4.USE NUMERICAL PROTECTION.

APPLYING THE CONCEPT OF

COORDINATION RELAY TO ADJUSTMENT PROTECTION

4.1 THE SET UP FOR OPERATING MODE (ABNORMAL CONDITION) .

4.1.1 Fault and abnormal condition in Power system.
A fault can be considered as an abnormal operating condition of the power system as a result of a reduction
in the insulation between conductors or to earth and is usually accompanied by a significant increase of
current above normal load levels.[ 2 ]
Most faults in an electrical utility system with a network of overhead lines are one-phase-to-ground faults
resulting primarily from lightning-induced transient high voltage and from falling trees and tree limbs. In
the overhead distribution systems, momentary tree contact caused by wind is another major cause of faults.
Ice, freezing snow, and wind during severe storms can cause many faults and much damage. These faults
include the following, with very approximate percentages of occurrence :

Table 4.1.1 Type of fault in power system [2]

Type of fault Probability

Single phase-to-ground 70%–80%

Phase-to-phase-to ground 17%–10%
Phase-to-phase: 10%–8%
Three-phase: 3% – 2%

Other than the three-phase fault, the other types present unbalanced conditions to the three-phase network.
Analysis of these conditions traditionally involved using symmetrical components.
Type of fault and intensity depending on many parameters including voltage level ,operation mode of
network star point (isolated ,resistively grounded or compensated) .Therefore ,particular elements in
substation ( lines, generator ,transformer..) follow kind of faulty and abnormal phenomena differently.. For
example :
• busbars: phase-to-ground short-circuits, phase faults;
• power transformers: ground faults,phase faults at the terminals, short-circuits between turns, tap-
changer failures, transformer tank oil leaks, overexcitation, overload ..etc;
One of the major parts of system protection is orientated towards short-circuit detection. Interrupting
equipment at all voltage levels that is capable of withstanding the fault currents and isolating the faulted
area requires considerable investments. Therefore the main reason for performing short-circuit fault studies
are following [14] [15]:

 selection of the interrupting equipment for system planning purpose ;

 conceptualization ,design and refinement system layout, neutral grounding and substation
grounding ;
 determination of the system protective device settings, which is done primary by quantities
characterizing the system under fault condition.
The protection relay is able to discriminate fault conditions provided that the current magnitude in one or
more phases exceeds the maximum expected load current ,or voltage decrease below setup range and
detected symmetric component ..etc .
For the fault ,the various protective devices must be properly coordinated such that the primary relays
assigned to operate at the first sign of trouble in their assigned protective zone operate first. Should they
fail, various backup systems must be available and able to operate to clear the trouble
According to IEC 60909-0, a short circuit is the accidental or intentional conductive connection through a
relatively low resistance or impedance between two or more points of a circuit that are normally at different
potential.
The variation in the magnitude of the short-circuit current is due two main components .They are equivalent
system impedance at the fault point ,which produces a decaying DC component and the performance of the
rotation machinery, which resulting in a decaying AC component . The fault characteristics can be divided
in to three time divisions [13]:

 Sub- transient ,which is immediately following the fault occurrence , is associated with largest
currents
 Transient ,this is associated with the DC and AC decay of the fault current
 Steady state ,occurs after all the transients had time to settle and the characteristics are not changing
.
The time behavior of the short-circuit current depends on the fault location relative to the generation ,and
therefore in IEC 60909 standard on short circuit current faults ,where far -from -generator and near -to -
generator current waveforms are distinguished :
- short -circuit current far- from -generator with constant AC component .
- short -circuit current near- to -generator with decaying AC component
The three following parameters of short circuit current have also been identified as being important by [ 14
]:
- Total time duration : the total operating time of protective equipment and the breaking time of
switchgear trigger by protective device .
- The RMS value of the short circuit current : this parameter together with time duration ,give a
measure for thermal effects of short-circuit .
- The short circuit breaking current :,which is r.m.s value of the short-circuit current at the time
operating of the circuit breaker.

Figure 4.1.1.b Short -circuit current near- to -generator [13 ]

where

I’’k is the initial symmetrical AC current ,

ip is the peak short-circuit current ,
I dc is the decaying DC aperiodic component and A is the initial value of the DC aperiodic
component .

4.1.2 Short-circuit calculation

Two methods are presented for the calculation of short-circuit currents in this thesis :
• the impedance method
• the IEC 60909 method, used primarily for HV networks, was selected for its accuracy and its
analytical character.
a ,Calculation of three-phase short-circuit
For calculating short-circuit ,some simplifying assumption are required able to make a faster calculation of
short -circuit current .The most importance assumptions are [ 14 ]:

 The short-circuit current ,during three phase short circuit ,is assumed to occurs simultaneously on
all three phase.
 The voltage responsible for the flow of current and short-circuit impedance do not change
significantly for entire duration
 Arc resistance are not taken into account
 Line capacitances and the parallel admittances of non-rotation loads except those of the zero -
sequence system ,are neglected .
 Load currents are neglected
 All zero-sequence impedances are taken into account

Figure 4.1.2.1 Principle of the equivalent voltage source method

The voltage connect at the fault location define by E= c.Un /√3

All network feeder are replaced by their internal impedance (positive ,negative and zero- sequence)
For a three-phase fault at point F of the network from Fig. , the initial symmetrical short-circuit
current value is given by
 E 𝑐. 𝑈𝑛
𝐼 ′′𝑘 = = (4.1.2.1 )
(𝑍 𝑘 ) √3 (𝑍 𝑄 + 𝑍 𝑇 + 𝑍 𝐿 )

where , Zk is the equivalent short-circuit impedance of the electric network at the short-circuit location F.
The impedances of the network feeder ( Z S ) and the transformer ( ZT ) are calculated relative to the rated
voltage of the fault location. For the impedance ZT a correction factor k must be applied, c is a voltage
factor shown in Table 4.1.2 a.

Table 4.1.2 a Value for voltage factor c [14]

Rate Voltage Voltage factor c

Un Short circuit maxim Short circuit minim
< 1 kV
If torelance +6 % 1.05 0.95
If torelance +10 % 1.1 0.95

1 to 550 kV 1.1 1

b ,Calculation of asymmetrical faults using symmetrical components

Calculation using symmetrical components is particularly useful when a three-phase network is unbalanced.
This calculation method is also required when :
 A voltage and current system is not symmetrical. This is the case for phase-to-earth or phase-to-
phase short-circuits with or without earth connection .
 The network includes rotating machines and/or special transformers (Yyn connection)
This method is based on the principle that any set of three vectors may by resolved into three sets of vectors
[ ] [ ]:
 a balanced positive sequence set formed by three vectors of equal magnitude shifted by
120° and having the same phase sequence as the original system
 a balanced inverse sequence set formed by three vectors of equal magnitude shifted by 120°
and having inverse phase sequence to that of the original system
 a zero sequence set formed by three vectors of equal magnitude in phase

Figure 4.1.2.2 Symetric component

 Ι1(1) is the positive-sequence component
Ι1(2) is the negative-sequence component
Ι1(0) is the zero-sequence component and by using the following operato

The superposition principle used to calculate the fault currents :

Ι1 (1) = 1. Ι1 (1) + a Ι1 (2) + Ι1 (0)

Ι2 (1) = a2. Ι2 (1) + a Ι2 (2) + Ι2 (0) (4.1.2.2)
Ι1 (1) = a. Ι3 (1) + a2 Ι3 (2) + Ι3 (0)

where
1 √3
a = e j 2 / 3 = + 𝑗
2 2

These symmetrical current components are related to the symmetrical voltage components by the
corresponding impedances:
Z=V/I (4.1.2.3)

Procedure of short-circuit calculation:

 Calculate the equivalent voltage at the fault location, equal to c.Un /√3 (the same case a )
 Determine and add up the equivalent positive- sequence, negative-sequence and zero-sequence
impedances upstream of the fault location.
 Calculate the initial short-circuit current 𝐼 ′′𝑘 using the symmetrical components.
 Once the the rms value of the initial short-circuit current (I" k) is known, it is possible to calculate
the other values: ip, peak value ; Ib, rms value of the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current, idc,
aperiodic component, Ik, rms value of the steady-state short-circuit current.
The calculation of the peak current based on The Standard IEC 60909 the following relationship:

Ip = k √2 Ik ( 4.1.2.4 )
where the value of “k” can be evaluated with the following approximate formula:
k (£) = 1.02 + 0.98 e -3 R/ X ( 4.1.2.5 )
For short-circuits far from the generator , the initial (I" k), steady-state (Ik) and breaking (Ib) short-circuit
currents are equal (I" k = Ik = Ib) and impedances are equal (Z(1) ) = (Z(2) )
 Table 4.1.2 b Short-circuit values calculation based on symmetric component

Type I" k I" k

of short circuit Near generator Fault occur far rotation machine
𝑐.𝑈𝑛 𝑐.𝑈𝑛
Three phase 𝐼 ′′𝑘3 = 𝐼 ′′𝑘3 =
√3 |𝑍 (1) | √3 |𝑍 (1) |

√3 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 √3𝑐.𝑈𝑛
Phase-to-phase clear of earth 𝐼 ′′𝑘2 = 𝐼 ′′𝑘2 =
|𝑍 (1) +𝑍 (2) | | 2𝑍 (1) |

√3 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 √3 𝑐.𝑈𝑛
Phase to earth 𝐼 ′′𝑘1 = 𝐼 ′′𝑘1 =
|𝑍 (1) +𝑍 (2) + 𝑍 (0) | |2𝑍 (1) + 𝑍 (0) |

Phase-to-phase-to-earth
√3 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 . 𝑍 (1) √3 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 . 𝑍 (1)
𝐼 ′′𝑘𝐸2𝐸 = 𝐼 ′′𝑘𝐸2𝐸 =
|𝑍 (1) 𝑍 (2) +𝑍 (2) 𝑍 (0) + 𝑍 (0) 𝑍 (1) | |2𝑍 (1) + 𝑍 (0) |

√3 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 .| 𝑍 (0) −𝑎 𝑍 (2) 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 .| 𝑍 (0) −𝑎 𝑍 (1) |

𝐼 ′′𝑘𝐸2𝑙2 = 𝐼 ′′𝑘𝐸2𝐿2 =
|𝑍 (1) 𝑍 (2) +𝑍 (2) 𝑍 (0) + 𝑍 (0) 𝑍 (1) | |𝑍 (1) | |2(𝑍 (1) +𝑍 (0) |

𝑐.𝑈𝑛 .| 𝑍 (0) −𝑎2 𝑍 (2) | 𝑐.𝑈𝑛 .| 𝑍 (0) −𝑎2 𝑍 (1) |

𝐼 ′′𝑘2𝐸𝐿3 = 𝐼 ′′𝑘2𝐸𝐿3 =
|𝑍 (1) 𝑍 (2) +𝑍 (2) 𝑍 (0) + 𝑍 (0) 𝑍 (1) | | |𝑍 (1) | |2(𝑍 (1) +𝑍 (0) |

*symmetrical impedances = Z(1) , Z(2) , Z(0)

4.2.1 Overcurrent Relay

4.2.1.1 Independent Time Overcurrent Relays

Radial network is the most widespread and most economic design of both MV and LV networks ,protection
system in radial networks is simple to design and implement , since short-circuit currents have only one
possible path that needs to be interrupted .

Figure 4.2.1.1a Distribution substation transformer with radial feeders

 B C D E
A’ A

Fig 4.2.1.1.b Radial distribution system with diferent-transformer substation and consumers

Basic feeder protection principles are well-known as Phase and Ground overcurrent functions
reliably detect most faults. Overcurrent relays are normally supplied with an instantaneous element and a
time-delay element .The high-set and the instantaneous stage (3I>> and 3I>>> or 50 ANSI) have definite
time characteristic and their purpose is to accelerate the operation of the protection under heavy fault
current conditions . The instantaneous element has to be set about 25% above the maximum through fault
current [11]

In the example of Figure 4.2.1.1a Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays was applied for feeder
protection. These relays operate without time delay .

In the example of Figure 4.2.1.1b , the overcurrent protection also must be provided with time
delay element - definite time relay used for this system .If a fault occurs at E, the relay at D will operate
in t seconds and the subsequent operation of the circuit breaker at D will clear the fault before the relays
at C,B, A and A’ have time to operate. The time interval between each relay time setting must be long
enough to ensure that the upstream relays do not operate before the circuit breaker at the fault location has
tripped and cleared the fault.

t t

TRIP AREA
t0

Ip I Ip I
Fig. 4.2.1.2 instantaneous curve -there is always
Fig. 4.2.1.3 Definite time relay curve
inherent time delay of the order few millisecond

In the time grading method, the protection relays in successive zones are arranged in time so that only
the relays near to the fault operate first. The correct co-ordination of overcurrent relays in a power system
requires the calculation of the estimated relay settings in terms of both current and time .For this purpose, a
time-delay element are used .
𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝐼𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝 = 𝐼
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.𝑚𝑎𝑥
where (4.2.1.1)
Iload current. full load current;
kres reset factor ;
ksig safety factor of relay , value between 1.15÷1.25 .

The phase overcurrent relays must not operate at the maximum continuous load current. The phase
overcurrent relays must not operate at high load currents after an outage. Such currents may be much higher
than the maximum continuous load current, especially if the load is electrical space heating [10 ]

I T

Figure 4.2.1.4.Overcurrent with a time delay element [4]

A B C D E

A’

ts

T4
T3
T2
T1

A’ A B C D E

Figure. 4.2.1.5 Protection relay operation time in case of fault at bus E

In the example of Figure 4.2.1.1, the grading times have been defined separately for each relay . The grading
time between definite time relay has been show in Fig. 4.2.1.5.
When numerical relays are used, the required grading times can be calculated from Equations (4.2.1.2 ). For
definite time relays, the grading time Δt DT is obtained from :

Δt DT= 2⋅tE + tR + tCB + tM (4.2.1.2)

where
tE is the tolerance of the relay operating time
tCB is the circuit breaker operating time
tR is the relay retardation time
tM is the safety margin

The safety margin takes into account the possible delay of the relay operation due to CT-saturation caused
by the DC-component of the fault current. The length of the possible additional delay thus occurring is
affected by the fault type, fault current magnitude and the ratio between the CT-accuracy limit factor and
the set current value. The retardation time is the time period just before the elapsing of the operation delay
timer [9]

4.2.1.2 Dependent Time Overcurrent Relays

Because of the limitations of both discrimination by time and discrimination by current, the inverse time
characteristic has been developed. With this characteristic, the operating time is inversely proportional to
the fault current level, and the actual characteristic is a function of both time and current.
The IEC 60255-151 and BS 142 standards define four characteristic time-current curve sets for inverse time
relays:
 Normal inverse
 Long-time inverse
 Very inverse
 Extremely inverse . For inverse time relays the operating time (s) can be calculated from the
equation
𝑘. 𝛽
𝑡=
I α
( 𝐼 >) − 1

where (4.2.1.2.1)
k is an adjustable time multiplier
I is the measured phase current value
I> is the set start (pickup) current value
α, β are curve set-related parameters
According to the standards, the relay should start once the energizing current exceeds 1.3 times the set
start current when the normal, very or extremely inverse time characteristic is used. When the long-time
inverse characteristic is used the relay should start when the energizing current exceeds 1.1 times the
set start current [9].
 The parameters α and β define the steepness of the time-current curves as follows:
Table 4.2.1 Curve set related parameters

Type of characteristic α β
Normal inverse 0.02 0.14
Very inverse 1.0 13.5
Extremely inverse 2.0 80.0
Long-time inverse 1.0 120.0

Figure 4.2.1.2a shows three circuit breakers, each with inverse protection characteristics, at
substations A, B and C. Now, as the fault current decreases as distance from the source substation
increases, we might have a fault current. If for a fault at the position F1. The figure shows that this
current will cause relay 3 to operate in time t1. For this value of current, relay near station A would
operate in time t2, which is longer than time t1; hence, provided relay 2 does actually operate its circuit
breaker to successfully clear the fault, then relay 1 will reset at time t1. Time operation time of relay
calculation base on Equation (4.2.1.2).

Top_s A-R1
× 0.1
1× B-R3
C-R5

1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2
1,1
1
0,9
0,8
T2 0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
T1
0,1
IDSC ICSC IBSC IASC I
IF
SC

R1 R2 R3 F1 R4 R5
If, however, A B C relay 3 does
not
Figure 4.2.1.2a Invers time current relays coordination
clear
for
some reason, for example, the circuit breaker fails to open when required, then relay 1 will act
as a backup stage to relay 1 and will clear the fault at time t2.
Relay 1 ,3 ,5 setting in forward direction .
Relay 2,4, 6 setting in reverse direction .
 Directionality
In numerical relay ,the directional characteristic is evaluated when the operating current is greater than the
corresponding pickup threshold.The polarization of the directional element is done with the positive and
negative sequence voltages. These quantities can be obtained from the three phase-to-earth voltage signals
or from at least two phase-to-phase voltage signals, associated in one analogue channel connected to the
function input U. [ 12 ]

U (1) = ( U1 + a U2 + a2 U3 ) /3 (4.2.1.2.1)
U (0) = ( U1 + a2 U2 + a U3 ) /3

The numerical relay evaluates the fault direction by taking into account the phase angle difference between
the positive sequence current and the positive sequence voltage and the phase angle difference between the
negative sequence current and the symmetrical of the negative sequence voltage. The maximum torque
angle, which defines the rotation of the characteristic, is configured by the user in setting DirectionAngle.
It should be set according to the phase angle of the system positive sequence impedance.

Figure 4.2.1.2b Phase Overcurrent directional characteristic.

The memory of the pre-fault voltages in numerical relay is kept during approximately one second; in real
operating conditions, this is usually enough to guarantee a safe trip decision. If nonetheless the fault
condition persists after the memory timeout elapses, the protection maintains the directional decision that
was taken before.
In some applications, like MV feeders in radial distribution networks, this simple operation principle is
enough to provide an effective protection, and the Overcurrent Protection can be used as the main protection
function against faults.
In meshed networks or when faults can be fed from more than one source (e.g. in the presence of distributed
generation),the Overcurrent Protection may be complemented with a directional criterion based for instance
in the phase angle difference between phase currents and a polarization voltage, which ensures the adequate
discrimination of faults in the forward and reverse directions.

4.2.2 Longitudinal Differential Protection Systems

The Differential protection continuously monitors all phase currents entering or leaving the
protected object (balance current principle.). For example figure below shown following Line
differential protection .

Figure 4.2.2.1 Line differential protection

In this case an overhead line or an underground cable. Apart from the magnetizing and
capacitive currents, the sum of these currents in a healthy line is always zero (Kirchhoff law). For
an internal fault, the differential current equals the fault current. Due to the long distances between
line ends, the measuring has to be done by several devices that then exchange between them the
necessary information so the calculations can be performed.
Protection operates when the differential current Id exceeds a certain value. Equation (4.2.2.1)
defines the operating condition for a current differential protection system.
 I d = | I 1 - I 2 -..-In| > f (IS) (4.2.2.1)
Here f (⋅) is a function of the stabilizing current. Equation (4.2.2.2) defines the stabilizing current
or opereation current IS :
IS = (| I1 |+| I2 |+..+| In |)/2 (4.2.2.2)

Calculations can be performed in each line end independently (Master-Master mode) or only in
one of the devices that concentrates all the information makes the decision and sends tripping
commands to other line ends (Master-Slave mode)

Figure 4.2.2.2 Differential relay operation characteristic

IDmin = minimum differential current (secondary) required to operate the relay

X1 = turning point 1

X2= turning point 2

S1 = Slope 1 setting

S2 = Slope 2 setting

As the fault current increases ,the chance of CT satuaration or other problem occurring dramatically
increases which can cause up 20% error during asymmetric faults.The digital/numerical relays use
programing instead of components for their pick-up evaluations.The second slope was added to be
used when the restraint current exceeds a manufacture or user defined level of current [ 16 ]
The transaction between the two slope setting is call breakpoint or knee .The differential
characteristic curve with Minimum pick-up and two slope shown in figure 4.2.2.2
the differential protection is suitable for the main protection in ring and meshed systems with
possible multiple supply points and changing network connections where a fast fault clearing is
required. Advantage of differential protection [15] :
Fast operation, operating time typically 1-2 cycles
• Generally the choice of setting values is easy and independent of network conditions
• Applicable also for short lines ; Does not require voltage transformers
• Depending on the algorithm design, power transformers can be included in the zone of protection
• To some extent, tapped loads can be included in the zone of protection .

Settings for Differential relay The most common setting used in 87-elements are [4 ] [15] :

 Minimum pick-up (Restrained )

The Minimum Pick-up setting is used to provide more stability to the differential element by
requiring a minimum amount of current to flow before the differential element operate .
The minimum operate current is used to prevent nuisance trips due to noise or metering errors at
low current levels. This setting should be set around 0.3 times the nominal or tap setting of the
protevtion device.
 Tap
The tap setting defined the normal operate current based on the rate load of the protected equipment
(plant), thr primary voltage and the CT ratio .This setting used as the per-unit operate current of
the protective device.

𝐶𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 × 𝑆
𝐼 𝑇𝐴𝑃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
√3 𝑈𝑝−𝑝 × 𝐶𝑇𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦

where (4.2.2.3)
CT primar ,CT secondary Nominal current transformer at primary and secondary side
S Apparent Power at Relaying point .
U p- p (Nominal ) Phase voltage

 Slope -1
The slope 1 setting sets ratio of operate current to restraint current that mus be exceeded before the
87-element will operate.this slope setting typically set at 20-30%.
 Sope- 2
The slope -2 setting sets the ratio of operate current to restrain current that must be exceeded before
87 -element operateif the restraint current exceeds pre-defined or user define breaking point
between Slope-1 and Slope-2.

 Breakpoint
This setting defines wether Slope-1 or Slope-2 will be used for the diferential calculation .The
Brekpoint is defined as multiple of tap and if the restraint current exceeds the Breakpoint seeting
,the 87-element will use Slope -2 for its calculation .
 Time Delay
The Time Delay setting sets a time delay between 87-element pick -up and trip .This is typically
setat the minimum possible setting ,but can be set as high as 3 cycles for maximum reliability on
some relay.

4.2.3. Distance Protection

The distance protection function is the most widely spread protection function in transmission and
subtransmission networks. It is also becoming increasingly important in distribution networks. The
main reasons for this are [11] :
 The reach of the zones and selectivity is greatly independent of the magnitude of fault
currents and network conditions..
 The distance protection forms a relatively selective protection system ,it can also operate
as a remote back-up protection for other primary elements in the network.
The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at the relaying point
by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated is compared with the reach point
impedance. If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a
fault exists on the line between the relay and the reach point.
Ideally, the distance function can be set according to the known line impedance only. In practice,
however, there are several other factors affecting the impedance measurement, which must also be
taken into account in the setting considerations, such as [15]:
• fault resistance
• impedances of the healthy loops during the fault
• impedance of the load
• load transfer
• intermediate in-feeds or out-feeds
• parallel lines
• line asymmetry
In order to take these factors into account, a wide operating area in the RX-plane is actually needed.
This operating area is known as the zone characteristic or distance zone, which has a certain reach
based on the settings along the protected circuit. Faults occurring inside this zone are then detected
and cleared by the function.
The distance protection function in of numerical terminals consists of three to five independent
distance protection zones, each of them comprising three measuring elements for phase-to-earth
(Ph-E) faults and/or three measuring elements for phase-to-phase (Ph-Ph) faults [15] [16]
Typically, the characteristic is a geometric figure consisting of straight lines and/or circles. The
most common shapes are [4] :
  Directional quadrilateral or the quad characteristic
 Circular or the mho characteristic
 Non-directional circular or the offset-mho characteristic
 Non-directional quad characteristic
 Combination of the circular and quad characteristic, called the bullet characteristic
The quad characteristic has always a fixed shape in the RX-plane. The mho characteristic, on the
other hand, can be made to adjust its size automatically in relation to the source impedance during
the fault. The expanding feature of the characteristic gives automatically a larger operating margin
in the RX-plane and thus, a larger coverage for the fault resistance can be obtained.[ ]

Figure 4.2.3.1 Distance Relay Characteristic

Careful selection of the reach settings and tripping times for the various zones of measurement
enables correct coordination between distance relays on a power system. Basic distance protection
will comprise instantaneous directional .Typical reach and time settings for a 3-zone distance
protection are following [ 5 ] :
Zone Setting
Zone 1 = 80-85% of protected line impedance
Zone 2 (minimum) = 120% of protected line
Zone 2 (maximum) < Protected line + 50% of shortest second line
Zone 3F = 1.2 (protected line + longest second line)
Setting of minimum operating current
Minimum operating fault current IMinOp defines the sensitivity of the distance protection. Default
setting value, which is 20% of basic terminal current, proved in practice as the optimum value for
the most of applications.
Setting of timers for the distance protection zones
The required time delays for different distance-protection zones are independent of each other.
Distance protection zone 1 can also have a time delay, if so required for selectivity reasons. One
can set the time delays for all zones (basic and optional) in a range of 0 to 60 second
Setting the directional lines
ArgDir and ArgNegRes setting parameters define the position of the directional lines in impedance
plane .Their default values are 15° and 25° .

Figure 4.2.3.2 Example of typical distance zone application and coordination in sub-transmission
networks

A typical example of this is presented in Figure 8.8.9, which shows the zones set for a 5-stage
distance protection IED for a line between stations A and B. The zones Z2 and Z3 are set for time-
grading in the forward direction, which means that they reach into the protection areas of the
following distance protection IEDs in the protection chain, that is, the zones are overreaching, also
providing inherent backup protection.
The zone Z1 does not reach into the protection zone of the next distance protection IED in the
chain, that is, zone Z1 is underreaching. This means that no time-grading is needed and the zone
Z1 can operate according to the fastest possible operating time.
The zones 4 and 5 designated as ZAR1 and ZAR2 are dedicated only for controlling the
autorecloser function. The purpose of the zone ZAR1 is to determine if the fault is on the cable
section of the protected line or not. By applying a so-called zone extension or local acceleration
logic controlled by the autorecloser (AR) function, the entire length of the protected line is possible
to be covered by fast tripping without the use of a communication channel. The logic allows the
zone ZAR2 with the desired overreach characteristic to trip non-delayed and to initiate the first
shot of the AR-sequence.

Figure 4.2.3.3 Simplified logic diagram for the local acceleration logic [15]

4.2.4 Breaker Failure Protection

Breaker failure protection is part of the local backup protection. The breaker failure protection has
to trip the adjacent breakers when the main breaker does not interrupt the fault current.
Breaker failure protection consists of a timer, which the protection starts when it operates. If the
fault current persists for a longer time than the setting of the timer, the breaker failure protection
gives a trip command to the adjacent breaker.

Figure 4.2.4 Block diagram of Breaker failure function [4]

The “breaker failure” protection function is activated by an O1 output tripping order received from
the protection functions ( 50/51, 50N/51N, 46, 67N, 67..). It checks for the disappearance of current
during the time interval specified by the time delay T.
It may also take into account the position of the circuit breaker read on the logic inputs to determine
the actual opening of the breaker (trip circuit supervision )
The starting and stopping of the time delay T counter are conditioned by the presence of a current
above the set point (I > Is). The Breaker Failure Timer delay should be longer than :
 the normal circuit breaker opening time, and
 the time necessary for any arcs to be quenched after the circuit breaker opens, and
 a margin of time to account for unexpected circumstances to give the CB plenty of time to
operate before all the other circuit breakers are tripped by the BF Scheme.

4.2.5 Thermal Overload Protection

The Thermal Overload protection is a function which implements a thermal model of the motor,
transformer or cable,based in its input currents. This function has the main purpose of preventing
the deterioration of insulating and electrical properties of the material when exposed to overheating
caused by the currents.
Thermal overload protection principle is based on a differential equation which relates the increase
in temperature to the current in the conductor. This temperature rise depends on the dissipation
capacity of the material and the conditions surrounding it. [4]
The thermal overload function estimates the temperature increase above the environment
temperature in the power equipment that is being supervised. The calculation is based on the actual
current value and on the maximum permissible current in continuous operation. The estimation of
the temperature rise caused by the current is based on the following differential equation [16]:
𝜕𝜃
𝜏 +𝜃 =𝑙
𝜕𝜏
where ( 4.2.5.1)

𝜽 Temperature rise.
𝝉 Thermal time constant.
l Ratio between the measured current and the maximum current supported
The measured current is current see by relay or input parameter . If we consider that the temperature
𝜕𝜃
value has reached a steady state condition, then the value of 𝜏 𝜕𝜏 = 0 This way we can find the
maximum temperature driven by that current 𝜽 𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
Since this function works with temperature quantities, which have a naturally time response,
this function base on second condition selected coordination mention in previous chapter. It is not
expected that this function be capable of detecting short-circuits. Because overload phenomena is
considered as long -term phenomena so a continuously monitors the current value in each phase is
necessary.