Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Assessing the recycling potential of glass fibre reinforced plastic waste in concrete
and cement composites
P. Asokan a, M. Osmani a, *, A.D.F. Price a
a
Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: At present glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) waste recycling worldwide is very limited due to its intrinsic
Received 28 July 2008 thermoset properties, lack of characterisation data and non availability of viable recycling and recovery
Received in revised form routes. In the present study, efforts were made to recycle GRP waste powder and fibre in concrete and
7 December 2008
cement composites and assess its quality to comply with the British standards for use in construction
Accepted 11 December 2008
applications. Results revealed that the mean compressive strength of concrete composites using 5%–50%
Available online 20 January 2009
GRP waste powder under water curing varied from 37 N/mm2 to 19 N/mm2. Increase in the concentration
of GRP waste decreased the compressive strength. However, increase in curing duration (14–180 days)
Keywords:
Glass fibre reinforced plastic waste resulted in improving the compressive strength of concrete with 5% GRP application to 45.75 N/mm2.
Concrete and cement composite Moreover, the density of concrete with 50% GRP waste was reduced by about 12% as compared to the
Compressive strength control sample. The bending strength in terms of modules of rupture (MOR) of 12 mm thickness cement
Recycling potentials composites developed using 5% GRP waste fibre attained 16.5 N/mm2. The findings of this work pave the
Construction products way for further GRP waste recycling in precast construction products for use in various applications.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction disposed off by the construction, automobiles, locomotives and

aerospace industries after their utility/service life is over [4–6]. GRP
Glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) is a well known composite waste is basically a combination of glass fibre and polymer and
material which has ample market value due to its superior char- disposal of such solid waste to landfill becomes a major environ-
acteristics in terms of weight and durability. Fibre reinforced mental hazard.
concrete (FRC) has many applications e.g. tunnel construction, wall About 55,000 tonnes of GRP waste are currently produced each
cladding, structural ceilings, where fibres are being used as rein- year in the United Kingdom and the quantity is expected to increase
forcing material and is more pronounced in self-compacting by 10% annually [7]. In the European Union as well as in most parts
concrete, lightweight concrete and expanded polystyrene concrete of the world, the manufacturing of thermoplastic polymer
[1,2]. Earlier work has shown that polymer concrete is stronger composites is higher than the thermoset composites. The ther-
than cement based concrete [3]; however, polymer based concrete moset polymer composites share was about 18.5% (i.e. 7,350,000
tends to be more expensive and is used only in restricted applica- tonnes) in Western Europe during 2003 [5]. Landfill and incinera-
tions such as box culverts, hazardous waste storage and disposal tion are the most commonly adopted methods for the disposal of
containers, trenches, floor drains, pavements and bridges. In poly- thermoset polymer composites including GRP composites waste
mer concrete, mostly epoxy, methyl methacrylate and unsaturated [4,6]. In the United Kingdom, about 90% of the GRP waste is being
polyester are being used as binders. sent for landfill. Growing technological innovations, ample market
During GRP products manufacturing, polyester resin is rein- value and demand for GRP composites all over the world have
forced with glass fibre to obtain the required durability in terms of triggered interest in optimising GRP waste recovery; however, few
stiffness, strength and water absorption. The GRP manufacturing solutions for recycling into value added construction products are
process produces considerable quantities of unfinished products as being explored. Currently, Hambleside Danelaw Rooflights and
waste materials. Additionally, GRP waste materials have been often Cladding Limited, Inverness, Scotland is the only company in the UK
that has facilities for grinding GRP waste [2].
It was reported that the use of GRP waste ground fibre, as
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44 1509 228155 (direct), þ44 1509 222637
replacement for fine aggregate in foamed concrete, increased
(secretary), þ44 1509 222884 (department); fax: þ44 1509 223981. strength with reduced weight [8]. Moreover, the study revealed
E-mail address: m.osmani@lboro.ac.uk (M. Osmani). that fire resistant properties of GRP filled foamed concrete were

0959-6526/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.12.004
822 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829

suitable for structural and semi-structural applications in light-

weight partitions, wall and floor panels. A study on GRP waste
recycling showed that glass fibres recovered from polymeric
chemicals could replace up to 20% of the virgin glass fibres used in
dough moulding compound [4]. Attempts were made to use ground
GRP fibres as reinforcement in thermoplastics, but due to the poor
abrasive nature, these could not contribute to improve the prop-
erties of thermoplastic materials [9]. Virgin glass fibre has been
used in making thin sheets of flat, corrugated or complex shaped
panels as precast concrete products for construction [10], although
studies on GRP waste recycling revealed that ground glass fibres
removed from granules were used with wood flour in high density
polyethylene (HDPE) to increase tensile and flexural modulus [11].
However, the polymeric compound and glass fibre in GRP waste
still need to find recovery alternatives. The chemical process for
recycling glass fibre reinforced polyester waste through pyrolysis at
450  C resulted in the production of CO, CO2, H2, CH4, hydrocarbon
gases along with pyrolytic oil with high calorific value for use as
fuels [4]. The incineration process may be one of the solutions for
fibre reinforced plastic waste disposal; however, this contributes to Fig. 2. GRP waste ground fibre.
the emissions of toxic substances to the atmosphere as well as
involves a higher operating cost [12].
Earlier attempts were made to recycle concrete and masonry ground samples were acquired from Hambleside Danelaw Roof-
materials along with unsaturated polyester resins and polyethylene lights and Cladding Limited, Scotland, United Kingdom: GRP waste
terephthalate (PET) plastic waste and reported that resin addition powdered materials with a little quantity of varying length of glass
increased the strength of polymer concrete [3]. Moreover, the acid fibre (Fig. 1); and GRP waste fibre with a length of about 20 mm
and alkali elements were found not to affect the polymer concrete. (Fig. 2). The GRP waste powder samples were sieved using a 2 mm
Efforts were also made to characterise the properties of recycled sieve size and segregated into fibre and powder.
glass fibre reinforced polymide, but the suitability and their recy- In order to assess the potential of GRP waste recycling in precast
cling potentials are not yet well established [13,14]. The work concrete, two sets of experimental programmes were conducted. In
reported so far is very limited and did not show viable applications the first experiment, attempts were made to recycle GRP waste
for GRP waste recycling in concrete. Hence, in the present study, powder in precast concrete composites (i.e. concrete paving blocks)
efforts were made to recycle ground GRP waste powder as an and the second experiment was on recycling GRP waste fibre in
admixture and substitute to fine aggregate in concrete composites developing cement composites (i.e. architectural cladding panels).
and GRP waste fibre as structural reinforcement materials in During the first stage of the research programme, detailed char-
architectural cladding panels. acterisation of the GRP waste samples in terms of physical, chem-
ical, thermal and morphological properties was studied and the
results are reported and discussed below.
2. Methodologies

Laboratory experiments were conducted at the concrete labo- 2.1. Development of concrete composites
ratory, Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Lough-
borough University, United Kingdom. Two types of GRP waste Detailed experiments were conducted on the use of GRP waste
in concrete composites. Mix design was in accordance with the
Building Research Establishment (BRE) 1988 mix design [15], and
concrete specimens were prepared as per BS EN 12390-2:2000 [16]
using different proportions of cement, aggregate as shown in
Table 1. Processed GRP waste powder was used as a partial
substitute for fine aggregates at the concentration of 5%, 15%, 30%
and 50% (w/w). Control concrete specimens were also cast to
compare the properties over the GRP waste admixed concrete.
Normal fine aggregate (NFA) was used as per BS 882 [17]. Normal
coarse aggregate (NCA) was used as per BS 882 where the aggregate
size was 5–20 mm [18]. Fig. 3 (a, b) shows GRP waste mixing with

Table 1
Mix proportion of concrete with the incorporation of GRP waste powder.

Experimental Fine aggregate NCA Cement w/c ratio

trials (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
NFA GRP powder

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%)

1 750 0 0 1250 430 0.50
2 712 38 5 1250 430 0.55
3 637 113 15 1250 430 0.57
4 525 225 30 1250 430 0.68
5 337 337 50 1250 430 0.71
Fig. 1. GRP waste ground sample: mixture of powder and fibre.
 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829 823

Fig. 3. (a, b) Concrete mix with GRP waste powder: (a) before mixing, (b) after mixing.

cement and aggregates for making concrete specimens. In all where fc – the compressive strength (newtons per square
experiments, ordinary Portland cement that complied with BS millimetre); f – the maximum load at failure, in newtons; and Aac –
12:1996 was used in making concrete specimens. the cross-sectional area of the specimen.
In each experiment, concrete cubes specimens of size The density of concrete specimens was calculated as per BS EN
100  100  100 mm were cast into moulds and compacted under 12390-7:2000. Concrete specimens were cured in water for
vibrating conditions at laboratory room temperature. After 24 h of a period of 72 h at 20  2  C. Then the water cured specimens were
casting, GRP waste concrete specimens were removed from the dried in a ventilated oven at (105  5)  C to get a uniform weight
mould and were cured separately under two different conditions: and then kept in desiccators and weighed. The density was calcu-
in water at 20  2  C and in oven at 50  2  C (Fig. 4a, b). About 90 lated from the total mass of water cured and oven dried specimen
concrete specimens were developed and triplicate specimens were as follows:
tested to check the reproducibility of results. After 14 days, 28 days
and 180 days of curing, the developed concrete specimens were ma ½ðmst mw Þmst 
V ¼
tested to assess their suitability for construction applications. rw
British standards were followed for testing concrete specimens’
V is the volume of the specimen (cubic metres); ma is the mass of
compressive strength [19] and density [20]. The results were
the specimen in air (kilograms); mst is the apparent mass of the
compared with the control concrete where no GRP waste was
immersed stirrup (kilograms); mw is the apparent mass of the
added. The compressive strength (fc) was calculated as N/mm2.
immersed specimen (kilograms); rw is the density of water, at
Compressive strength test was performed using the Denison 7230
20  C, taken as 998 kg/m3.
compression testing machine. During compression testing, a force
was applied uniaxially at a constant loading rate of 0.2 N/mm2 to
the specimen until the cube failed under compressive force and the 2.2. Development of cement composites
resulting force was expressed in terms of compressive stress as N/
mm2. In each experiment, triplicate samples were tested to confirm For the second set of experiments, attempts were made to
their reproducibility of test results and the mean value was calcu- explore the potential of using GRP waste fibre in cement composites
lated. The compressive strength is given by the equation: (precast architectural cladding panels). Two different panel sizes:
300 mm  300 mm  8 mm and 300 mm  300 mm  12 mm were
f prepared. Panel preparation and testing were done in accordance
fc ¼
Aac with the British standard on fibre-cement flat sheets product

Fig. 4. (a, b) Curing concrete specimens developed using GRP waste powder: (a) water curing, (b) oven curing.
824 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829

Fig. 5. (a, b) Mix proportionate (GRP waste fibre, fine aggregate and cement) in making the cement composite: (a) before mixing, (b) mixing process.

specification and test method [21]. Several methods are available showed that the GRP waste powder particles were different in size
for making fibre-cement composite sheets [10]. In this process, 5% and irregular in shape. The chemical characterisation of the GRP
GRP waste fibre (w/w of cement content) was premixed with powder determined by the Fourier transform infrared spectrometer
mortar (1:1.6 cement to sand ratio) along with 2% superplasticiser (FTIR) technique showed that it was a thermoset polyester resin.
(polycarboxylate). The aggregates and cement were mixed thor- The glass transition temperature (Tg) of GRP waste powder was
oughly with GRP waste fibre using water and cast in wooden about 135.4  C [22].
moulds without vibration. The water cement ratio was 0.33 and 0.3
with 5% GRP waste fibre and without GRP waste fibre respectively. 3.1. Effect of GRP waste powder on compressive strength of concrete
The cast panels were removed from the moulds and curing was composites
done in water at 20  2  C. After 28 days of curing, specimens were
tested to assess their suitability for use as architectural cladding The compressive strength of precast concrete composites
panels. Fig. 5 (a, b) shows the mix proportions (GRP waste fibre, fine (cubes) developed using different proportionates of GRP waste
aggregate and cement) in making cement composites. powder under water curing and oven curing were tested at 14 days,
To assess the physical and mechanical characteristics (bending 28 days and 180 days and the results are reported and discussed
strength), panels were cut into specimens of dimension below. Fig. 6 (a, b) shows the testing compressive strength of
95 mm  300 mm  12 mm and 95 mm  300 mm  8 mm using concrete specimen. The results of 14 days, 28 days and 180 days
a diamond cutter and the bending strength was tested using compressive strength of concrete are shown in Table 3.
a universal testing machine, Instron 5500R (100 KN load capacity)
at the speed of 1 mm/min. The bending strength and density of the 3.1.1. Effect of GRP waste powder on 14 days compressive strength
panel products were tested to comply with the British standard of concrete composites
[21]. The calculation used in determining the bending strength as The 14 days compressive strength of concrete made with 5% GRP
modules of rupture (MOR) is as follows: waste powder under water curing was 32 N/mm2 with a standard
deviation of 0.86, and was 25% lower than that of the control
3Fls specimens where no GRP waste was applied. However, 5% GRP
Modules of rupture ðMORÞ ¼
2be2 waste substitution under oven curing resulted in a 13% decrease in
where F – breaking load (newtons); ls – span between the axes of the compressive strength of concrete as compared to the control
support (mm); b – width of the test specimen (mm); and e – specimens. Nevertheless, the compressive strength was higher by
thickness of the test specimen (mm). about 9% with oven curing as compared to water curing. This was
mainly due to the effect of temperature on the polymeric content
present in the GRP waste powder (Table 3). This is further sup-
3. Results and discussion
ported by an earlier study, where the addition of polymeric mate-
rials with cement, during hydration, enabled polymer film
The results on the use of GRP waste powder in precast concrete
formation to occur which resulted in a co-matrix under which the
products are summarised in this section. The primary physico-
polymer was intermingled with cement hydrate under heating
chemical properties showed that the GRP waste powder samples
condition [5]. In this study, GRP waste powder was a combination
comprised oxides of silica, alumina and calcium which are essen-
of polymer and glass fibre, and due to the presence of polymeric
tially required to improve the properties of concrete products. Table
compounds, the compressive strength of oven cured specimens
2 shows the physico-chemical properties of Portland cement and
GRP waste powder. When compared to the properties of cement,
the presence of silica in GRP waste powder was higher about 33% Table 2
and the oxides of alumina were higher by about 22%. The most Physico-chemical properties of Portland cement and glass fibre reinforced plastic
(GRP) waste ground sample.
important parameter is oxides of calcium which was lower in GRP
waste powder as compared to Portland cement and the specific Sl. no. Parameters Characteristics
surface area of GRP waste was higher by about 34% over cement. Portland cement GRP waste
The ground GRP waste sample comprised about 95% powder and ground sample
about 5% fibre (w/w). The GRP waste powder sample had a wide 1 SiO2 (%) 20.5 29.94
particle size ranging from 0.02 micrometre to 600 micrometre. 2 Al2O3 (%) 5.65 7.31
However, glass fibres in the powder had a varying length from 0.02 3 CaO (%) 64.5 17.79
4 Specific surface area (m2/g) 0.343 0.527
micrometre to 20 mm. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies
 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829 825

Fig. 6. (a, b) Testing compressive strength of concrete specimens: (a) specimens before testing (b) after testing.

might have shown higher strength over water cured specimens. mechanical properties of polymer concrete made of unsaturated
The increase in the compressive strength of concrete with GRP polyester resins from recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
waste application under oven curing may be due to the hydration plastic waste showed a proportional correlation between an
process in which the polymeric compound in GRP waste and increase in compressive strength and resin content. However, the
cement might have formed a polymeric film under oven curing at strength remains unchanged beyond 17% resin content. Moreover,
above 40  C. Furthermore, Tabor [23] reported that the presence of polymer concrete with a resin content of 9% did not affect the
polymer particles in the dispersion is restricted to the capillary durability characteristics, especially acid treatment [3].
force at the interface of the aggregate and the bulk polymer-cement
phase. In the bulk liquid phase, hydrates are produced which form 3.1.3. Effect of GRP waste powder on 180 days compressive strength
combined inorganic and organic products. The fraction of the of concrete composites
polymer-cement products formed depends on the ratio of polymer Interestingly, it was recorded that with GRP waste application,
and cement. The polymer products included in these hydration there was an increase in the compressive strength of concrete with
products do not contribute to strength development. This has been longer curing periods. This was confirmed while comparing the
further supported with the results of earlier researchers that no compressive strength of concrete tested under different curing
influence of polymer modification on the strength is noticed in periods from 14 days to 180 days. The mean compressive strength
standard cured and water cured specimens as long as no dry curing of concrete developed using 5% GRP waste powder under 180 days
is applied [5]. water curing and oven curing was 45.74  0.76 N/mm2 and
47.17  0.64 N/mm2 respectively. Moreover, the compressive
3.1.2. Effect of GRP waste powder on 28 days compressive strength strength of concrete with 15% GRP waste powder attained
of concrete composites 44.38  0.42 N/mm2 and 46.24  0.57 N/mm2 under water curing
Results revealed that the 28 days mean compressive strength of and oven curing respectively. Nevertheless, the compressive
concrete made with 5% GRP waste powder under water curing strength of control concrete at 180 days (without GRP waste
attained 37 N/mm2 with a standard deviation of 0.77. The powder) remained almost the same as that of 28 days compressive
compressive strength of oven cured concrete was higher than the strength under water curing but decreased under oven curing.
water cured concrete specimens. However, the compressive An earlier work showed that application of 9% polyester resin
strength of control concrete showed the optimum strength i.e. (virgin materials) in recycling unsaturated polyester resins from
47 N/mm2. The expected compressive strength of structural recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic waste and recy-
concrete is 45 N/mm2. These results are in line with the work cled concrete aggregates with normal fine and coarse aggregates up
reported earlier where the influence of polymer latex on the to 70% attained a compressive strength of 39 N/mm2 [3]. It was
properties of cement concrete showed that there was a decrease in expected that the glass fibre content in GRP waste may contribute
the compressive strength of concrete of about 32% with the addi- to the increase in the reinforcement of concrete. Conversely, work
tion of 10–20% polymeric materials; however, the flexural and done by other researchers showed that no significant results were
tensile strength were found to be increased [24]. The present recorded on the compressive strength of concrete developed with
investigation showed that there was a decrease of compressive recycled glass and about 16% strength was reduced when 20% of
strength of concrete about 21% and 27% with 5% and 15% GRP waste Portland cement was substituted [25]. This was due to the inherent
substitution respectively. smooth surface, poor water absorption and contamination of raw
It was reported that polymer concrete is stronger than cement materials which resulted in inconsistency of the concrete mix, lack
based concrete. Therefore, polymer concrete is used in many of bonding between glass particles and the cement matrix leading
applications like box culvert, hazardous waste disposal site liner, to a low compressive strength. Since, the polymerisation temper-
trench lines, floor drains, pavements and bridges [3]. The ature ranges from 40  C to 110  C [18], in the present study cement

Table 3
Effect of GRP waste powder on compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2) under different curing conditions.

Exp. no. % GRP powder Water cured specimen (N/mm2) (mean of triplicate specimens) Oven cured specimen (N/mm2) (mean of triplicate specimens)

14 days 28 days 180 days 14 days 28 days 180 days

1 0% 43.61  0.37 47.67  0.69 46.23  0.57 32.31  0.6 34.37  0.56 39.20  0.67
2 5% 32.4  0.86 37.08  0.77 45.74  0.69 36.08  0.15 37.9  1.32 47.17  0.64
3 15% 27.95  0.25 34.09  0.90 44.38  0.42 29.21  0.48 35.11  0.37 46.24  0.57
4 30% 22.4  1.12 29.58  1.66 30.82  0.64 25.76  0.39 30.62  1.03 34.39  0.23
5 50% 14.13  0.59 19.05  0.88 21.31  0.03 17.02  0.1 21.61  0.72 24.24  0.38
826 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829

2400 (>5 MPa), and concrete blocks (7–35 MPa) and confirmed the
Water curing
potential applications of GRP waste as an additive or filler in
2350 Oven curing concrete.
Density (kgm–3)

2300 3.2. Effect of GRP waste powder on density of concrete composites

y = –0.007x2 + 0.0587x + 35.826
R2 = 0.95
2250 Fig. 7 shows the density of the concrete specimen developed
using different proportions of GRP waste powder. The density of
2200 the concrete was studied under 28 days of curing in water and in
y = 0.0038x2– 0.6829x + 44.375
2
R = 0.92 the oven. Results revealed from the present study that the mean
2150 density of concrete developed with 5% and 15% GRP waste powder
under water curing was 2340 kg/m3 and 2270 kg/m3 respectively.
2100 However, the mean density of concrete made with 30% and 50%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
GRP waste powder ( ) GRP waste was 2220 kg/m3 and 2120 kg/m3 respectively. Due to the
synergetic behaviour between polymer and cementations matrices,
Fig. 7. Effect of GRP waste powder on the density of concrete. the impact on the performance of materials largely affects the
weight ratio. This was significantly influenced the density of
metric and GRP waste powder were blended together and were construction materials [5]. It is apparent from the results of this
cast as a solid monolithic structure and cured in 50  C in which it study that increased proportions of GRP waste in concrete
was expected to form a polymeric film contributing to the increase decreased the density by about 12% and the minimum density was
in the compressive strength of concrete when compared to water 2120 kg/m3 with 50% GRP waste powder. However, little variation
cured samples. Hence, the present study explored possible recy- was recorded with oven cured specimens as compared to the water
cling options to improve the quality of concrete with applications of cured specimen. This is due to the fact that the density of the
GRP waste powder. It was anticipated that the presence of ground polymer is lower than the cement and aggregates used in GRP
glass fibre in GRP waste may contribute to an increase of concrete waste admixed concrete.
reinforcement.
It was also reported that glass powder can be used as 3.3. Effect of GRP waste fibre on cement composites: precast
a replacement for cement up to 10% to increase the compressive architectural cladding panels
strength of concrete [26]. The presence of polymer particles in the
dispersion is restricted to the capillary force at the interface of the As shown in Fig. 8 (a, b), two different prototypes
aggregate and the bulk polymer-cement phase and the polymer (300 mm  300 mm  8 mm and 300 mm  300 mm  12 mm) of
products included in these hydration products do not contribute to cement composites using 5% GRP waste fibre were prepared and
strength development [23]. This has been further supported with developed in accordance with BS EN 12467:2004 [21]. Laboratory
the results of earlier researchers that no influence of polymer tests were conducted to measure the resulting prototypes’ bending
modification on the strength was noticed in standard cured and strength and density, and assess their application suitability as
water cured specimens as long as they are not dry cured [1,5]. This architectural cladding panels. The test specimens and testing
suggests that the polymeric powder in the GRP waste might have bending strength of cement composites are shown in Fig. 9 (a, b).
degraded from its virgin resin characteristics and hence, the pres-
ence of the polymeric compound in GRP waste powder might have 3.3.1. Effect of GRP waste fibre on bending strength of architectural
not contributed to enhance the compressive strength. However, the cladding panels
present investigation revealed that the compressive strength of The effect of GRP waste fibre on the bending strength of cement
concrete specimens developed using GRP waste powder was found composites is shown in Table 4, where R1, R2 and R3 are replicate
to be higher than that of the normal requirement for precast test results. Results revealed that the mean bending strength in
concrete walling element (>5 MPa), lightweight concrete terms of modules of rupture (MOR) of 12 mm thick panels

Fig. 8. (a, b) Architectural cladding panels developed using GRP waste fibre: (a) 12 mm thick and (b) 8 mm thick panels.
 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829 827

Fig. 9. (a, b) Cement composite specimens for testing bending strength: (a) test specimens, (b) testing bending strength.

developed using 5% GRP waste fibre attained 16.55 N/mm2 with strength and toughness; and detained crack propagation of the
a standard deviation of 1.12. The bending strength of the 12 mm composites. It was reported that the high surface area and low
thick panel with 5% GRP waste fibre was 46% higher than that of thickness of glass reinforced composite panels can lead to an
8 mm thick panels. Application of GRP waste fibre increased the increase in drying shrinkage resulting in distortion, wrapping and
bending strength of architectural cladding panel about 36% over poor strength [28]. The chemical reaction of cement on fibre rein-
control specimens. Moreover, with the application of 5% GRP waste forced plastic is not well established and long-term durability is
fibre, the bending strength of the 8 mm thick panel increased about needed to be defined. However, studies on chemical interactions
25% as compared to without GRP waste fibre. Since, the quantity of between glass fibre and cement showed that glass fibre produced
cement used in this study was lower than that of the normally used from oxides of sodium oxide, silica and zirconium composition in
cement to sand ratio (i.e. 1:0.5 to 1:1), the bending strength was the powder form are inherently alkali resistant and suitable for
found to be lower than the conventional and commercially avail- reinforcement with cement composites [29]. These types of glass
able products which is in concurrence with the work of Bentur and fibres are currently being used commercially and expected not to
Mindess [10]. Moreover, the GRP waste fibre characterisation produce any adverse impact on the long-term durability. The thin
results from this study revealed that the GRP waste fibre sample cement composite sheet using 5% virgin glass fibre impregnated in
had a wide particle size ranging from 500 micrometre to 2 mm. epoxy and dispersed in concrete mix has been used mostly in
Consistent quality of GRP waste fibre was expected to improve the Europe [10]. In making cement composite sheets, glass fibre in the
bending strength of cement composites. form of continuous fibre, or chopped fibre or as a mat can be used.
One of the commercial grade panel products developed by The present study revealed that the application of GRP waste fibre
Marley Eternit [27] using the vacuum spray manufacturers’ process has improved the bending strength and reduced the crack propa-
showed that the bending strength of cladding panels developed gation of the cement composites. It was interesting to note that the
using virgin class fibre varies from 17 N/mm2 to 24 N/mm2. control specimens (without GRP waste fibre) showed multiple
However, it was reported that the use of about 5% virgin class fibre cracks and low bending strength.
with 1:1 cement to sand ratio by hand moulded premix process
resulted the bending strength of 9.8 N/mm2 [10]. Without the 3.3.2. Effect of GRP waste fibre on density of architectural cladding
addition of a superplasticiser with a sand to cement ratio of 1:1.6, panels
panel products could not be cast due to poor workability. The The mean density of 12 mm thick cement composites developed
results of this research revealed that the use of GRP waste fibre with using 5% GRP waste fibre was 18% higher than that of the control
the superplasticiser improved the quality of cement composites as specimens (Fig. 10). Similarly, the mean density of 8 mm thick
compared to the control specimen (without GRP waste). panels developed with 5% GRP waste fibre was 15% higher as
The incorporation of glass fibre in cement composites contrib-
uted to the reinforcement between the matrices and increased the

2500
Table 4
Effect of GRP waste fibre (5%) on the bending strength of cement composites.
2000
Panel specimens Bending strength of architectural cladding panel (N/mm2)
Density (kg/m3)

GRP waste fibre (5%) Without GRP waste fibre

1500
Panel dimension: 300 mm  300 mm; 12 mm thickness
R1 17.42 11.99
R2 15.28 9.65 1000
R3 16.95 9.86
Mean 16.55 10.50
500
Standard 1.12 1.30
deviation
Panel dimension: 300 mm  300 mm; 8 mm thickness 0
R1 8.12 6.30 12 mm panel 12 mm panel 8 mm panel 8 mm panel
R2 9.43 6.73 with 5% GRP control with 5% GRP control
R3 9.08 6.99 waste fibre waste fibre
Mean 8.88 6.67
Standard 0.68 0.35
panels
deviation
Fig. 10. Effect of GRP waste fibre on the density of architectural cladding panels.
828 P. Asokan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) 821–829

compared to control samples. Since, the density of glass fibre varied of this preliminary study showed a viable technological option for
from 2540 kg/m3 to 2780 kg/m3, the addition of 5% GRP waste fibre the use of GRP waste in precast concrete products such as precast
in the cement composites might have contributed to increase the paving slabs, roof tiles, precast concrete wall elements, lightweight
density of panels. Moreover, application of the superplasticiser concrete, concrete paving blocks and architectural cladding mate-
reduced the water content and contributed towards more rials. The properties of panel products depend on the consistency
compaction and increased the quantity of cement composites and quality of GRP waste fibre, and access to specialised architectural
leading to a higher density. The mean density of 8 mm panels cladding manufacturing facilities. Furthermore, full compliance
developed without GRP waste fibre was 1668 kg/m3. tests such as durability and fire properties for specific applications in
particular; and comparative life cycle analysis between GRP waste-
3.4. Technical, economical and environmental benefits filled concrete and standard concrete in general are recommended.
The findings of the present investigation have shown quite
The major technical benefit of using GRP waste powder in encouraging results and opened an avenue for the recycling of GRP
concrete composites is the improvement of binding and adhesion of waste ground powder and fibre in concrete and cement composites.
concrete due to the presence of polymeric compounds, CaO, Al2O3
and SiO2 in GRP waste. Furthermore, the glass fibre content in GRP Acknowledgements
waste improved the reinforcement of the cement composites.
Making glass fibre composites is a complex formulation and prop- The authors are thankful to the Technology Strategy Board (UK)
erties of the composites depend on the production process and mix for the opportunity to conduct this research; all the BEAWARE
composition. However, the quality of panel products does depend project partners and their members for their support and cooper-
upon the consistency and properties of GRP waste fibre, and access ation; and Hambleside Danelaw Rooflights and Cladding Limited,
to specialised experimental and manufacturing facilities. Moreover, Scotland for supplying GRP waste powder and fibre. Also thanks are
there is scope for possible inclusion of GRP waste powder along with extended to the technicians and supporting staff of the Institute of
cement rather than the concrete mixing stage. However, further Polymer Technology and Materials Engineering and Department of
studies are recommended to assess the suitability for cement Civil and Building Engineering at Loughborough University for the
substitution by performing appropriate laboratory experiments. GRP technical support.
waste is an inert material; its application in concrete did not show
any undesirable effect during concrete mixing and making process.
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