ACI).

Workability depends on water content, aggregate

(shape and size distribution), cementitious content
and age (level of hydration) and can be modified by
adding chemical admixtures, like super plasticizer.

65
WORKABILITY

Raising the water content or adding

chemical admixtures will increase
concrete workability. Excessive water will
lead to increased bleeding (surface
water) and/or segregation of aggregates
(when the cement and aggregates start
to separate), with the resulting concrete
having reduced quality.
66
WORKABILITY

The use of an aggregate with an undesirable

gradation can result in a very harsh mix design
with a very low slump, which cannot be readily
made more workable by addition of reasonable
amounts of water.
Workability can be measured by the concrete
slump test, a simplistic measure of the plasticity
of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C
143 or EN 12350-2 test standards.
67
FLOWABILITY

Flowability-The flowability of self consolidating

concrete (SCC) is measured in terms of spread
when using a modified version of the slump test
(ASTM C 143). The spread (slump flow) of SCC
typically ranges from 18 to 32 inches (455 to
810 mm).

68
FLOWABILITY

Compactability- The ease by which a concrete can

be compacted is called Compactability.
Pumpability- the ease by which concrete slurry
can be pumped to the point to the placement is
called the Pumpability.

69
COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE

the main ingredients of concrete are

 Cement

 Water

 Aggregates (i.e., coarse aggregate and fine

aggregate)
 Reinforcement

 Chemical admixtures

70
MIXING CONCRETE

Mixing concrete correctly is vital for durable and

long lasting foundations. Thorough mixing is
essential for the production of uniform, high
quality concrete. For this reason equipment and
methods should be capable of effectively mixing
concrete materials containing the largest
specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures
of the lowest slump practical for the work.

71
MIXING CONCRETE
Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing
of cement and water into a paste before
combining these materials with aggregates can
increase the compressive strength of the
resulting concrete. The paste is generally mixed
in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm
(water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass.
The cement paste premix may include admixtures
such as accelerators or retarders,
superplasticizers, pigments, or silica fume.
72
MIXING CONCRETE
The premixed paste is then blended with
aggregates and any remaining batch water and
final mixing is completed in conventional
concrete mixing equipment.

73
CONCRETE MIXING

74
CONCRETE MIXING

75
PLACING AND COMPACTION
The methods chosen for placing and compacting
the concrete will depend on the type of
construction, the total volume to be placed, the
required rate of placing and the preferences and
expertise of the construction companies involved.
There are, however, several basic rules which
should be followed to ensure that the concrete is
properly placed and compacted into a uniform,
void free mass once it has been delivered to the
formwork in a satisfactory state:
76
PLACING AND COMPACTION

The concrete should be discharged as close as possible to its final

position, preferably straight into the formwork;

A substantial free-fall distance will encourage segregation and should

therefore be avoided;

With deep pours, the rate of placing should be such that the layer of
concrete below that being placed should not have set; this will ensure full
continuity between layers, and avoid cold joints and planes of weakness in
the hardened concrete;

77
PLACING AND COMPACTION

Once the concrete is in place, vibration, either internal or

external, should be used to mould the concrete around
embedment e.g. reinforcement, and to eliminate pockets
of entrapped air, but the vibration should not be used to
move the concrete into place;

High-workability mixes should not be over vibrated – this

may cause segregation.

78
PLACING AND COMPACTION

79
TYPES OF CONCRETE
1) Regular concrete
2) High-strength concrete
3) high-performance concrete
4) Self-consolidating concretes
5) Vacuum concretes
6) Shotcrete
7) Pervious concrete
8) Stamped concrete

80
REGULAR CONCRETE
Regular concrete- is the lay term describing
concrete that is produced by following the mixing
instructions that are commonly published on
packets of cement, typically using sand or other
common material as the aggregate, and often
mixed in improvised containers. This concrete
can be produced to yield a varying strength from
about 10 MPa (1450 psi) to about 40 MPa (5800
psi), depending on the purpose, ranging from
blinding to structural concrete respectively.
81
82
REGULAR CONCRETE

83
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
It is a type of high performance concrete
generally with a specified compressive strength
of 6000 psi (40 MPa) or greater. High strength
concrete is required to:
 Put concrete into service at much earlier age,
for example opening the pavement at 3-days
 To build high-rise buildings by reducing
columns sizes and increasing available space.
etc.

84
 High-Strength Concrete
 90% of ready-mix concrete
20 MPa - 40 MPa (3000 –
6000 psi) @ 28-d
(most 30 MPa – 35 MPa)

 High-strength concrete
by definition —
28 day – compr. strength
70 MPa (10,000 psi)
High-Value
Concrete
 High-Strength Concrete Materials
Aggregates —
 9.5 - 12.5 mm (3/8 - 1/2 in.) nominal
maximum size gives optimum
strength
 Combining single sizes for required
grading allows for closer control and
reduced variability in concrete
 For 70 MPa and greater, the FM of
the sand should be 2.8 – 3.2. (lower
may give lower strengths and sticky
High-Value mixes)
Concrete
 High-Strength Concrete Materials

Supplementary Cementing Materials —

 Fly ash, silica fume, or slag often

mandatory
 Dosage rate 5% to 20% or higher
by mass of cementing material.

High-Value
Concrete
 High-Strength Concrete Materials
Admixtures —
 Use of water reducers, retarders,
HRWRs, or superplasticizers —
mandatory in high-strength concrete
 Air-entraining admixtures not necessary
or desirable in protected high-strength
concrete.
 Air is mandatory, where durability in a
freeze-thaw environment is required (i.e..
bridges, piers, parking structures)
 Recent studies:
 w/cm ≥ 0.30—air required
High-Value  w/cm < 0.25—no air needed
Concrete
 High-Strength Concrete
Placing, Consolidation, and Curing
 Delays in delivery and placing
must be eliminated
 Consolidation very important to
achieve strength
 Slump generally 180 to 220 mm (7 to 9
in.)
 Little if any bleeding—fog or
evaporation retarders have to be
applied immediately after strike off to
minimize plastic shrinkage and crusting
High-Value  7 days moist curing
Concrete
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

90
HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
High performance concrete (HPC) has been defined as concrete
that possesses high workability, high strength and high
durability.
High Performance Concrete (HPC) is a concrete made with
appropriate materials combined according to a selected mix
design; properly mixed, transported, placed, consolidated and
cured so that the resulting concrete will give excellent
performance in the structure in which it is placed, in the
environment to which it is exposed and with the loads to which
it will be subject for its design life.
The primary application for HPC have been structures requiring
long service lives such as oil drilling platform, long span bridges
and parking structures. HPC still requires good construction
practice and good curing to deliver high performance.

91
HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE

Lightweight high performance concrete was used for

the cast-in-place superstructure segments. 92
 Characteristics of High-
Performance Concretes
 High early strength
 High strength
 High modulus of elasticity
 High abrasion resistance
 High durability and long life in
severe environments
 Low permeability and diffusion
High-Value  Resistance to chemical attack
Concrete
 Characteristics of High-
Performance Concretes
 High resistance to frost and
deicer scaling damage
 Toughness and impact
resistance
 Volume stability
 Ease of placement
 Compaction without
segregation
 Inhibition of bacterial and
High-Value mold growth
Concrete
 Materials Used in High-
Performance Concrete
Material Primary Contribution/Desired Property
Portland cement Cementing material / Durability
Blended cement
Cementing material /
Fly ash / Slag / Silica fume
Durability /
Calcined clay/ Metakaolin
High strength
Calcined shale
Superplasticizers Flowability
High-range water reducers Reduce water-cement ratio
Hydration control admix. Control setting
High-Value
Concrete
 Materials Used in High-
Performance Concrete
Material Primary contribution/Desired property
Retarders Control setting
Accelerators Accelerate setting
Corrosion inhibitors Control steel corrosion
Water reducers Reduce cement and water content
Shrinkage reducers Reduce shrinkage
ASR inhibitors Control alkali-silica activity
Optimally graded aggr. Improve workability/reduce paste
Polymer/latex modifiers Durability

High-Value
Concrete
 Selected Properties of High-
Performance Concrete
Property Test Method Criteria that may be specified
High Strength ASTM C 39 70-140 MPa @ 28 to 91 days
H-E Comp. Strength ASTM C 39 20-30 MPa @ 3-12 hrs or 1-3 days
H-E Flex. Strength ASTM C 78 2-4 MPa @ 3-12 hrs or 1-3 days
Abrasion Resistance ASTM C 944 0-1 mm depth of wear
Low Permeability ASTM C 1202 500 to 2000 coulombs
AASHTO T
Chloride Penetration Less than 0.07% Cl at 6 months
259/260
Low Absorption ASTM C 642 2% to 5%
High Mod.of Elast. ASTM C 469 More than 40 GPa
High-Value
Concrete
 Self-consolidating
concrete
 Self-consolidating concrete
(SCC) is characterized by a low
yield, high deformability, and
moderate viscosity necessary
to ensure uniform suspension
of solid particles during
transportation, placement
(without external compaction),
and thereafter until the concrete
sets.
High-Value
Concrete
 Self-Consolidating Concrete

High-Value
Concrete
 Self-consolidating
concrete

Self-consolidating
Concrete
 Vacuum concrete
It is a well known fact that excessive w/c
ratio is detrimental for concrete. We always
try to restrict the w/c ratio in order to
achieve higher strength. The chemical
reaction of cement with water requires a
w/c ratio of less than 0.38, whereas the
adopted w/c ratio is generally much more
than that mainly because of the
requirement of workability. Workability is
also important for concrete, so that it can
be placed in the formwork easily without
High-Value
Concrete
honeycombing.
 Vacuum concrete
 After the requirement of workability
is over, this excess water will
eventually evaporate leaving
capillary pores in the concrete.
These pores result into high
permeability and less strength in
the concrete. Therefore, workability
and high strength don't go together
as their requirements are
contradictory to each other.
High-Value
Concrete
 Vacuum concrete
Vacuum concreting is the effective
technique used to overcome this
contradiction of opposite
requirements of workability and high
strength. With this technique both
these are possible at the same time.
In this technique, the excess water
after placement and compaction of
concrete is sucked out with the help
of vacuum pumps. This technique is
effectively used in industrial floors,
parking lots and deck slabs of bridges
High-Value
etc.
Concrete
 Vacuum concrete
The magnitude of applied vacuum is
usually about 0.08 MPa and the water
content is reduced by up to 20-25%.
The reduction is effective up to a
depth of about 100 to 150 mm only.

High-Value
Concrete
 Shotcrete
Shotcrete refers to a process in
which compressed air forces mortar
or concrete through a hose and
nozzle onto a surface at a high
velocity and forms structural or non-
structural components of buildings.
The relatively dry mixture is
consolidated by the force of impact
and develops a compressive
strength similar to normal- and high-
strength concrete.
High-Value
Concrete
 Shotcrete
Shotcrete may be applied to
surfaces using a dry- or wet-mix
method. The wet-mix concrete
method consists of Portland cement
and aggregate premixed with water
before the pump pushes the mixture
though the hose. Additional
compressed air is added at the
nozzle to increase the velocity of the
mixture.
High-Value
Concrete
 Shotcrete
In the dry-mix process, compressed
air propels a premixed blend of
Portland cement and damp
aggregate through the hose to the
nozzle. In the nozzle, water is added
from a separate hose and
completely mixed with the dry
mixture just as both streams are
being projected onto the prepared
surface.
High-Value
Concrete
 Shotcrete

Shotcrete
Shaft
Shotcrete
Shotcrete
Shotcrete
Tunnel
 Pervious concrete
Pervious concrete is a
special type of concrete with
a high porosity used for
concrete flatwork applications
that allows water from
precipitation and other
sources to pass directly
through, thereby reducing the
runoff from a site and
allowing groundwater
recharge.
Pervious
Concrete
 Pervious concrete
The high porosity is attained by a highly interconnected
void content. Typically pervious concrete has little or no
fine aggregate and has just enough cementitious paste to
coat the coarse aggregate particles while preserving the
interconnectivity of the voids. Pervious concrete is
traditionally used in parking areas, areas with light traffic,
residential streets, pedestrian walkways, and
greenhouses. It is an important application for sustainable
construction and is one of many low impact development
techniques used by builders to protect water quality.
 Pervious concrete

Pervious
Concrete
Architecture
 Stamped concrete
Stamped concrete is concrete that is
patterned and/or textured or embossed
to resemble brick, slate, flagstone,
stone, tile, wood, and various other
patterns and textures. Stamped
concrete is commonly used for patios,
sidewalks, driveways, pool decks, and
interior flooring. The ability of stamped
concrete to resemble other building
materials makes stamped concrete a
less expensive alternative to using
those other authentic materials such as
stone, slate or brick.
High-Value
Concrete
 Stamped concrete
There are three procedures used in
stamped concrete which separate it
from other concrete procedures; the
addition of a base colour, the
addition of an accent colour, and
stamping a pattern into the
concrete. These three procedures
provide stamped concrete with a
colour and shape similar to the
natural building material. It also is
longer lasting than paved stone,
High-Value and still resembles the look.
Concrete
 Stamped concrete

Stamped
Concrete
 Slump Test
The concrete slump test is used for the
measurement of a property of fresh
concrete. The test is an empirical test that
measures the workability of fresh
concrete. More specifically, it measures
consistency between batches. The slump
test is a means of assessing the
consistency of fresh concrete. It is used,
indirectly, as a means of checking that the
correct amount of water has been added
to the mix. The slump test is used to
ensure uniformity for different batches of
similar concrete under field conditions,
and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers
Slump test of on their introduction.
Concrete
 Slump test procedure
The steel slump cone is placed on a solid,
impermeable, level base and filled with the fresh
concrete in three equal layers. Each layer is rodded
25 times to ensure compaction. The third layer is
finished off level with the top of the cone. The cone is
carefully lifted up, leaving a heap of concrete that
settles or ‘slumps’ slightly. The upturned slump cone
is placed on the base to act as a reference, and the
difference in level between its top and the top of the
concrete is measured and recorded to the nearest 5
mm to give the slump of the concrete.
 Slump test procedure
When the cone is removed, the slump may take one
of three forms. In a true slump the concrete simply
subsides, keeping more or less to shape. In a shear
slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and
slips sideways. In a collapse slump the concrete
collapses completely. Only a true slump is of any
use in the test. If a shear or collapse slump is
achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the
test repeated. A collapse slump will generally mean
that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability
mix, for which the flow test is more appropriate.
SLUMP MOULD (ABRAMS CONE )

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SLUMP TYPES

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SLUMP MEASUREMENT

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SLUMP TESTING

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SLUMP CLASS

Class Slump range Target slump

S1 10 ~ 40 20

S2 50 ~ 90 70

S3 100 ~ 150 130

S4 160 ~ 210 180

S5 210 ~ n/a 220

Slump class from BS 8500

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CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing is the process of controlling the rate and
extent of moisture loss from concrete during cement
hydration. It may be either after it has been placed in
position (or during the manufacture of concrete
products), thereby providing time for the hydration of
the cement to occur. Since the hydration of cement
does take time – days, and even weeks rather than
hours – curing must be undertaken for a reasonable
period of time if the concrete is to achieve its
potential strength and durability. Curing may also
encompass the control of temperature since this
affects the rate at which cement hydrates.

126
CURING METHODS

Plastic sheeting- Plastic sheets, or other similar

material, form an effective barrier against water loss.
Ponding- Flat or near-flat surfaces such as floors,
pavements, flat roofs and the like may be cured
by ponding.
Wet coverings- Fabrics such as hessian, or materials
such as sand, can be used like a ‘mulch’
to maintain water on the surface of the concrete

127
CURING OF CONCRETE

Sprinkling or fog curing -Using a fine spray or fog

of water can be an efficient method of supplying
additional moisture for curing and, during hot
weather, helps to reduce the temperature of the
concrete.

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CURING OF CONCRETE

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CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Concrete mix designs is best defined as a
process in selecting suitable ingredients, which is
cement, aggregate, sand and water, and
determining their relative proportions to give the
required strength, workability and durability.
To find a combination of constituents that would
give concrete of properties complying with certain
specifications, economically. Mix design
properties are selected depending on the
application and expected performance.
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OBJECTIVE OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

 To determine the proportions of concrete mix

constituents of; Cement, Fine aggregate (or
normally Sand), Coarse aggregate, and Water.
 To produce concrete of the specified properties.

 To produce a satisfactory of end product, such

as beam, column or slab as economically as
possible.

131
METHODS OF MIX PROPORTIONING
1) Arbitrary proportion
2) Fineness modulus method
3) Surface area method
4) High strength concrete mix design
5) Mix design based on flexural strength
6) Road note No. 4 (grading curve method)
7) ACI Committee 211 method
8) DOE Method
9) Mix design for pumpable concrete
132
VARIABLES IN MIX PROPORTIONING

With the given materials, the four variable factors

to be considered in connection with specifying a
concrete mix are:
1) Water cement ratio
2) Cement content or cement aggregate ratio
3) Gradation of the aggregates
4) Consistency

133
METHODS OF MIX PROPORTIONING
1) Arbitrary proportion
2) Fineness modulus method
3) Surface area method
4) High strength concrete mix design
5) Mix design based on flexural strength
6) Road note No. 4 (grading curve method)
7) ACI Committee 211 method
8) DOE Method
9) Mix design for pumpable concrete
134
SELECTION OF TARGET PARAMETERS
Selection of target parameters by the contractor
for any mix design must consider the influence of
the following:
1) material availability and economics
2) variability of each material throughout period
of usage
3) Control capability of production plant
4) Ambient conditions expected at the time(s) of
concrete placement

135
SELECTION OF TARGET PARAMETERS

5) logistics of concrete production, delivery, and

placement
6) variability in testing concrete properties
7) generation of heat in large structural elements
and differential in thermal gradient (i.e. 2 - 3 ft
thick and cement content above 600 lb/yd3)

136
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES OF MIX DESIGN

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AGGREGATES

Coarse aggregate: Aggregates predominately

retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. For mass
concrete, the maximum size can be as large as
150 mm.
Fine aggregate (sand): Aggregates passing No. 4
(4.75 mm) sieve and predominately retained on
the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve.

138
DRY RODDED UNIT WEIGHT

139
BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY

140
FINENESS MODULUS(FM)

141
FINENESS MODULUS(FM)

%
Sieve sieve opening mass retaine cummulative % Cummulative %
No. (mm) retained (g) d retained Passing

4 4.750 66 13.21 13.21 86.79

10 2.000 78 15.61 28.81 71.19
20 0.850 102 20.41 49.22 50.78

50 0.300 160 32.02 81.24 18.76

100 0.150 78 15.61 96.85 3.15
200 0.075 14 2.80 99.65 0.35
Pan 0.000 1.75 0.35 100.00 0.00 142
ABSORPTION

ABSORPTION
Absorption is the process by which a liquid is
drawn into and tends to fill permeable pores in a
porous solid body. It is expressed as a percentage
of the dry weight of the body. For example, the
oven dry weight of a sample of sand is 60-pounds
and its absorption is 5%. The weight of the
sample after it has absorbed all of the moisture it
can absorb is:
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ABSORPTION

60 lb x 1.05 = 63 lbs
The amount of water absorbed by the 60-pound
sample is:
63 lb - 60 lb = 3 lbs

144
AIR ENTRAINMENT
Air entrainment is the intentional creation of tiny air
bubbles in concrete. The bubbles are introduced into
the concrete by the addition to the mix of an air
entraining agent, a surfactant (surface-active
substance, a type of chemical that includes
detergents). The air bubbles are created during
mixing of the plastic (flowable, not hardened)
concrete, and most of them survive to be part of the
hardened concrete. The primary purpose of air
entrainment is to increase the durability of the
hardened concrete, especially in climates subject to
freeze-thaw; the secondary purpose is to increase
workability of the concrete while in a plastic state.
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AIR ENTRAINMENT

146
BULK VOLUME

The volume of a granular material including the

volume of the solid particles and the volume of
the voids between the solid particles.

147
ABSOLUTE VOLUME


148
EXAMPLE 1

The specific gravity of a dry coarse aggregate (Gs)

is 2.65. The unit weight of water is 62.4-lb/cu ft.
The absolute volume of a 90-lb sample of the
aggregate is how much?

Absolute Volume = 90 lb / (2.65 x 62.4 lb/cu ft)

= 0.544 cu ft.

149
EXAMPLE 2

For a concrete mix with 90-lbs of coarse

aggregate with Gs = 2.65, 60-lbs of fine
aggregate with Gs = 2.63, 25-lbs of cement, and
12-lbs of water. Calculate the absolute volume:

150
EXAMPLE 2
CA = 90 lb / (2.65 x 62.4 lb/cu ft) = 0.544 cu ft
FA = 60 lb / (2.63 x 62.4 lb/cu ft) = 0.366 cu ft
Cement = 25 lb / (3.15 x 62.4 lb/cu ft) = 0.127 cu ft
Water = 12 lb / (1 x 62.4 lb/cu ft) = 0.192 cu ft
Total Volume = 1.229 cu ft.
For the same mix containing 4% air the total volume
would be:
Total Volume = 1.229 cu ft x 1.04 = 1.278 cu ft.
The volume of air in the mix is:
Air = 1.278 cu ft - 1.229 cu ft = 0.049 cu ft.
151
POZZOLANA (P)

A Pozzolana is a substance that, in-itself, has

little or no cementitious properties but when
combined with Portland cement forms
compounds possessing cementitious properties.
Fly ash is the most widely used Pozzolana.

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COMMON TERMINOLOGIES OF MIX DESIGN

153
VARIANCE

Variance- this is the measure of variability of

difference between any single observed data
from the mean strength.

154
STANDARD DEVIATION

155
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION

156
157
Number N Strength Average strength Deviation Deviation standard deviation

N x

1 43 2.8 7.84
2 48 7.8 60.84
3 40 -0.2 0.04
4 38 -2.2 4.84
5 36 -4.2 17.64
6 39 -1.2 1.44
7 42 1.8 3.24
8 45 4.8 23.04
9 37 -3.2 10.24
10 35 -5.2 27.04
40.2 4.36
11 39 -1.2 1.44
12 41 0.8 0.64
13 49 8.8 77.44
14 46 5.8 33.64
15 36 -4.2 17.64
16 38 -2.2 4.84
17 32 -8.2 67.24
18 39 -1.2 1.44
19 41 0.8 0.64
20 40 -0.2 0.04 158
EXAMPLE

159


160
TYPICAL VALUES OF STANDARD DEVIATION FOR DIFFERENT
CONDITIONS OF PLACING AND MIXING OF CONCRETE

161
TYPICAL VALUES OF STANDARD DEVIATION FOR DIFFERENT
CONDITIONS OF PLACING AND MIXING OF CONCRETE

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SPECIMEN PREPARATION
 SAND CEMENT PROPORTION
The following is the procedure for the
determination of the void ratio of a
cemented specimen, Determine
• The specific gravity of sand G sand
• The specific gravity of cement G cement
• The dry mass of specimen M dry i.e., the
mass of solid M solid
• Specimen dimensions i.e., height H and
diameter D
 AVERAGE SPECIFIC GRAVITY

• The average specific gravity of the specimen

G (taking cement content = C %)

100 C C
G Gsoil Gcement
100 100
 INITIAL VOID RATIO

The volume of solid (i.e., sand + cement) V solid

M solid
Vsolid
G w
The total volume of the specimen V total

2
VTotal D
4
The volume of voids V voids
Vvoids Vtotal Vsolid
 INITIAL VOID RATIO
• The initial void ratio of the specimen e
Vvoids
e
Vsolid
 CONSTANT DRY DENSITY WITH
INCREASING CEMENT CONTENT

• The mass of sand M sand and mass of

cement M cement can be calculated as
follow:
100
M sand M total
100 C
C
M cement M total
100 C
 SAND CEMENT MIXING BUCKET

Once dry sand and cement

mixed thoroughly, water of
required percent must be
added and mixed to get a
uniform and consistent sand-
cement paste.
 SAND CEMENT MIXING

The targeted dry unit weight of the material for

a standard size specimen can be maintained by
varying the weight of the moist sample using
the following equation.
The required weight of mixture should be taken
for specimen preparation

d
1
ACI MIX DESIGN

1) Determine the job parameters - aggregate

properties, maximum aggregate size, slump,
w/c ratio, admixtures,
2) calculation of batch weight, and
3) adjustments to batch weights based on trial
mix.

171
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES

Required material information -- sieve analyses of

both fine and coarse aggregates, unit weight,
specific gravities, and absorption capacities of
aggregates.
Choice of slump -- Generally specified for a
particular job. However, if not given, an
appropriate value may be chosen from Table 1.
As a general rule, the lowest slump that will
permit adequate placement should be selected.
172
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES

173
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES
Maximum aggregate size -- The largest maximum
aggregate size that will conform to the following
limitations:
Maximum size should not be larger than 1/5
the minimum dimension of structural members,
1/3 the thickness of a slab, or 3/4 the clearance
between reinforcing rods and forms. These
restrictions limit maximum aggregate size to 1.5
inches, except in mass applications.

174
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES

Current thought suggests that a reduced

maximum aggregate size for a given w/c ratio can
achieve higher strengths. Also, in many areas, the
largest available sizes are 3/4 in. to 1 in.
Estimation of mixing water and air content -- An
estimation of the amount of water required for air
entrained and non-air-entrained concretes can be
obtained from Table.

175
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES

One major disadvantage of concrete is its

susceptibility to damage by single or multiple
freeze-thaw cycles. However, concrete can be
made frost-resistant by using air entraining
admixtures.
Approximate mixing water (lb/yd3) and air content
for different slumps and nominal maximum sizes
of aggregates

176
177
WATER/CEMENT RATIO

Water/cement ratio - This component is governed

by strength and durability requirements.
Relationship between water/cement ratio and
compressive strength of concrete:

178
Calculation of cement content -- Once the water
content and the w/c ratio is determined, the
amount of cement per unit volume of the
concrete is found by dividing the estimated water
content by the w/c ratio.

179
Estimation of coarse aggregate content - The
percept of coarse aggregate to concrete for a
given maximum size and fineness modulus is
given by Table

180
Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per unit
volume of concrete for different coarse
aggregates and fineness moduli of fine
aggregates.

181
Estimation of fine aggregate content -- There are
two standard methods to establish the fine
aggregate content, the mass method and the
volume method. We will use the "volume"
method.
"Volume" Method -- This method is the preferred
method, as it is a somewhat more exact
procedure. The volume of fine aggregates is
found by subtracting the volume of cement,
water, air, and coarse aggregate from the total
concrete volume.
182
ACI MIX DESIGN EXAMPLE

Concrete is required for an exterior column

located above ground where substantial freezing
and thawing may occur. The 28-day compressive
strength should be 5,000 lb/in2. The slump
should be between 1 and 2 in. and the maximum
aggregate size should not exceed ¾ in.
The properties of the materials are as follows:

183
ACI MIX DESIGN EXAMPLE

Cement : Type I, specific gravity = 3.15

Coarse Aggregate: Bulk specific gravity (SSD) =
2.70; absorption capacity = 1%; dry-rodded unit
weight = 100 lb/ft3; surface moisture = 0%
Fine Aggregate: Bulk specific gravity (SSD) =
2.65; absorption capacity = 1.3%; fineness
modulus = 2.70; surface moisture = 3%

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MIX DESIGN CALCULATION

http://www.pensacolatesting.com/dirtknocker/beta.htm
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