8 Diode Clippers and Clampers

Objective
The performance and operation of diode based clipper and clamper circuits are examined in this exercise.
Items of interest include the programmability of the clipper and non-ideal effects in both circuits.

Theory Overview
The function of the clipper is to ensure that the input waveform never exceeds a certain peak value. This
may be a protective function, that is, a large signal might damage a following circuit, but it may be used
for other reasons, for example, ensuring that signal overage is never reached. Clipping circuits do not
have to be symmetrical. In other words, the positive and negative limits do not have to have the same
magnitude. While clippers can be designed using Zener diodes, the biased clipper offers the advantage of
infinite variability of the limit point. In contrast, Zener based clippers are limited by the available
standard zener potentials and cannot be set to new values without replacement of the Zeners.

Clamper circuits are designed to provide a DC level shift. Typically this means shifting a waveform
vertically so that the entire waveform is either positive or negative with one peak now residing at zero.

Equipment
(1) Dual channel oscilloscope model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) Function generator model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) Dual adjustable DC power supply model:________________ srn:__________________
(2) Signal diodes (1N4148, 1N914)
(1) 10 k Ω resistor ¼ watt actual: ________________________
(1) 100 k Ω resistor ¼ watt actual: ________________________
(1) 100 nF capacitor 25 volt actual: ________________________

1N4148/1N914 Datasheet: https://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/1N914A-D.pdf

68 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

Schematics

Figure 1

Figure 2

Procedure
Clipper
1. Consider the circuit of Figure 1 using Vin = 5 volts peak at 1 kHz, R = 10 kΩ, and both V1 and V2 set
to 0 volts. For any positive signal over approximately 0.7 volts, D1 will turn on and limit the output
voltage at Point A to 0.7 volts. A similar situation occurs with D2 and negative signals. A sine wave
input over several volts will clipped at ± 0.7 volts resulting in a squared off wave.

2. Build the circuit of Figure 1 using R = 10 kΩ, and both V1 and V2 set to 0 volts. Set Vin to a 5 volt
peak sine at 1 kHz. Place one oscilloscope probe at the input and the second at Point A. Make sure the
scope inputs are DC coupled. Record the positive and negative peak values of the resulting output
waveform in Table 1. Also save an image of the scope showing both the input and output waveforms.

3. Set V1 to 2 VDC and V2 to 3 VDC, and repeat step 2.

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 69

Clamper
4. Consider the circuit of Figure 2 using Vin = 5 volts peak at 1 kHz, R = 100 kΩ and C = 100 nF.
Determine the input signal’s period and the RC time constant. Record these values in Table 2. For a
large time constant, the capacitor voltage can be thought of as stable, basically a DC voltage. Initially,
this voltage is zero. On the positive input half-wave, the diode is reverse biased and all of the signal
drops across the resistor. On negative portions though, the diode is forward biased, limiting the output
voltage to within one diode drop of ground. Also, the capacitor will begin to charge, eventually
reaching the peak voltage of the input. This potential will add a DC offset to the input signal resulting
in a clamped output.

5. Build the circuit of Figure 2 using R = 100 kΩ and C = 100 nF. Set Vin to a 5 volt peak sine at 1 kHz.
Set the scope inputs to DC coupled and apply the probes to the input and output points. Record the
positive and negative peak values of the output waveform in Table 3.

6. Reverse the diode and repeat step 5.

Computer Simulation
7. Repeat the clamper procedure of steps 5 and 6 using a simulator, recording the results in Table 4.

Data Tables

Variation Vout Positive Peak Vout Negative Peak

No Bias

With Bias

Table 1

Input Period

RC Time Constant

Table 2

70 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

 Diode Polarity Vout Positive Peak Vout Negative Peak

Original

Reverse

Table 3

Diode Polarity Vout-sim Positive Peak Vout-sim Negative Peak

Original

Reverse

Table 4

Questions
15. Are the clipping thresholds of the circuit of Figure equal to the bias voltages? Why/why not?

16. If the magnitudes of V1 and V2 in Figure 1 had been reversed, what would the output waveform look
like? Would the peaks of the output have changed?

17. What would the output waveform look like if D2 and V2 had been omitted in Figure 1?

18. How accurate is the clamping effect of the circuit of Figure 2? Are there any non-ideal effects? What
is the effect of reversing the diode polarity in Figure 2?

19. What would the output waveform look like if a much smaller capacitor had been used?

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 71

9 Half-wave Rectifier

Objective
The goal of this exercise is to investigate the ideal versus real operation of a basic half-wave rectifier. The
effects of a filtering capacitor are included.

Theory Overview
The primary function of a rectifier is to turn an incoming AC waveform into a pulsating DC waveform.
This can be achieved by simply blocking one of the two polarities from reaching the load. This is called a
half-wave rectifier. A rectifier might be used as part of an AC to DC power supply but might also be used
as part of a signal processing system. Ideally, a diode will behave as either an open or a closed switch
depending on the polarity of the applied signal. This means that one polarity can be allowed through
while the other can be blocked, perfect for this situation. In reality, the diode will require a forward turn-
on potential which results in a portion of the allowed signal being lost (e.g., the first 0.7 volts will be lost
when using a silicon device). This fact makes a simple diode rectifier ineffective when used with very
small signal amplitudes. Finally, in order to “fill the gap” where the blocked polarity would have been, a
capacitor can be used to store some of the energy at the peak to be released during the gap. The higher the
capacitance value, the more effective the smoothing will be.

Equipment
(1) Dual channel oscilloscope model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) Function generator model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) DMM model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) Signal diode (1N914, 1N4148)
(1) 10 k Ω resistor ¼ watt actual: ________________________
(1) 22 nF capacitor actual: ________________________
(1) 470 nF capacitor actual: ________________________

1N4148/1N914 Datasheet: https://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/1N914A-D.pdf

72 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

Schematics

Figure 1

Figure 2

Procedure
Simple Rectifier
1. Consider the circuit of Figure 1. For an input voltage significantly larger than 0.7 volts, the diode will
be forward biased for the positive half of the input sine wave. Therefore, all of the input signal (less
0.7 volts) will appear across the load resistor, R. Conversely, during the negative polarity of the input,
the diode will be open, thus blocking any current and producing no voltage across the load.

2. Build the circuit of Figure 1 using Vin = 10 volts peak at 1 kHz and R = 10 kΩ. Set the oscilloscope
inputs to DC coupled. Place one oscilloscope probe across the input generator and a second probe
across the load resistor. Record the peak amplitude of the output load waveform in Table 1. Also, save
an image of the scope trace showing both the input and output waveforms.

3. Measure the load voltage with the DMM (DC volts) and record this in Table 1.

4. Reverse the diode and repeat steps 2 and 3.

5. Reverse the diode so that it is back to the original orientation. Reduce the input to 800 mV peak and
repeat step 2.

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 73

Filter Capacitor
6. The circuit of Figure 2 adds a filtering capacitor across the load. This should help to “fill the gaps”
created by the missing portions of the waveform. Build the circuit of Figure 2 using Vin = 10 volts
peak at 1 kHz, R = 10 kΩ and C = 22 nF. Making sure that the scope inputs are DC coupled, place
scope probes across the input and load, and capture the resulting image. Record the peak value in
Table 2.

7. Measure the load voltage with the DMM (DC volts) and record this in Table 2.

8. Replace C with the 470 nF capacitor and repeat steps 5 and 6.

Computer Simulation
9. Perform a Transient Analysis simulation of the circuits shown in Figures 1 and 2, and compare the
resulting waveforms to those captured from the oscilloscope.

Data Tables

Variation Vload peak DMM DCV

Original
Reversed Diode
800 mV Input X

Table 1

Capacitor Vload peak DMM DCV

22 nF
470 nF

Table 2

74 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

Questions
1. How well do the peak values of the load voltage track the peak values of the input voltage?

2. What are the limits of the half-wave circuit at rectifying small amplitude signals? What might be done
to improve its effectiveness?

3. What is the effect of reversing the orientation of the diode? How does this affect the DC value
measured by the DMM?

4. What is the effect of adding capacitance to the circuit? How does this affect the DC value measured
by the DMM?

5. How would the waveforms differ if the oscilloscope inputs had been AC coupled instead of DC
coupled?

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 75

10 The Transformer

Objective
The objective of this exercise is to introduce the power transformer. Turns ratio and its effects on primary
secondary voltage and current are of prime importance. The effect of loading will also be examined.

Theory Overview
A power transformer is used to change an AC voltage from one amplitude to another, ideally without
power loss. This is accomplished through a magnetic circuit consisting of a metallic core wrapped with
primary and secondary windings of wire. The ratio of the number of primary windings to secondary
windings is called the turns ratio. The voltage at the secondary can be increased or decreased depending
on this ratio. In the ideal case, or lossless transformer, the product of secondary voltage and current will
equal the product of primary voltage and current. That is, the ideal transformer does not dissipate power
itself, but rather transforms power from one scenario to another. Real transformers dissipate some power
because the copper wires have finite resistance and the magnetic coupling is not 100% efficient. The lost
energy is often found in the form of heat. Another important characteristic of the transformer is that it
creates electrical isolation between the primary and secondary. In other words, the circuit common points
do not have to be the same potential or tied together between the primary and secondary sides.

Typically, power transformers are rated for a given input voltage and frequency (120 VAC/60 Hz in North
America) which yields a specified secondary voltage under load. If the load current is minimal, the
secondary voltage tends to increase beyond the rated value. This is due to the resistance of the windings
and can be reduced by using a larger gauge although this results in a larger transformer. Also, it is
common for secondaries to be split or to have a center tap. A center tap allows the secondary to be treated
as two symmetrical halves. This is useful for circuit rectification circuits. Finally, dots drawn on the
transformer’s schematic symbol and connections indicate like instantaneous polarity on the primary and
secondary. That is, when the primary voltage is positive at its dot, the secondary voltage will also be
positive at its dot.

Equipment
(1) Dual channel oscilloscope model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) Function generator model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) DMM model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) 12.6 volt, 1A center tapped transformer
(1) 10 Ω resistor ¼ watt actual: ________________________
(1) 22 Ω resistor ¼ watt actual: ________________________
(1) 20 Ω resistor 20 watt actual: ________________________

76 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

Schematics

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Procedure
Low Voltage
1. Consider the circuit of Figure 1. With a 12.6 volt secondary rating and a 120 volt primary rating, the
turns ratio is approximately 10:1. In other words, for any reasonable input signal at the primary, the
output at the secondary is expected to be one tenth the voltage and ten times the current.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to the function generator as shown in Figure 1. Set the
generator to a 10 volt peak sine at 60 Hz. Place the oscilloscope probe grounds at the bottom of the
secondary. Connect probe tip one to the top of the secondary and probe tip two to the center tap.
Record the peak amplitudes in Table 1 and capture an image of the scope display. Compute and
record the primary/secondary voltage ratio as well (for the full secondary).

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 77

3. Build the circuit of Figure 2 using Rsense = 22 Ω, Rload = 10 Ω and Vin = 5 volt peak sine at 60 Hz.
Place one scope probe across the load and the other across Rsense. Record the peak amplitudes in
Table 2 and capture an image of the scope display.

4. Using the voltage measured across the sense resistor, determine the primary side current. Using
Ohm’s law and the measured load voltage, determine the load (i.e., secondary) current. Based on
these, compute the primary/secondary current ratio. Record these values in Table 2.

Line Voltage
5. This section uses the 120 VAC line. Treat it with the caution it deserves. Connect the circuit of Figure
3 leaving Rload unconnected. Measure the secondary voltage with the DMM (AC Volts). Record the
value in Table 3 under “Unloaded”.

6. Add the load resistor, 20 Ω, and measure the load voltage with the DMM. Record the value in Table 3
under “Loaded”. Determine the percent change between the loaded and unloaded voltages. Also,
measure the load voltage using the oscilloscope and capture an image of the display.

Data Tables

Full Secondary Voltage

Center Tap Voltage

Pri/Sec Voltage Ratio

Table 1

Primary Sense Voltage

Primary Current

Secondary Voltage

Secondary Current

Pri/Sec Current Ratio

Table 2

78 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

 Vload Unloaded
Vload Loaded
Percent Change

Table 3

Questions
1. Examining the results of the circuit in Figure 1, does the specified turns ratio match that which is
found experimentally? Why/why not?

2. What is the effect of loading on a transformer’s secondary voltage?

3. Does the primary/secondary voltage ratio complement the primary/secondary current ratio? What
does this say about the power dissipation of the transformer?

4. Are there appreciable variations between using the transformer at high input voltages versus low
input voltages?

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 79

11 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Objective
The objective of this exercise is to investigate the operation of a full-wave bridge rectifier as part of an AC
to DC power supply. Also included are the effects of loading and filter capacitance.

Theory Overview
The full-wave bridge, like the half-wave rectifier, is used to turn an AC signal into pulsating DC. The full-
wave bridge requires four diodes instead of one but has the advantage of utilizing the opposite polarity of
the signal, effectively flipping its polarity rather than simply “throwing it away” like the half-wave
circuit. This increases the energy available to the load and lessens the burden on filtering capacitors as the
resulting gap between pulses is much smaller.

Equipment
(1) Dual channel oscilloscope model:________________ srn:__________________
(1) DMM model:________________ srn:__________________
(4) Rectifying diodes (1N4002 series)
(1) 12.6 volt 1 amp center tapped transformer
(1) 1 k Ω resistor ¼ watt actual: ________________________
(1) 20 Ω resistor 20 watt actual: ________________________
(1) 1000 µF capacitor 25 volt actual: ________________________

1N4002 Datasheet: https://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/1N4001-D.PDF

Schematic

Figure 1

80 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application

Procedure
Basic Operation
1. First, note that the circuit of Figure 1 is being powered directly from the AC line. Treat it with
appropriate caution. It is worth repeating that any circuit should be de-energized when making any
changes to it.

2. Consider the circuit of Figure 1 without the capacitor connected. For a positive polarity of secondary
voltage, the upper right and lower left diodes will be forward biased and allow current to flow
through the load from top to bottom. The other two diodes will be reverse biased. For a negative
secondary polarity the opposite occurs. That is, the upper left and lower right pair will be forward
biased while the other two are reverse biased. This arrangement will also cause load current to flow
through the load from top to bottom, thus effectively flipping the negative polarity portion of the
wave.

3. Build the circuit of Figure 1 with Rload = 1 kΩ and C disconnected (open). This represents a very
lightly loaded case. Under light loads, the output of the secondary will often be a little higher than the
rated potential. Set the oscilloscope input to DC coupled. Measure and record the voltage across the
secondary and then across the load. Do not use two probes to do this simultaneously as these two
measurements do not share a common ground. Doing so will short out a portion of the circuit. Record
the results in Table 1 and capture an image of the load voltage display.

4. Measure the load voltage with a DMM set to DC volts. Record this value in Table 1.

5. Replace the load with the 20 Ω resistor to simulate greater loading. Repeat steps 3 and 4.

6. Return the load resistor to the original 1 kΩ value and insert the 1000 µF capacitor. Measure the load
voltage with both the oscilloscope and DMM, recording the values in Table 2. Be sure to capture an
image of the scope display.

7. Replace the load with the 20 Ω resistor to simulate greater loading. Measure the load voltage with
both the oscilloscope and DMM, recording the values in Table 2. Once again, be sure to capture an
image of the scope display.

Computer Simulation
8. Simulate the circuit of Figure 1 using Transient Analysis. Use three variations, comparing the plotted
waveforms to those measured in the laboratory: C = open with Rload = 20 Ω, C = 1000 μF with
Rload = 1 kΩ, and C = 1000 μF with Rload = 20 Ω.

Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application 81

Data Tables

Load Vsecondary scope Vload scope Vload DMM

1 kΩ

20 Ω

Table 1, no capacitor

Load Vload scope Vload DMM

1 kΩ

20 Ω

Table 2, with capacitor

Questions
1. What is the effect on the load voltage as the loading increases (i.e., as Rload decreases)?

2. What is the effect of adding the capacitor across the load?

3. How do the load voltages as measured by the DMM compare to those measured with the
oscilloscope? Is there a pattern between the pairs of measurements?

4. How would the load voltages change if the diode bridge is connected between one end of the
secondary and the center tap instead of across the entire secondary?

82 Laboratory Manual for Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application