Chapter 2 Project Design

CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESIGN

3
Chapter 2 Project Design

2.1 Block Diagram:

The following fig. shows the block diagram representation of this project. This project is
mainly use Microcontroller unit [AT89S52] and Infrared sensors [IR]. Astable multivibrator,
transistor driver circuit, buzzer, LCD and power supply unit are also used to implement the
project.

Fig 2.1 Block diagram

4
Chapter 2 Project Design

2.2 Working:

This project is virtual speed breaker for automatic speed control of vehicles at school zones .To
enable this automation every vehicle is fitted with IR receiver module .The IR transmitter is net
represents the school zone. Whenever the vehicle enters into the school zone, the TSOP receiver
senses the signal to the AT89S52 micro controller.Then the AT89S52 micro controller generates
pwm signal to control speed of the vehicle. The buzzer gives audio alert on detection of school
zone .The 16x2 LCD display displays the zone information and speed details.here the DC motor
is used to demonstrate speed control of vehicle.

2.3 ASTABLE MULTI VIBRATOR:

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION:

Multivibrators are nothing but the non-sinusoidal oscillators which are usually two-stage
amplifiers with positive feedback. These circuits generally comprise of passive components like
resistors and capacitors together with active elements which can be BJTs (Bipolar Junction
Transistors) or FETs (Field Effect Transistors) or Vacuum Tubes or Op-Amps or 555 timer ICs.
However while designing them, care must be taken so as to ensure that the two-stages of the
circuit continuously alter their states between cutoff and saturation regions.

Multivibrators can be of three types viz., astablemultivibrators, monostablemultivibrators and

bistablemultivibrators

2.3.2 Astable multivibrator:

Astablemultivibrators are the multivibrators which have no stable state i.e. the multivibrators
in which the output continuously oscillates between two permissible states. As a result, they
produce square-wave at their output and are regarded to be free-running in-nature. Further, these
multivibrators do not require any kind of external triggering, except the DC supply, due to which
they fall under the category of relaxation oscillators.The following figure shows such a circuit
designed using two BJTs Q1 and Q2, two capacitors C1 and C2 and four resistors RC1, RC2, R1 and

5
Chapter 2 Project Design

R2. The frequency of the output signal can be varied by varying the values of the capacitors and
the resistors present in the circuit.

In this kind of circuit, the application of the supply voltage VCC causes one of the transistors to
turn ON earlier than the other due to the inevitable difference in their electrical properties. Now,
let us assume that the Q2 switches ON first, causing the flow of collector current through RC2.

Fig 2.2 Astable multivibrator Using BJTs

This causes the right-plate of the capacitor C2 to be grounded due to which even its left-plate
will be grounded (assuming C2 to be uncharged). This inturn turns OFF the transistor Q1 which

6
Chapter 2 Project Design

causes the left-plate of the capacitor C1 to float. However its right-plate will acquire a charge of
0.7 V as it is connected to the base of the forward biased Q2. At this state, the output O1 will be
high while that at O2 will be low. From then on, C1 continues to charge via RC1 until its left-
terminal acquires a voltage of VCC. In addition, at the same time, even C2 charges via the resistor
R2 increasing the voltage at its left-terminal.

As this continues, a situation arises wherein the voltage at the left-plate of C2 becomes equal to
0.7 V, which forward biases the BE junction of Q1, causing the device to turn ON.When this
happens, both the collector terminal of Q1 as well as the left-terminal of C1 will be shorted to
ground. This causes the right-plate of C1 to acquire a voltage of –VCC, turning OFF Q2. This
results in the output O2 to go high, while the output O1 goes low. Next, C1 starts to charge
through R1, continuing the cycle when its right-plate becomes 0.7 V. This cyclic phenomenon
gives rise to the oscillatory waveform where complementary square signals are generated at the
collector terminals of either transistors.

2.3.3 Application of astablemultivibrator:

o The astable multivibrator is used as the wave generator.

o It is used as voltage-frequency converter.
o It is used in pulse synchronization.
o Since it produces square waves, it is a source of production of a harmonic frequency of
higher order.
o It is used in the construction of voltmeter and SMPS.
o It can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of audio and radio frequencies.

2.4 Astablemultivibrator using IC 555 timer:

2.4.1 Circuit and Operation:

Astablemultivibrator is also called as Free Running Multivibrator. It has no stable states and
continuously switches between the two states without application of any external trigger. The IC
555 can be made to work as an astablemultivibrator with the addition of three external
components: two resistors (R1 and R2) and a capacitor (C). The schematic of the IC 555 as an
astablemultivibrator along with the three external components is shown below.

7
Chapter 2 Project Design

Fig2.3AstablemultivibratorusingIC555timer

The pins 2 and 6 are connected and hence there is no need for an external trigger pulse. It will
self trigger and act as a free running multivibrator. The rest of the connections are as follows: pin
8 is connected to supply voltage (VCC). Pin 3 is the output terminal and hence the output is
available at this pin. Pin is the external reset pin. A momentary low on this pin will reset the
timer. Hence when not in use, pin 4 is usually tied to VCC.

The control voltage applied at pin 5 will change the threshold voltage level. But for normal use,
pin 5 is connected to ground via a capacitor (usually 0.01µF), so the external noise from the
terminal is filtered out. Pin 1 is ground terminal. The timing circuit that determines the width of
the output pulse is made up of R1, R2 and C.

8
Chapter 2 Project Design

2.4.2 Operation:
The following schematic depicts the internal circuit of the IC 555 operating in astable mode. The
RC timing circuit incorporates R1, R2 and C.

Initially, on power-up, the flip-flop is RESET (and hence the output of the timer is low). As a
result, the discharge transistor is driven to saturation (as it is connected to Q’). The capacitor C
of the timing circuit is connected at Pin 7 of the IC 555 and will discharge through the transistor.
The output of the timer at this point is low. The voltage across the capacitor is nothing but the
trigger voltage. So while discharging, if the capacitor voltage becomes less than 1/3 VCC, which
is the reference voltage to trigger comparator (comparator 2), the output of the comparator 2 will
become high. This will SET the flip-flop and hence the output of the timer at pin 3 goes to
HIGH.This high output will turn OFF the transistor. As a result, the capacitor C starts charging
through the resistors R1 and R2. Now, the capacitor voltage is same as the threshold voltage (as
pin 6 is connected to the capacitor resistor junction). While charging, the capacitor voltage
increases exponentially towards VCC and the moment it crosses 2/3 VCC, which is the reference
voltage to threshold comparator (comparator 1), its output becomes high.

Fig 2.4 Internal Circuit of IC 555 operating in Astable mode

9
Chapter 2 Project Design

As a result, the flip-flop is RESET. The output of the timer falls to LOW. This low output will
once again turn on the transistor which provides a discharge path to the capacitor. Hence the
capacitor C will discharge through the resistor R2. And hence the cycle continues.

Thus, when the capacitor is charging, the voltage across the capacitor rises exponentially and the
output voltage at pin 3 is high. Similarly, when the capacitor is discharging, the voltage across
the capacitor falls exponentially and the output voltage at pin 3 is low. The shape of the output
waveform is a train of rectangular pulses. The waveforms of capacitor voltage and the output in
the astable mode are shown below.

Fig 2.5 Output wave forms of Astable multivibrator

10
Chapter 2 Project Design

While charging, the capacitor charges through the resistors R1 and R2. Therefore the charging time
constant is (R1 + R2) C as the total resistance in the charging path is R1 + R2. While discharging, the
capacitor discharges through the resistor R2 only. Hence the discharge time constant is R2C.

2.5 Transistor driver:

A transistor driver is generally used as a current amplifying device. The input is usually from a
low current source such as a logic gate or a sensor.It usually drives higher current devices such
as bulbs and motors.A transistor driver uses the transistor as a switch rather than an amplifier by
saturating the inputs and outputs.This means that any device is switched via its negative terminal
(sinks) rather than the positive (sources), which is the conventional method. This won't matter in
most cases but take care when connecting any polarised device to ensure the supply to it is the
correct way round.

The three most common transistor drivers are shown below and are suitable for most
applications.

2.5.1 NPN Transistor:

Fig 2.6 NPN Transistor

11
Chapter 2 Project Design

2.5.2 Darlington Pair:

Fig 2.7 Darlington pair

2.5.3 MOSFET:

Fig 2.8 MOSFET

12
Chapter 2 Project Design

13