Set 3 Introduction to Fault Analysis
Remember our long list of relays from the IEEE List
21 Distance relay 56 Over voltage relay
24 Over fluxing relay (volts per Hz relay) 63 Pressure switch relay
27 Undervoltage relay 69 Out of step relay
32 Directional power relay 81 Frequency relay
46 Negative sequence current relay 86 Lockout relay
47 Negative sequence voltage relay 87 Differential protection
49 Thermal relay relay
50 Instantaneous over current relay
51 Timed over current relay
55 Power factor relay
There are only two that require major calculations in order to determine the
settings for the relay
50, 51 Overcurrent relays
69 Out of step, or loss of synchronism relay
1
Modelling for Fault Studies
• Transmission line capacitances are in shunt and have a very large impedance.
They have no impact on fault levels. Ignore them.
• X/R ratios for all power system components are high (generators, transformers,
transmission lines.
Suppose Z = 1 + j10 ohms = 10.05 (magnitude),
ISC = V/Z = 100/10.05 = 9.95 amps
OR
ISC = V/X = 100/10 (neglecting R) =10.0
[Very little loss of accuracy in neglecting resistance R]
• We do all our calculations in per unit. Transformer turns ratios disappear in per
unit.
* Therefore all circuit models for short circuit current calculations involve only
voltage sources and reactances.
2
Balanced Fault
Balanced fault (only one):
● Three phase short circuit (tower falls to earth shorting all
three phase together)
1. It acts on all phases in the same way.
1. If we calculate what is happening to the current in phase A,
then we automatically know what is happening in phase B
and phase C. The current magnitudes are identical, they are
shifted in phase by 120 degrees.
2. Therefore, we can use a per-phase model.
3
Unbalanced Faults
Unbalanced faults (many):
● Line to ground, or phase to ground (L-G).
● Line to line, or phase to phase (L-L)
● Line to line to ground, or phase to phase to ground (L-
L-G)
● Open phase, or open conductor
85% of all faults on the power system are L-G.
80% of them are temporary.
SO – only open the faulted line permanently if we really
have to do that.
4
Unbalanced Faults
Unbalanced faults (many):
● Line to ground, or phase to ground (L-G).
● Line to line, or phase to phase (L-L)
● Line to line to ground, or phase to phase to
ground (L-L-G)
● Open phase, or open conductor
85% of all faults on the power system are L-G.
80% of them are temporary.
AND:
We always use “reclosers” on the distribution
system.
They try to reclose ONCE, TWICE and then stay
OPEN if the fault still persists
5
Unbalanced Fault Analysis
● Faults are unbalanced.
● Cannot use a per-phase model.
● Have to model all three phases.
● Only two choices.
1. Model the self inductance of each phase, and the mutual inductances
between all phases, for every device on the power system.
2. Use Symmetrical Components – the overwhelming choice.
[Even though this seems ridiculous – why would anyone want to have to
define a new set of impedances for all power system components?. Later
we will learn that we call them positive, negative and zero sequence
impedances]
6
A generator is a special component – it is a set of coupled coils
7
The effect of many coupled circuits
For a short time, the current decayed with a very, very
small time constant
Westinghouse
put a direct, Then the current decay was determined by a longer time
bolted, constant
permanent fault Then the steady state was reached
on a small 30
kW three phase
generator
running at no
load. They
measured the
stator phase
current.
8
Phasor representation of different decay rates
This led to the concept of dividing the time region up into
three so that a phasor approximation could be used for each
region.
There is a subtransient current in
the stator which is equal to the
generator internal voltage E
divided by a subtransient
reactance.
I” = E / X”
There is a transient current in the
stator which is equal to E divided
by a transient reactance.
I’ = E / X’
There is a steady state current in
the stator which is equal to E
divided by a steady state
reactance, which from your
undergraduate power system
analysis course is Xs
Iss = E / Xs
9
Introducing some synchronous machine reactances
So we are introduced to three
synchronous machine reactances.
X double prime or X” is the
subtransient reactance. It is small.
X prime or X’ is the transient
reactance. It is a little larger.
Xss or X synchronous or Xs is the
steady state reactance. It is larger
still.
10
Balanced Fault
Calculation –
from Kundur
Three phase
fault at
point F
11
Balanced Fault
Calculation
Three phase
fault at
point F
Comment on values of E” and EB
What is the internal voltage of a generator just before a fault?
Who knows – it might be overexcited or it might be underexcited.
Unless otherwise stated, we take it as 1.0 per unit.
I From G = 1.0/ j (0.25 + 0.15) = 1.0/j 0.4 = -j 2.5 per unit
I From IB = 1.0/ j (0.1 + 0.6//0.6) = 1.0/j (0.1 + 0.3) = -j 2.5 per unit
IFault = -j 2.5 - j 2.5 = -j 5.0 (or 500% of Rated Load Current
12
Thevenin Equivalent
Three phase
fault at
point F
For any network, before putting the fault on the network we could
always reduce it to a VThevenin in series with an XThevenin.
This would appear like a single open circuit generator at point F before
the fault occurs there.
For this reason, all later derivations are done using “open circuit
generators” as models.
13
