Bioengineering 280A

Principles of Biomedical Imaging

Fall Quarter 2004

MRI Lecture 1

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Today’s Topics

• The concept of spin

• Precession of magnetic spin
• Relaxation
• Bloch Equation

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

1
 Spin

• Intrinsic angular momentum of elementary

particles -- electrons, protons, neutrons.
• Spin is quantized. Key concept in Quantum
Mechanics.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

The History of Spin

• 1921 Stern and Gerlach observed quantization of

magnetic moments of silver atoms
• 1925 Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit introduce the
concept of spin for electrons.
• 1933 Stern and Gerlach measure the effect of
nuclear spin.
• 1937 Rabi predicts and observes nuclear magnetic
resonance.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

2
 Classical Magnetic Moment

r
A µ = IAnˆ
I

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Energy in a Magnetic Field

Maximum Energy State

r
B E = −µ • B
= − µzB

Lorentz Force

Minimum Energy State

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

3
 Force in a Field Gradient
∂B z
F = −∇E = µz
∂z
Deflected up

€
Increasing
vertical
B-field.

Deflected down

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Stern-Gerlach Experiment

Image from http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/high/eng/exp-stern-gerlach.html?tqskip=1

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

4
 Stern-Gerlach Experiment

Image from http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/high/eng/exp-stern-gerlach.html?tqskip=1

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Quantization of Magnetic Moment

The key finding of the Stern-Gerlach experiment is that

the magnetic moment is quantized. That is, it can only
take on discrete values.

In the experiment, the finding was that

µz = + µ0 OR - µ0

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

5
 Magnetic Moment and
Angular Momentum

A charged sphere spinning about its axis

has angular momentum and a magnetic moment.

This is a classical analogy that is useful for

understanding quantum spin, but remember that
it is only an analogy!

Relation: µ = γ S where γ is the gyromagnetic ratio and

S is the spin angular momentum.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Quantization of Angular Momentum

Because the magnetic moment is quantized, so is the

angular momentum.

In particular, the z-component of the angular momentum

Is quantized as follows:
Sz = ms h

ms ∈{−s,−(s −1),....s}

s is an integer or half integer

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

6
 Nuclear Spin Rules

Number of Number of Spin Examples

Protons Neutrons

Even Even 0 12C, 16O

Even Odd j/2 17O

Odd Even j/2 1H, 23Na, 31P

Odd Odd j 2H

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Hydrogen Proton

Spin 1/2

+h /2
Sz = 
−h /2

 +γh /2
µz = 
 −γh /2

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

7
 Boltzmann Distribution

Ε = µzΒ0
B0
ΔΕ = γhΒ0

Ε = −µzΒ0

Number Spins Up = exp(-ΔE/kT)

Number Spins Down
Ratio = 0.999990 at 1.5T !!!
Corresponds to an excess of about 10 up spins per million

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Equilibrium Magnetization

 n (−µz ) + n down (µz ) 

M 0 = N µ z = N  up 
 N 
e µ z B / kT − e− µ z B / kT
= Nµ
e µ z B / kT + e− µ z B / kT
≈ Nµz2 B /(kT)
= Nγ 2 h 2 B /(4kT)

N = number of nuclear spins per unit volume

€
Magnetization is proportional to applied field.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

8
 Bigger is better

3T Human imager at UCSD. 7T Human imager at U. Minn.

7T Rodent Imager at UCSD

9.4T Human imager at UIC
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Gyromagnetic Ratios

Nucleus Spin Magnetic γ/(2π) Abundance

Moment (MHz/
Tesla)
1H 1/2 2.793 42.58 88 M

23Na 3/2 2.216 11.27 80 mM

31P 1/2 1.131 17.25 75 mM

Source: Haacke et al., p. 27

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

9
 Torque
B

µ
For a non-spinning magnetic moment, the
torque will try to align the moment with
magnetic field (e.g. compass needle)
N

N=µxB
Torque

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Precession
Torque
N=µxB
dS = µ x B
dS =N dt dµ
dt = µ x γB
dt
Change in µ=γS
Angular momentum

Relation between
magnetic moment and
angular momentum

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

10
 Precession
dµ
= µ x γB Analogous to motion of a gyroscope
dt
B Precesses at an angular frequency of
ω=γΒ

dµ This is known as the Larmor frequency.

µ

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Larmor Frequency
ω=γΒ Angular frequency in rad/sec

f = γ Β / (2 π) Frequency in cycles/sec or Hertz,

Abbreviated Hz

For a 1.5 T system, the Larmor frequency is 63.86 MHz

which is 63.86 million cycles per second. For comparison,
KPBS-FM transmits at 89.5 MHz.

Note that the earth’s magnetic field is about 50 µΤ, so that

a 1.5T system is about 30,000 times stronger.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

11
 Magnetization Vector

1 Vector sum of the magnetic

M=
V
∑µ i moments over a volume.
protons
in V For a sample at equilibrium
in a magnetic field, the
transverse components of the
M moments cancel out, so that
€ there is only a longitudinal
component.
Equation of motion is the
dM same form as for individual
= γM × B
dt moments.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

RF Excitation
At equilibrium, net magnetizaion
is parallel to the main magnetic
field. How do we tip the
magnetization away from
equilibrium?

B1 radiofrequency field tuned to

Larmor frequency and applied in
transverse (xy) plane induces
nutation (at Larmor frequency) of
Image & caption: Nishimura, Fig. 3.2
magnetization vector as it tips
away from the z-axis.
- lab frame of reference
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

12
 RF Excitation

a) Laboratory frame behavior of M b) Rotating frame behavior of M

B1 induces rotation of magnetization towards the transverse plane. Strength and
duration of B1 can be set for a 90 degree rotation, leaving M entirely in the xy
plane. Images & caption: Nishimura, Fig. 3.3

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

RF Excitation

From Buxton 2002

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

13
 z
RF Excitation z
z
M0 y y y

x x
x

Doing nothing Excitation Relaxation

M0 (1 – e-t/T1) e-t/T2
z y
x

T1 recovery T2 decay
Credit: Larry Frank
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Relaxation
An excitation pulse rotates the magnetization vector away from
its equilibrium state (purely longitudinal). The resulting vector
has both longitudinal Mz and tranverse Mxy components.

Due to thermal interactions, the magnetization will return to its

equilibrium state with characteristic time constants.

T1 spin-lattice time constant, return to equilibrium of Mz

T2 spin-spin time constant, return to equilibrium of Mxy

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

14
 Longitudinal Relaxation

dM z M − M0
=− z
dt T1

After a 90 degree pulse M z (t) = M 0 (1− e−t /T1 )

€
Due to exchange of energy between nuclei and the lattice (thermal
vibrations). Process continues until thermal equilibrium as
determined by Boltzmann
€ statistics is obtained.

The energy ΔE required for transitions between down to up spins,

increases with field strength, so that T1 increases with B.
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

T1 Values

Gray Matter muscle

White matter

kidney

liver
fat

Image, caption: Nishimura, Fig. 4.2

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

15
 Transverse Relaxation
z z z
dM xy M
= − xy
dt T2
x yx y x y

Each spin’s local field is affected by the z-component of the field

due to other spins. Thus, the Larmor frequency of each spin will be
€ slightly different. This leads to a dephasing of the transverse
magnetization, which is characterized by an exponential decay.

T2 is largely independent of field. T2 is short for low frequency

fluctuations, such as those associated with slowly tumbling
macromolecules.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

T2 Relaxation

After a 90 degree
excitation
M xy (t) = M 0e−t /T2

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

16
 T2 Relaxation

x x
xx
xxx
Runners
xxx xxx
x x x x
xx xx

xxx
x x
xx
Net signal

Credit: Larry Frank

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

T2 Values
Tissue T2 (ms) Solids exhibit very
short T2 relaxation
gray matter 100 times because there are
white matter 92 many low frequency
interactions between
muscle 47
the immobile spins.
fat 85
kidney 58 On the other hand,
liquids show relatively
liver 43
long T2 values, because
CSF 4000 the spins are highly
mobile and net fields
Table: adapted from Nishimura, Table 4.2 average out.

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

17
 Example

T1-weighted Density-weighted T2-weighted

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Bloch Equation

dM M i + M y j ( M z − M 0 )k
= M × γB − x −
dt T2 T1
Precession
Transverse Longitudinal
Relaxation Relaxation

€
i, j, k are unit vectors in the x,y,z directions.
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

18
 Free precession about static field

dM
= M × γB
dt
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= γ Mx My Mz
Bx By Bz
 iˆ ( B M − B M ) 
z y y z
 
ˆ
= γ  − j ( Bz M x − Bx M z )
 kˆ ( B M − B M ) 
 y x x y 

TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Free precession about static field

dM x dt Bz M y − By M z 

   
dM y dt = γ Bx M z − Bz M x 
dM z dt  By M x − Bx M y 
 0 Bz −By M x 
  
= γ −Bz 0 Bx M y 
 By −Bx 0  M z 

€
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

19
 Precession
dM x dt  0 B0 0M x 
    
dM y dt = γ −B0 0 0M y 
dM z dt   0 0 0 M z 

Useful to define M ≡ M x + jM y jMy

€ Mx
dM dt = d dt ( M x + iM y )
€ = − jγB0 M
Solution is a time-varying phasor
M(t) = M(0)e− jγB 0 t = M(0)e− jω 0 t
€
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

Precession
M(t) = M(0)e− jω 0 t
= ( M x (0)cos ω 0 t + M y (0)sin ω 0 t ) + j ( M y (0)cosω 0 t − M x (0)sin ω 0 t )

In matrix form this is M x (t) =  cosω 0 t sin ω 0 t M x (0)

 
€ M y (t) −sin ω 0 t cos ω 0 tM y (0)
The full solution is then a rotation about the z-axis.
M x (t)  cos ω 0 t sin ω 0 t 0M x (0)
    
M y (t) = €−sin ω 0 t cos ω 0 t 0M y (0)
 M z (t)  0 0 1 M z (0)
 M x (0)
 
= Rz (ω 0 t ) M y (0)
 M z (0)
TT. Liu, BE280A, UCSD Fall 2004

20