Unit 1 Fundamentals of Protection

This chapter introduces the foundational concepts of electrical power system protection, covering the
necessity of protective systems, the distinction between normal and abnormal operating conditions, different
types of faults, and methods for calculating and limiting fault currents.

Necessity, Functions, and Components of a Protective System

A protective system is crucial for the reliable operation of an electrical power system. Its primary purpose is
to protect the healthy parts of the system from faults, thereby preventing widespread damage, significant
financial loss, and shutdowns.

Functions of a Protective System

• Disconnecting Faulty Sections: The main function is to quickly disconnect the faulty part of the
system during a short circuit or other abnormal conditions to prevent damage to the rest of the power
system.

• Sensing and Tripping: Relays sense fault currents through current transformers (CTs) and energize
the trip coil of a circuit breaker (CB). This action opens the circuit breaker, isolating the faulty
section. The rest of the power system remains unaffected.
• Fault Indication: The system also provides an indication of the location and type of fault, which
simplifies the clearing process.

• Strategic Placement of CBs: Circuit breakers are strategically located to ensure that each major
component like generators, transformers, and transmission lines can be completely disconnected
from the system until the fault is resolved.

Features of a Good Protective System

• Speed: A protective system must operate very quickly to clear faults in a short time, which protects
system components from damage and preserves their insulation.
• Reliability: It is the ability of the system to operate correctly under predetermined conditions. This is
an essential requirement for system protection.

• Discrimination: The system must be able to distinguish between the faulty section and healthy
sections of the power system. It should isolate only the faulty part to maintain the continuity of
supply in the healthy sections.

• Simplicity and Accessibility: The system should be simple and provide accessible locations for
instruments like CTs and potential transformers (PTs) for easy observation and inspection.

• Economy: The protective system should be economical while providing satisfactory protection.
Normal and Abnormal Conditions

Normal Operating Conditions

Under normal conditions, the current and voltage in the power system remain within their specified limits,
and the frequency is stable. Important points during normal condition:

• Stable Generation: Three-phase alternators run at a proper speed to produce the desired voltage and
frequency (with a tolerance of about ±1%).

• Balanced Voltages: The three-phase voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced from each other
by 120°, creating a balanced and symmetrical system. *

• Voltage Regulation: Voltage at the consumer end should not vary by more than ±5%, which may be
managed by on-load tap changers.

• Standby Capacity: Standby generators are available to be added to the system during peak load hours
to maintain stability.

Abnormal Operating Conditions

An abnormal condition is a defect in the system that leads to issues like overcurrent, overvoltage, or
frequency disturbances, which can damage components and disrupt the system. These conditions arise from
various faults and can lead to:

• Unbalanced voltages and currents

• Overvoltages

• Power reversal

• Power swinging

• Under-frequency
• Temperature rise
• System instability

Types of Faults and Their Causes

Causes of Faults

Faults in a power system can occur for several reasons:

• Insulation Failure: Breakdown of insulation in components can lead to short circuits.

• Mechanical Damage: Conductors breaking due to mechanical injury or high temperatures.

• External Factors: Lightning, switching surges, birds, trees, and high wind pressure can damage
transmission and distribution lines.
• Harmonics: Unbalanced currents can produce harmonics in rotating machines, causing overheating.
• Design and Material Flaws: Poor system design or use of low-quality materials can cause damage.

• Operational Errors: Mistakes made by operators during operation (mal-operation).

• Natural Events: Earthquakes, storms, and ice formation can also disrupt the system.
Types of Faults:

Faults are broadly classified into symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.

• Symmetrical Faults: In these faults, the currents in the three phases remain symmetrical (equal in
magnitude, displaced by 120°). They are rare (about 2% of total faults) but are the most severe type.
Examples include three-phase (LLL) and three-phase-to-ground (LLLG) faults.
• Unsymmetrical Faults: These faults result in unbalanced currents with unequal magnitudes and phase
displacements. They are the most common type of fault.

o Line-to-Ground (LG): The most frequent fault, accounting for about 85% of all faults. Occurs
when one conductor touches the ground or a support structure.

o Line-to-Line (LL): Accounts for about 8% of faults. Happens when two conductors touch
each other.

o Double Line-to-Ground (LLG): Makes up about 5% of faults. Occurs when two conductors
touch each other and also make contact with the ground.

Difference between Symmetrical fault and Unsymmetrical Fault:

Aspect Symmetrical Fault Unsymmetrical Fault

Fault in which all three phases are affected

Definition Fault in which phases are affected unequally.
equally.

- Three-phase short circuit (L–L–L) - Three- - Single Line-to-Ground (L–G) - Line-to-Line

Types
phase to ground (L–L–L–G) (L–L) - Double Line-to-Ground (L–L–G)

System remains balanced (fault currents are System becomes unbalanced (fault currents
Balance
equal in magnitude, displaced 120° apart). differ in magnitude and phase).
Aspect Symmetrical Fault Unsymmetrical Fault

Less common in practice (≈ 5% of total More common in practice (≈ 95% of total

Occurrence
faults). faults).

Most severe fault because it causes

Severity Less severe compared to symmetrical fault.
maximum short-circuit current.

Analysis Can be analyzed directly using per-phase Requires symmetrical component method
Method equivalent circuit (simple). (positive, negative, zero sequence components).

Needs higher capacity circuit breakers Protection mainly depends on relay

Protection
due to very high fault current. coordination and fault type.

Fault Statistics

The occurrence of faults varies by equipment:

• Overhead Lines: 50%

• Underground Cables: 9%

• Generators: 7%

• Transformers: 10%

• Switchgear: 12%

• Protective Devices (CT, PT, etc.): 12%

Protection Zones and Backup Protection

For selectivity, a power system is divided into several

protection zones. When a fault occurs in a specific zone, only the circuit breakers within that zone should
operate to isolate the faulty section, leaving the rest of the system unaffected.

Common protection zones include:

• Generator protection zone

• Generator-transformer unit protection zone

• Busbar protection zone

• Transmission line protection zone

Backup Protection

Backup protection is essential for ensuring reliability.

• Primary (Main) Protection: This is the first line of defense and is designed to protect a power system
element from all types of faults.

• Backup Protection: If the primary protection fails to operate (due to relay failure, CB issues, etc.), the
backup protection comes into action to clear the fault. It also serves as the primary protection when
the main system is under maintenance.

Methods of backup protection include:

• Relay Backup: Uses separate trip coils for the same breakers.

• Breaker Backup: Employs different breakers for primary and backup protection at the same station.

• Remote Backup: Primary and backup systems are at different stations and are completely
independent.

• Centrally Co-ordinated Backup: Main protection is at various stations, while backup protection is
managed from a central control center.
Symbols Used in Representing a system:
Single Line diagram and Reactance diagram of a power system:

Short-Circuit Fault Calculations for Symmetrical Faults

Calculating short-circuit (S.C.) currents is necessary to determine the required capacity of circuit breakers
and other protective devices. The analysis is simplified for symmetrical faults because the system remains
balanced, allowing calculations to be performed on a single-phase basis. The S.C. current is limited by the
total impedance of the system from the source to the point of the fault.

Percentage Reactance (%X)

To simplify calculations, reactance is often expressed as a percentage.

• Definition: The percentage of the total phase voltage dropped in the circuit when full-load current is
flowing.

• Formula: %X= (IX/V) x 100 , where I is the full-load current, X is the reactance in ohms per phase,
and V is the phase voltage.

• Alternative formula , mostly used in calculation: %X= ((KVA) x X)/ (10 x (KV)2)
Base kVA
Since different components in a power system have different kVA ratings, their percentage reactances must
be converted to a common KVA rating. This KVA rating is known as Base KVA.
• Selection: The base kVA can be the sum of all component kVAs, the highest kVA rating in the
system, or any arbitrary value.

• Conversion Formula: % Reactance at Base kVA = (Base KVA/Rated KVA) x % Reactance at Rated
kVA

Short-Circuit kVA

This is the product of the normal system voltage and the short-circuit current at the fault point, expressed in
kVA is Known as Short circuit KVA.
• Formula: S.C. kVA = Base kVA x (100/ %X).
Steps in solving Numerical Examples on Symmetrical Fault:

1) Draw Single line diagram representing all elements with symbols and with provided details.
2) Choose base KVA/MVA (always consider maximum KVA as a base KVA)
3) Convert all % X with respect to base KVA with the formula,
% Reactance at Base kVA = (Base KVA/Rated KVA) x % Reactance at Rated kVA
4) Draw Reactance diagram indicating % X of each equipment.
5) Find %X of the network upto the point of fault.
6) Find full load current (I) corresponding to selected base KVA and normal system voltage at the fault
point. Consider power factor at unity.
I = Base KVA/√3 V
7) Find, Isc= (I x 100) / % X and
S.C. kVA = Base kVA x (100/ %X).

Current Limiting Reactors

A current limiting reactor (CLR) is an electrical component used to control and reduce the flow of short-
circuit currents in power systems, protecting equipment like generators, transformers, and switchgear from
damage and ensuring system stability. CLRs are essentially large, air-core inductive coils placed in series with
power system components to add impedance during abnormal fault conditions, thereby limiting the fault
current to a safe, manageable level.

Need for Reactors

• Limit Fault Currents: To reduce the magnitude of short-circuit currents, allowing the use of lower-
capacity, more economical circuit breakers.
• Protect Equipment: Limiting the current protects equipment from overheating and mechanical stresses
caused by large fault currents.
• Ensure Supply Continuity: They help isolate troubles and maintain the continuity of supply.

Location and Types of Reactors

Reactors are classified based on their location in the power system:

• Generator Reactors: The coil of the reactor is connected electrically in series with each generator to
protect it from short circuits beyond the reactor.

o Drawbacks: 1)Even in the normal

operation there is constant voltage drop
and power loss in the system and hence
efficiency is affected

2) If the fault occurs on any feeder,

continuity of supply to the remaining
feeders may be affected

So, separate reactors are rarely used as the

modern generators are design with considerable
reactance.
• Feeder Reactors: Connected in series with each feeder to control the short circuit current to the safe
value to protect the system.

o Advantages: 1) A fault on one feeder doesn't affect the remaining feeder

2) Due to fault the voltage drop in the

reactor does not affect the bus bar
voltage. So, synchronism of
generators is not affected and all will
remain in the system.

o Disadvantages: 1) Voltage drop and

power loss during normal operation

2)No protection for busbar faults.

3) for increasing the unit of

generators in the system , more
reactors have to be provided to keep current in limits.

• Bus-Bar Reactors: This reactor placed within the busbar itself to overcome the drawbacks of
generator and feeder reactors.

o Ring System: In this system sections are made of generators and feeders and these sections
are connected to each other to a common bus bar. Reactors are connected between the sections
of the busbar. In such type of system normally one feeder is fed from one generator. In normal
operating conditions a small amount of power flows through the reactors. Therefore voltage
drop and the power loss in the reactor is low. The bus bar reactor, therefore, made with high
ohmic resistance so that there is not much voltage drop across it.

When the fault occurs on any one feeders, only one generator feeds the fault while the current
of the other generator is limited because of the presence of the bus-bar reactors. The heavy
current and voltage disturbances caused by a short circuit on a bus section are reduced and
restricted to that faulty section only. The only drawback of such type of reactor is that it does
not protect the generators connected to the faulty sections.
Tie-Bar System: This is the modification of the above system. In tie-bar system, the generator
is connected to the common bus-bar through the reactors, and the feeder is fed from generator
side. The operation of the system is similar to the ring system, but it has got additional
advantages. In this system, if the number of sections is increased, the fault current will not
exceed a certain value, which is fixed by the size of the individual reactors.