Apples and Pears C H A P T E R 1

Apples and Pears

S uccessful production of apples and

pears depends in large part on good site
selection and paying meticulous attention to and
blight and reduce fruit color develop-
ment and storage life. Nitrogen
application rates are intentionally kept
following through on details. The site for apple and low on pears to reduce fire blight
pear orchards should be high with respect to the susceptibility.
surrounding area and have excellent air drainage to
avoid late spring frost losses and to reduce disease Foliar nutrient applications are minimized in the
pressure. Pears are more prone to spring frost injury Midwest because it is much cheaper and more efficient
because they bloom earlier than apples. Proximity to to apply fertilizers to the soil. Foliar applications are
a good water source for irrigation and spray water is generally recommended to accomplish a “quick fix”
highly desirable. when nutrient deficiencies are detected. However,
calcium and boron foliar sprays are routinely applied
Both crops perform best on deep, friable, fertile soils in many orchards. Calcium sprays are used to reduce
with good internal drainage. Deep soils are desirable cork spot and bitter pit, since it is often difficult to get
because of their greater water-holding capability and sufficient calcium into the fruit even when soil levels
capacity to continue sizing fruit under dry condi- are at recommended levels. Some growers also apply
tions. Pears will generally perform better on heavier foliar boron sprays annually where soil levels are low.
soils than apples. Soils that remain wet for long Foliar magnesium is occasionally used where foliar
periods or that have a high water table, impervious symptoms are apparent.
clay pans or hardpans close to the surface, or very
heavy clay texture reduce chances of success. Wet soils A combination of soil testing and leaf tissue analysis
promote Phytophthora root rot, particularly in apples (sampled in mid- to late July) is recommended for
on susceptible rootstocks. Some of these problems monitoring tree nutrient levels and is used to make
can be remedied by managing surface water through fertility recommendations. Consult your state
waterways and drainage ditches and by installing Cooperative Extension Service for leaf-testing
drainage tile. procedures and processing instructions.

One to two years before planting, adjust the soil pH, Weed pests will deprive trees of water and minerals.
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and Although orchards will always have some weeds,
other minor element levels as recommended. noxious perennial weeds such as johnsongrass, vining
Adjustment of the soil pH to between 6.5 and 7.0 milkweed, trumpet vine, poison ivy, and yellow
and incorporation of organic matter or a green nutsedge should be eliminated from the site prior to
manure crop are highly recommended prior to planting trees.
establishment. Nitrogen, applied early in the season,
Many midwestern growers are adopting high-density
should be the only element required for the first planting systems such as the French axis for apples.
several years if proper soil adjustments are made
These systems use dwarf rootstocks, have consider-
initially. Nitrogen should be applied based on the
ably higher per acre dollar inputs, and require a
inherent fertility of the soil and annual tree growth. considerably higher level of grower expertise and
Excessive nitrogen applications should be avoided
cultural management. However, these systems crop
because they make trees more susceptible to fire
much earlier and provide a much faster return on
investment than less dense planting systems.

18
 Apples and Pears

Integrated Management Table 1. Relative resistance of apple cultivars to apple

diseases.
of Apple and Pear Diseases Apple Cedar- Fire Powdery
Cultivar scab apple rust blight mildew
The objective of an integrated disease management Ben Davis 3 3 4 3
program is to provide a commercially acceptable level Braeburn - - 4 -
of disease control from year to year while minimizing Cortland 4 3 3 4
the cost of disease management. For each orchard, a Delicious 3 1 2 2
program needs to be developed that integrates all Early McIntosh 3 2 2 -
Empire 4 2 2 3
available control tactics.
Enterprise 1 2 2 2
Freedom 1 1 3 2
Identifying and Understanding Fuji 3 - 4 -
Gala 3 - 4 -
Major Apple and Pear Diseases Golden Delicious 3 4 3 3
Accurate disease identification is critical in making Goldrush 1 4 2 2
smart disease management decisions. Growers should Granny Smith 3 2 4 4
Idared 3 3 4 3
develop a basic understanding of the pathogen
Jerseymac 4 1 3 -
biology and disease life cycles for the major apple Jonafree 1 3 2 2
diseases. The more you know about a disease, the Jonagold 4 3 4 -
better equipped you will be to make sound and Jonamac 3 2 3 3
effective management decisions. The following Jonathan 3 4 4 4
Liberty 1 1 2 2
literature contains colored photographs of disease
Lodi 3 4 4 2
symptoms on apples and pears, as well as information Macfree 1 3 2 3
on pathogen biology and disease development. McIntosh 4 1 3 3
Mutsu (Crispin) 4 3 4 4
Compendium of Apple and Pear Diseases Northern Spy 3 3 2 3
Published by the American Phytopathological Paulared 3 2 4 3
Society, 3340 Pilot Knob Rd., St. Paul, Minnesota Prima 1 3 2 2
55121. Phone: (612) 454-7250 or (800) 328-7560. Priscilla 1 2 2 2
Pristine 1 3 - 3
Diseases of Tree Fruits in the East Quinte 3 3 3 3
Redfree 1 2 3 3
Published by Michigan State University Cooperative
Rome Beauty 4 4 4 3
Extension Service, as Publication NCR 45. Your Sir Prize 1 4 4 2
county Extension office may have this bulletin in Smoothee 3 3 2 -
stock, or call Michigan State University. Spartan 3 2 3 2
Phone: (517) 355-0240. Starkspur Earliblaze 3 2 3 -
Stayman 4 3 2 3
Tydeman’s Red 3 1 3 2
Apple Scab Williams Pride 1 1 2 2
The most common disease of apple in the Midwest is Williams Red 3 2 2 -
apple scab, caused by the fungus Venturia inaequalis. Winesap 4 3 2 3
Pear scab is caused by a related fungus, Venturia Yellow Transparent 3 3 4 2
pirina, but is a minor problem compared to apple Resistance rating determined in New York by Cornell University
Extension personnel; reports of T. van der Zwet and S. Beer,
scab in the Midwest. Scab-resistant apple cultivars USDA Bulletin 631; D. Rosenberger, Northeast LISA Apple
Project; and T. Sutton, A Grower’s Guide to Apple Insects and
(Table 1) are recommended for growers who do not Diseases in the Southwest. Several cultivars have been added to this
want to use fungicides. Contact your state Coopera- table based on midwestern observations. Rating system; 1 = very
resistant (No chemical control needed), 2 = resistant (Chemical
tive Extension Service for information on the control needed only under high disease pressure), 3 = susceptible
(Chemical control usually needed where disease is prevalent), 4 =
cultivars best suited for your region. In the moist, very susceptible (Chemical control needed where disease is
temperate climate of the Midwest, managing prevalent. These cultivars should receive first priority when
control is called for).
orchards where scab-susceptible cultivars are grown

19
 Apples and Pears

Figure 2. Apple scab disease cycle. PRIMARY PHASE

ascospores released
during rainy periods from green
tip until about 1 - 2
weeks after petal fall
win
wet d young clusters,
terminal leaves, and
fruit become infected

ascospores form within

depends on the sacs (asci) during spring;
judicious use of first spores become mature at
about bud break (green tip)
fungicides. Knowing wet SECONDARY
the apple scab disease PHASE
secondary spores (conidia) form
cycle (Figure 2), the on surface of infected tissues
throughout spring and summer
weather conditions that
favor infection (Tables 2
and 3), and the basics
of how fungicides work fungus forms
fruiting bodies infected leaves
fall to the additional fruit,
(Table 4 and Chapter 6) (pseudothecia) young leaves
during winter and ground
will help you decide become infected
early spring
which fungicides to use
and when to use them.

Disease Development:
During winter and early fungus overwinters in infected
leaves on the ground
spring, the scab fungus
develops in fallen leaves
that were infected the previous season. The develop- The time required for infection depends on the
ment of fruiting bodies is favored by alternating dry temperature and duration of the “wetting period,”
and wet periods. Primary scab spores (ascospores) the period during which leaves on the tree are
mature in early spring about the time that leaves start continuously wet from rain or dew (Tables 2 and 3).
to emerge. When leaves on the orchard floor have When the infection process is not inhibited by a
been wetted by at least 0.01 inches of rain for at least fungicide, primary scab lesions appear 9 to 17 days
30 minutes, ascospores are released and carried by air after infection depending on the temperature. Various
currents to newly emerging leaves and blossoms. The forms of the “Mills Table” (Tables 2 and 3) are
maximum rate of spore discharge is reached after 2 to valuable for determining when conditions are
3 hours of wetness; after 6 hours, 75 percent of the favorable for infection and for deciding when
ascospores that are mature during that wetness period fungicides with “after-infection” activity should be
will have been discharged. In general, maximum used. The Mills Table as modified by A. L. Jones in
ascospore discharge and maximum susceptibility of the 1980s (Table 2) has been validated in the field
leaves and fruit occur between tight cluster and 10 over several years and locations. The most recent
days after petal fall. Discharge of ascospores may modifications to the Mills Table (Table 3) have not
continue up to 2 weeks after petal fall, but the been as widely validated but may be highly relevant
majority are released by first cover. to the Midwest. The newer table suggests that
infection can happen in much less time at low

20
 Apples and Pears

Table 2. Approximate minimum number of hours of leaf infection by conidia occur under about the same
wetting required for primary apple scab infection at conditions as for ascospores. Additional conidia are
various temperatures.a
Degree of Infection produced all season long from established scab
Lesion lesions. Although fruit become more resistant as they
Average Light Moderate Heavy Appearance
Temp.(˚F) (hr)b (hr) (hr) (Days)c mature, secondary infection of fruit can occur in the
78 13 17 26 - fall but not show up until several weeks in storage.
77 11 14 21 - Scab can also develop on leaves, especially their lower
76 9½ 12 19 - surfaces, after harvest. This late-season scab may be
63 to 75 9 12 18 9
from new infections, from infections that occurred
62 9 12 19 10
61 9 13 20 10 several weeks earlier, or a combination of the two. In
60 9½ 13 20 11 any case, late-season scab on leaves means that disease
59 10 13 21 12 pressure will be high the following spring even
58 10 14 21 12 though scab was managed during the growing season.
57 10 14 22 13
56 11 15 22 13 Control of Apple Scab: The key to successful apple
55 11 16 24 14 scab control is to prevent primary infection by as-
54 11½ 16 24 14
cospores. Infections by ascospores occurring prior to
53 12 17 25 15
52 12 18 26 15 tight cluster can cause significant losses because
51 13 18 27 16 conidia are produced just as leaves and fruit reach
50 14 19 29 16 maximum susceptibility. If ascospores are prevented
49 14½ 20 30 17 from establishing infections early in the season, no
48 15 20 30 17
further scab control is needed after ascospores are
47 17 23 35 17
46 19 25 38 17 depleted. However, if scab is established early in the
45 20 27 41 17 season, a grower must fight secondary infections
44 22 30 45 17 throughout the summer. The number of conidia
43 25 34 51 17 produced by just a few scab lesions is greater than the
42 30 40 60 17 total number of ascospores produced in an entire acre
a From W. D. Mills, Cornell University as modified by A. L.
Jones, Michigan State University. of leaf litter in most commercial orchards.
b The infection period is considered to start at the beginning of
the rain. Fungicides vary in their properties of retention,
c Number of days required for lesions to appear after infection
has been initiated. redistribution, protection, and after-infection activity
(Table 4). In general, a program aimed at controlling
scab will control other diseases (e.g., powdery mildew
and rust) that are important early in the season.
temperatures than previous tables predicted. For However, if you have a particular problem with other
example, according to Table 3, infection can take diseases, you may have to modify or bolster your scab
place if leaves are wet for 18 hours at 43°F, which is 7 control program. Four general approaches to primary
fewer hours than predicted in Table 2. During scab control are:
especially wet springs when inoculum is high, one
1. Standard Protectant Program (7-day interval)
might be conservative and use data from Table 3.
Protectant fungicides must be applied at approxi-
However, Table 2 has served many growers in many
mately 7-day intervals during primary scab “season”
regions successfully over several years.
because growing clusters and terminals are continu-
Within each primary scab lesion (which was caused ally producing new tissues that need protection. The
by one ascospore), thousands of secondary spores old rule-of-thumb is “Repeat protectant sprays after 7
(conidia) are produced, each of which is capable of days of new growth or one inch of rain.” In extremely
causing a new infection. Conidia are spread by wet growing seasons, intervals of less than 7 days may be
splashing rain and by wind. Germination and required. Also, the less effective protectants (e.g.,

21
 Apples and Pears

Table 3. A proposed revision for the minimum number of the first SI/protectant combination spray is made. The
hours of leaf wetness required to produce apple scab SI/protectant combination provides approximately 5
infections.a
Average to 6 days of protection and 3 to 4 days of curative
temperature (˚F) Hours activity, which means the spray interval can be
34 41 extended to 10 days. This program can also be
36 35 modified to take advantage of information on
37 30
infection periods that are determined from environ-
39 28
41 21 mental monitoring (Tables 2 and 3). For example, the
43 18 interval can be extended 1 day for each day without
45 15 infection on days 6 through 9 after the last application.
46 13 When using SI/protectant combinations, the interval
48 12 should never exceed 14 days because some scab lesions
50 11
partially inactivated by the SI fungicides may not be
52 9
54-56 8 completely controlled without a second spray.
57-59 7
61-75 6 In extremely wet growing seasons, intervals of less than
77 8 10 days may be required. For example, a 7- to 10-day
79 11 interval using fungicides at their higher recom-
a Data of W. MacHardy and D. Gadoury; and A. Stensvand, et mended rates is recommended if an infection period
al., Cornell University.
occurred greater than 2 days prior to the previous SI/
protectant spray. The reasoning is as follows: The first
SI/protectant spray will reach back 3 to 4 days, but
will be most effective at halting scab development if
ferbam, sulfur, thiram, and ziram) probably need to applied within 2 days of an infection period. The
be applied more frequently than every 7 days. In purpose of the second spray is to inactivate any
practice the 7-day protectant program can be fungal growth that might have survived the first
modified to take advantage of weather predictions. spray. Thus, the longer you wait after infection has
For example, if a protectant fungicide is used and no occurred to apply the first spray, the more important
rain is predicted on days 7, 8, and 9 after the last it is to apply the second spray after only 7 to 10 days.
application, the next application can be made just If the second spray is not made, then the fungus may
before the next rain. Unfortunately, springtime resume activity and produce lesions with conidia.
weather throughout the Midwest is unpredictable,
and a grower assumes risk in stretching spray intervals 3. Post-infection Program
beyond 7 days. This program can significantly reduce the number of
fungicide applications, but it should be used only by
2. Extended Sterol Inhibitor/Protectant Program growers who are accurately monitoring infection
(10-day interval not to exceed 14 days) periods. It is not recommended in orchards with high
This combination program utilizes both the protectant levels of scab inoculum from the previous year. This
and after-infection activities of the different scab program is designed for orchards that had less than 2
fungicides (Table 4 and Chapter 6) and should result percent fruit scab the previous year and did not have
in fewer sprays than the standard protectant program. late-season scab on leaves. In the post-infection
The first scab spray of the season is a protectant program, an SI/protectant combination should be
fungicide applied between green tip and half-inch applied within 72 to 96 hours after the start of an
green. Sterol-inhibiting (SI) fungicides are not infection period. The sooner the spray is applied after
recommended in the first spray because there is not the infection period, the more effective it will be.
enough leaf tissue exposed to take up the systemic Fungicides applied in a post-infection program should be
fungicide. At tight cluster, scab pressure is high, and used at their full recommended rates. Post-infection

22
 Apples and Pears

Table 4. Properties of fungicides for apple scab control.

Common Rate/100 After-infection
Trade Namesa Names gallons Retentionb Redistributionc activityd (hr) Protectione
Benlate 50WP benomyl 3.0 oz Good Good 18-24 Fair
Captan 50WP captan 2.0 lb Good Good 18-24 Very Good
Carbamate 76WP ferbam 2.0 lb Good Good None Good
Dithane M-45 80WP mancozeb 2.0 lb Good Good 18-24 Very Good
Manzate 200 80WP mancozeb 2.0 lb Good Good 18-24 Very Good
Nova 40% WP myclobutanil 2.0 oz Fair Fair 72-96 Fair
Penncozeb mancozeb 2.0 lb Good Good 18-24 Very Good
Polyram 80WP metiram 2.0 lb Good Good 18-24 Very Good
Procure 50WS triflumizole 4.0 oz - - 48-72 -
Rubigan 1E fenarimol 3.0 fl oz Poor Poor 72-96 Fair
Sulfur 95% sulfur 5.0 lb Fair Good None Fair
Syllit 65WP dodine 0.5 lb Good Good 30-36 Very Good
Thiram 65% WP thiram 2.0 lb Fair Fair 15-20 Fair
Topsin-M 70WP thiophanate- 3.0 oz Good Good 18-24 Fair
methyl
Ziram 76DF ziram 2.0 lb Good Good 18-24 Good
a No discrimination or endorsement is implied by the Cooperative Extension Service. Not a complete list. Also see Chapter 6 of this
handbook for information on attributes of different fungicides.
b Retention is the ability of the fungicide to stick to the leaf surface.
c Redistribution is the ability of a fungicide to move to unsprayed areas and onto new growth during rains and weathering.
d After-infection activity is the ability to inhibit infection that has started. Use the start of a rain as the start of infection. At average
temperatures below 50˚F, use the longer time; at average temperatures above 50˚F, use the shorter time.
e Protection is the ability of a fungicide to protect tissue from new infections after the material is applied.

sprays should be followed with a second application the SI fungicide, especially at petal fall and first cover
of the SI/protectant 7 to 10 days later (7 is better when young fruit are highly susceptible to infection.
than 10) to make sure that scab lesions are inacti- Including a protectant with the SI should also delay
vated. A potential problem with this spray program is development of resistance to the SI. Because this is a
that extended rainy periods can interfere with post- minimal spray program, spray coverage must be
infection applications that must be made within 72 nearly perfect. Thus, the program is not suited to
to 96 hours after the start of an infection period. blocks of large trees where near-perfect coverage is
Indeed, extended periods of rain are a problem with impossible. The timing of the four applications is
any fungicide program. dictated by the weather (spraying when conditions
will allow optimal coverage) and timing of insect and
4. New York IPM (Integrated Reduced Spray) mite control rather than by infection periods.
Program However, if intervals greater than 10 days occur (e.g.,
This is a minimal spray program. As is the case for from pink until petal fall), and weather conditions
the post-infection program, it is not recommended in have been favorable for infection, it may be necessary
orchards that had greater than 2 percent fruit scab the to compensate by increasing the sterol inhibitor to
previous year or late-season scab on leaves. The first the highest rate permitted on the product label.
fungicide application is delayed 1 to 3 weeks; a total
of four applications of an SI fungicide (e.g., Monitoring for Scab: Losses from scab often occur
fenarimol, myclobutanil) is made: 1) tight cluster when conidia, formed in primary infections, infect
(with oil); 2) pink (with insecticide); 3) petal fall young, developing fruit. Therefore, orchard blocks
(with insecticide); and 4) first cover (with insecti- should be monitored for scab lesions starting at petal
cide). Optimal protection is achieved by mixing a fall and continuing through first cover. Examine both
protectant (e.g., captan, mancozeb, or metiram) with surfaces of spur leaves and fruit. If scab is detected, the

23
 Apples and Pears

safest recommendation is to apply an SI at the full Young fruit may become infected from about the
recommended rate plus a protectant through second pink stage of flower bud development up to 1 to 3
cover to suppress further development of lesions and to weeks after bloom. Fruit infection results in a weblike
protect susceptible fruit. In orchards where dodine has russeting on the mature fruit. Infected buds are the
not been used extensively, and therefore resistance to primary means of overwintering for the fungus. The
dodine is unlikely, this fungicide may help “burn out” powdery mildew fungus produces masses of small
existing lesions. However, dodine applied after bloom black fruiting bodies called cleistothecia on infected
can cause russeting. Another option is to not make leaves and terminals in the late summer and fall.
“burning out” lesions the primary goal, but rather to Although cleistothecia contain ascospores, their role
focus on protecting fruit with the full rate of captan or in the disease cycle is not clearly understood.
an EBDC fungicide (e.g., mancozeb, maneb, or
metiram). Note that after pre-bloom, the EBDCs may The conditions required for infection by the powdery
not be used at rates greater than 3 lb per acre. mildew fungus are very different from those required
by the scab fungus. Unlike the apple scab fungus, the
powdery mildew fungus does not require leaf wetness
Powdery Mildew for infection. In fact, powdery mildew spores will not
Powdery mildew, caused by the fungus Podosphaera
germinate if immersed in water. Rather, powdery
leucotricha, can seriously reduce the vigor and produc-
mildew infections occur when the relative humidity is
tivity of apple trees. Powdery mildew is usually not as
greater than 90 percent and the temperature is between
severe a problem as scab in the Midwest, but on highly
50° and 77°F. The optimal temperature range for the
susceptible varieties (Table 1) the mildew fungus may
fungus is 66° to 72°F. The high relative humidity that
deform, stunt, or kill twigs, leaves, blossoms, and fruit.
often occurs before and after wetting periods is
Infected fruits may become severely russeted. Gray to
conducive to powdery mildew development. Under
white felt-like patches occur on the leaves and on 1-
optimal conditions, powdery mildew will be obvious
year-old twigs. Leaves are narrow, crinkled, and folded
to the naked eye 48 hours after infection. About 5 days
lengthwise, and they become thickened.
after infection, a new crop of spores is produced. Non-
Disease Development: The powdery mildew fungus germinated powdery mildew spores can tolerate hot,
overwinters in vegetative or fruit buds infected the dry conditions and may persist in the orchard until
previous season (Figure 3). Infected terminals may conditions are favorable for germination and infection.
have a silvery gray color, stunted growth, and a
Control of Powdery Mildew: Apple cultivars vary in
misshapen appearance and are more susceptible to
relative resistance to powdery mildew (Table 1).
winter injury than are noninfected terminals.
Because powdery mildew does not need a wetting
Temperatures near –18°F kill a majority of mildew-
period to develop, control measures may be needed
infected buds and the fungus within them. Thus,
even during dry weather. The critical period for
disease pressure from powdery mildew is usually
powdery mildew control is from about tight cluster
greater in growing seasons following mild winters.
to pink through first or second cover. The SI fungi-
As buds break dormancy, the powdery mildew fungus cides that are used to control apple scab (e.g., Nova,
resumes growth and colonizes developing shoots, Procure, and Rubigan) are also effective against
causing primary infections. Primary mildew infec- powdery mildew. Another SI fungicide, Bayleton
tions may occur on vegetative shoots and blossoms (triadimefon), is a good mildewcide but is less
and thereby cause a reduction in yield. The powdery effective in controlling scab. Wettable sulfur (95%
white appearance on infected shoots consists of many WP) is a good mildewcide but is relatively weak
thousands of spores, which are responsible for against scab and can be phytotoxic at temperatures
secondary infections. Secondary infections usually greater than 80°F. Thorough spray coverage, includ-
develop on leaves and buds prior to terminal bud set ing the tops of trees, is essential for control of
in midsummer and may reduce the vigor of the tree. powdery mildew with fungicides.

24
 Apples and Pears

Figure 3. fungus overwinters infected

Powdery mildew in diseased buds
disease is apparent on
disease cycle. shoots and leaves as
they emerge in the spring
dormant
terminal
silver tip

PR
IM
developing buds

AR
become infected

YM
infected

ILDEW
terminal
infected
blossoms

EW
SE
CO ILD
NDARY M

infection of leaves,
shoots, and fruits

spores are
produced and then
dispersed by wind
cleistothecia (fruiting bodies)
y
develop on leaves and shoots humidit

Rust Diseases structures called pycnia) appear in the orange rust

Three rust diseases commonly infect apples in the spots. By late summer, tiny fungal tubes (aecia)
Midwest: cedar-apple rust (Gymnosporangium emerge from the lower leaf surfaces. Extensive leaf
juniperi-virginianae), quince rust (G. clavipes), and infection may cause early defoliation, which in turn
hawthorn rust (G. globosum). Pears are susceptible to weakens the tree.
quince rust and hawthorn rust but not to cedar-apple
Fruit infection by cedar-apple rust is most common
rust. All three rust fungi require infection of eastern
near the blossom end. The yellowish orange lesions
red cedar or related species of Juniperus to complete
are similar to but much larger than those on leaves.
their life cycles. The rust diseases are usually kept in
The lesions have a dark green border and are up to
check by fungicides aimed at scab. Where fungicide
1/16-inch deep; the tissue beneath the lesions is
use is minimal (e.g., on scab-resistant cultivars or in
unaffected. Quince rust lesions on fruit are dark
organic orchards), rust diseases, especially cedar-apple
green, 3/4 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter, and become
rust, can severely spot leaves and mar fruit. Quince
puckered at the blossom end. The tissue beneath the
rust causes fruit lesions but rarely affects leaves of
lesions is brown and spongy, and necrosis can extend
apple. Hawthorn rust causes leaf lesions but rarely
to the core.
affects apple fruit.
Disease Development: The disease cycles of the three
Cedar-apple rust leaf spots initially develop on the
rust fungi are similar and relatively complex. Cedar-
upper leaf surfaces shortly after bloom. Lesions are
apple rust involves two hosts, three types of fruiting
pale yellow, but as they expand, they turn orange,
structures (telia, pycnia, and aecia), and requires 2
which distinguishes them from other types of leaf
years to complete its disease cycle (Figure 4). The
spots. Later, small black dots (fungal fruiting
fungus overwinters in reddish brown galls on cedar

25
 Apples and Pears

Figure 4. Cedar-apple germinating teliospores

on telial horn
rust disease cycle. basidiospores

windborne
teliospores basidiospores
infect young fruit
and leaves

a telial horn bearing pycnium on upper

masses of teliospores leaf surface
in early summer
cross-section
of infected leaf

aecium on lower
leaf surface
in late summer

red cedar

orange, gelatinous
telial horns extrude from
galls with spring rains aeciospores are windborne
and infect cedar leaves or buds
in late summer

galls on cedar twigs

develop and mature
over two seasons

trees. When wet in the spring, orange, gelatinous Control of Rust Diseases: Some apple cultivars are
tendrils, or “horns,” containing teliospores emerge. resistant to cedar-apple rust (Table 1). Removing
The teliospores germinate to form basidiospores cedars within a 2-mile radius of an orchard will disrupt
which are carried by wind to apple trees. Basid- the disease cycle, and fungicides may not be needed.
iospores germinate if temperature and wetting Many of the fungicides directed at scab will also
requirements have been met (Table 5). No infection control rust, although captan, dodine, and benomyl do
occurs below 43°F because basidiospores are not not control rust diseases. The basidiospores that infect
produced. Fruit are most susceptible for 2 to 3 weeks apples are produced and released from cedar galls
starting at bloom; leaves are most susceptible when 4 starting at about the pink stage of flower bud develop-
to 8 days old. Once release of basidiospores from ment through first or second cover; this is the most
cedar trees has ceased (generally by second or third critical time for control with fungicides.
cover), there is no further infection of apple tissues.
Unlike apple scab, cedar-apple rust lesions on apple Fire Blight
leaves will not produce spores that reinfect apple Fire blight, caused by the bacterium Erwinia
leaves and fruit. Instead, fungal mating occurs in rust amylovora, is a serious disease of apples, pears, and
lesions which result in the formation of aecia. Aecia related ornamental plants. Incidence and severity are
release aeciospores which are carried by wind to cedar influenced by cultivar and rootstock susceptibility
trees where they infect and complete the disease cycle. (Tables 1 and 6), the weather, and the amount of
Galls start to develop on cedar shortly after infection succulent tissue present. Managing fire blight requires
but do not exude telial horns until the second spring an integrated approach that relies primarily on
after infection.

26
 Apples and Pears

Table 5. Approximate minimum number of hours of leaf Table 6. Relative resistance of apple rootstocks, pear
wetness required for cedar-apple rust infections on leaves varieties, and pear rootstocks to fire blight.
of susceptible cultivars. Apple Rootstocks
a
Degree of Infection Moderately
Average Light Heavy Resistant resistant Susceptible
Temperature (˚F) (Hours) (Hours) Geneva 11 Bemali Alnarp
Geneva 30 Bud.118 Bud.9
36 24 - Geneva 65 Bud.490 M.9
40 12 24 M.7 MM.106 M.26
43 8 10 Novole MM.111 M.27
46 6 7
Robusta 5 Mark
50 5 6
Ottawa 3
54 4 5
P.2
58 3 5
P.16
61 3 4
P.22
64 3 4
Pear and Asian Pear Varieties
68 to 76 2 4
79+ - - Moderately
Resistant resistant Susceptible
a Based on the data of Aldwinckle, Pearson, and Seem, Cornell
University. Assumes that cedar-apple rust inoculum (orange, Ayers Dawn Aurora
swollen galls bearing teliospores with basidiospores on cedar Harrow Delight Douglas Bartlett
trees) is available at the start of the rain. If inoculum is not
already present (dry period prior to the rain), add 4 hours at Harrow Sweet Garber Bosc
temperatures above 50˚F and 6 hours at temperatures of 46˚ to Honeysweet Harvest Queen Clapp’s Favorite
50˚F. Infection is unlikely at temperatures below 43˚F if Kieffer Lincoln d’Anjou
inoculum is not already present.
Magness Luscious DeVoe
Maxine Rogue Red Earlibrite
Monterey Seckel Flemish Beauty
Moonglow Spartlett Highland
cultural practices and is supported by the judicious Potomac Worden Seckel Sierra
Tyson Chojuro Starkrimson
use of bactericides.
Shinseiki (New Hosui
Century)
Disease Development: The fire blight bacterium Nijisseiki (20th
overwinters in cankers on branches and trunks Century)
(Figure 5). In the spring, bacteria-laden ooze is Pear and Asian Pear Rootstocks
exuded from the canker margins. Splashing rain and Moderately
Resistant resistant Susceptible
insects carry the pathogen to blossoms, and bees
Old Home (OH) P. betulaefolia Bartlett seedlings
further spread the pathogen as they pollinate. If the seedlings
weather is warm and rainy or humid, populations of OH x Farmingdale Provence quince
E. amylovora double every few hours, and more than (OHF)
(except OHF 51)
a million bacterial cells can colonize a single floral P. calleryana Winter Nelis
stigma. Rain or dew then washes the bacteria into seedlings
openings at the base of the blossom. The pathogen Adapted from Fire Blight–Its Nature, Prevention, and Control by
T. van der Zwet and S. V. Beer, USDA Agriculture Information
can apparently move systemically within the plant to Bulletin No. 631.
shoot tips and rootstocks. This may explain why trees
sometimes are severely damaged or killed by shoot
and rootstock infections even when blossom infection
was minimal or absent. Sudden or “explosive”
outbreaks of fire blight often appear about 1 to 2
weeks following a storm with strong winds or hail
that damage succulent tissue. Apparently several
simultaneous inoculations occur during the storm,
and bacteria multiply rapidly in succulent shoots; this

27
 Apples and Pears

Figure 5. Fire blight disease cycle.

insects attracted to rain washes bacteria to

ooze, transfer bacteria natural openings at flower
to flower stigmas rain base; infection occurs
cts
inse
bees transfer bacteria
to additional flowers;
bacteria-laden bacteria multiply on stigmas flower cluster
ooze at canker at temperatures above 65˚F becomes blighted
margins

inse
cts,
rain
ins
ects
ng

, ra
espri overwintering bacteria multiply,
early spring

in
lat move through wood to nearby bacteria are spread
shoots, causing them to blight from blighted clusters
to young growing
shoots; infection occurs
through wounds
bacteria repeated infections of succulent
overwinter shoots occur through wounds,
in cankers as bacteria are spread by
infections expand from succulent insects and rain
shoots into supporting wood,
causing cankers

susceptible rootstock suckers

bacteria from blighted shoots become infected; infection
move systemically within the expands and causes rootstock
tree; cause blight of susceptible canker, killing the tree
rootstock or interstem,
killing the tree

leads to the sudden appearance of symptoms fire blight worse by increasing the amount of
throughout a block of trees. succulent tissue and by spreading the pathogen on
tools. If fire blight strikes are so numerous that is not
Control of Fire Blight: Methods for consistent and practical to remove them all, then wait until the
reliable control of fire blight are not available. dormant season. If fire blight strikes are few, it may
Relatively resistant cultivars and rootstocks (Tables 1 be practical to remove them. They should be removed
and 6) should be planted whenever possible. Highly by making cuts at least 12 inches below visible
susceptible combinations (e.g., Gala on M.26) should symptoms. The computer program MARYBLYT,
be avoided. Fertilization, especially nitrogen applica- available from pest management suppliers (see
tion, should be adequate for tree health without Appendix B), is useful for predicting the onset of
promoting rapid growth and prolonged succulence. symptoms. With this knowledge, growers with small
Susceptible varieties should be pruned to improve trees and adequate labor can scout for and remove the
tree shape and promote rapid drying of foliage but first infected tissues before symptoms become
should not be pruned aggressively. widespread. This will not eliminate further symptoms
but may reduce the spread of fire blight. Missed
Pruning fire blight strikes during the growing season
is a controversial issue. Removing sources of the strikes and cankers should be pruned during the
dormant season.
pathogen is desirable, but pruning can actually make

28
 Apples and Pears

Chemical control of fire blight is effective during the dark, sunken bark; infected tissue beneath the bark
spring when the pathogen is at the surface of cankers appears reddish brown to dark brown. Leaves on
and on flowers. After the bacterium has invaded affected trees may be small and pale during the
tissues, it is beyond the reach of chemicals. Sprays of summer and turn reddish in late summer. With
copper sulfate when cankers are active but before relatively recent infections, a sharp line often delimits
leaves have emerged, and fixed copper at 1/4-inch healthy from infected tissue. However, Phytophthora
green tip, may reduce populations of the fire blight rots are easily confused with fire blight infections of
bacterium. Be aware, however, that if little rain (less rootstocks. Distinguishing the two diseases requires
than 2 inches) falls between an early copper applica- evaluation of host susceptibility, site conditions,
tion and petal fall, the copper residues could be great disease history, and often culturing of the pathogen(s)
enough to damage fruit finish. from infected tissue in the laboratory.

Streptomycin applied during bloom will reduce Control of Collar and Crown Rot: Good water
blossom infections unless streptomycin-resistant management and site selection are the most important
strains of E. amylovora are present. The MARYBLYT factors for control of Phytophthora diseases. Orchard
program is useful for accurately timing streptomycin soils should be well drained and leveled before planting.
applications. Without information from For trees that are already planted, drainage should be
MARYBLYT, applications should be made every 3 to improved in the vicinity of the trunk, making sure
4 days during bloom if the average temperature is water is not allowed to pool around the base of the
65°F or greater and there is rain or relative humidity trunk. If subsurface drainage is a problem, the only
of 60 percent or greater. Streptomycin works best solution may be to install drainage tile—a task more
when not tank-mixed with fungicides and when easily done before trees are planted. Relatively resistant
applied at night or when drying conditions are slow. rootstocks include M.9, Mark, Bud.118, and Bud.9.
Streptomycin applications made after bloom are However, some of these rootstocks are highly suscep-
generally ineffective at controlling shoot infections. tible to fire blight (Table 6).
The number of streptomycin applications should be
kept to a minimum to reduce the risk of selecting In areas of orchards historically affected by root,
streptomycin-resistant strains of the pathogen. crown, or collar rot, fungicides may be needed to
Streptomycin resistance is a serious problem in minimize damage. Fungicides will not be effective if
commercial orchards in southwestern Michigan, parts the cultural practices discussed above are not fol-
of Missouri, and the western states. lowed, and they will not revitalize trees showing
moderate to severe rot symptoms. See the current
Commercial Tree Fruit Spray Guide and the product
Collar and Crown Rot label for details on using fungicides to manage root,
Root, crown, and collar rot, caused by the soil-borne
crown, and collar rot.
fungus Phytophthora cactorum and other species of
Phytophthora, is a perennial problem in midwestern
apple orchards. Phytophthora belongs to a group of Summer Diseases
fungi known as the “water molds” because water is Bitter rot, black rot, and white rot (bot rot) are the
critical for many stages of its life cycle. Although most common summer rot diseases of apple. Flyspeck
Phytophthora species are common in agricultural soils, and sooty blotch cause superficial blemishes which
disease is most frequently found in areas with heavy, detract from the appearance of apple and pear fruit.
poorly drained soil and is especially severe on The summer diseases have the potential to cause
MM.106 and M.26 rootstocks. The pathogen attacks serious losses, especially in the more southern regions
the lower trunk just at or below the soil surface. of the Midwest and on trees not sprayed with
Cankers may extend up the trunk to the rootstock- fungicides. In the northern regions of the midwest,
scion union or beyond if the scion is susceptible to some fruit rot fungi invade winter-injured tissue and
Phytophthora. Cankers at the base of the tree have are associated with branch cankers. Any condition

29
 Apples and Pears

that reduces tree vigor will increase susceptibility to of spots remain purple, while the centers turn tan to
branch and trunk infections. Flyspeck and sooty brown so that the spots resemble a “frog’s eye.” Spots
blotch fungi, and some of the fruit rot fungi, survive can enlarge and become irregular in shape as they are
on a wide range of woody plants. The fruit rot fungi invaded by other fungi later in the season. The leaf
are similar in many respects: spot phase is not economically important unless it
• they survive in dead or weakened tissue, including results in significant defoliation.
fire blight cankers and mummified fruit;
• they produce enormous numbers of spores which Branch cankers initially appear as slightly sunken
are readily disseminated by rain and wind; and reddish brown areas on the bark. Fire blight cankers
• the diseases they cause are favored by warm, and winter-injured tissue are frequent sites for black
humid weather. rot canker initiation. Cankers can expand to several
feet in length and girdle limbs. Branches are weak-
ened and sometimes killed.
Bitter Rot
Symptoms vary slightly, depending on which spore
type (ascospore of Glomerella cingulata or conidium White Rot (Bot Rot)
of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides or C. acutatum) White rot (Botryosphaeria dothidea) lesions begin on
causes the infection. Lesions incited by conidia are fruit as small, circular, tan spots that are sometimes
sunken, light brown, and often marked with concen- surrounded by a red halo. Duchess, Golden Deli-
tric circles of spore masses that appear creamy and cious, Grimes Golden, Gallia Beauty, Rome, and
salmon- to pink-colored under humid conditions. Yellow Transparent varieties are all highly susceptible
Lesions incited by ascospores are usually not sunken to white rot. Jonathan and Red Delicious are
and are darker than those caused by conidia. Spore- generally less affected. The rot extends in a cylindrical
producing bodies are scattered over the lesion in dark shape toward and surrounding the core. Eventually
brown to black clusters. Bitter rot decay extends in a the entire fruit becomes soft, watery, and light tan.
cone shape toward the core, which helps distinguish Under cooler conditions the rot may be darker and
bitter rot from other fruit rots. The rotten spots are closely resemble black rot. Branch infections start out
soft but firmer than white rot lesions. as reddish brown bark lesions that expand and
sometimes exude fluid. Cankers are more severe if
trees are stressed by drought.
Black Rot
In addition to affecting fruit, the black rot fungus,
Botryosphaeria obtusa, causes leaf spots (frog-eye leaf Flyspeck and Sooty Blotch
spot) and branch cankers. The optimal temperature Flyspeck and sooty blotch are two separate diseases
for fruit infection is 68° to 75°F with 9 hours of that frequently occur together on the same fruit.
wetting. Fruit symptoms often start at the blossom Flyspeck appears as clusters of tiny, black dots. Sooty
end. Dark brown lesions expand and eventually can blotch appears as dark, sooty smudges. The fungi that
encompass the entire fruit. Lesions are often marked cause flyspeck (Zygophiala jamaicensis) and sooty
by concentric alternating brown and black rings. The blotch (Peltaster fructicola, Gastrumia polystigmatis,
rotted area is firm, leathery, and dotted with dark Leptodontium elatius, and others) overwinter on the
fungal fruiting bodies. Fruit infection can occur twigs of many woody plants, especially brambles.
throughout the growing season; however, rot Spores of sooty blotch fungi are spread during rain.
symptoms generally appear as fruit reach maturity. The flyspeck fungus is spread as airborne ascospores
which are released during rain or as airborne or
The optimal temperature for leaf infection is 80°F waterborne conidia. Fruit infection can occur any
with 4 1/2 hours of wetting. Leaf spots first appear time after petal fall but is most prevalent during mid-
about 1 to 3 weeks after petal fall as purple flecks that to late summer. Both diseases are favored by tempera-
expand to about 1/4-inch in diameter. The margins tures between 65° to 80°F and by high relative

30
 Apples and Pears

humidity at the fruit surface (greater than 90 percent Fungicides: Different fungicides are recommended
for sooty blotch and greater than 95 percent for for the different summer diseases. In general,
flyspeck). Conditions such as these are most frequent protectant fungicides (e.g., captan, ziram) that are
when nighttime temperatures remain near 65° to permitted later in the season are used alone or mixed
70°F or during extended warm rainy periods. The with benomyl (Benlate) or thiophanate-methyl
diseases flourish in orchards subject to heavy dews or (Topsin-M). See the current Commercial Tree Fruit
fog. Under ideal conditions, sooty blotch and Spray Guide for specific recommendations.
flyspeck symptoms can develop within 14 days of
infection, but symptom development is arrested by
high temperatures and low relative humidity. Thus,
Insect and Mite Pests
the period between infection and symptom develop- of Apples and Pears
ment ranges from 25 to more than 60 days in the Control of the major insect pests of apples in
Northeast and may be similar in the Midwest. Sooty commercial production involves timely insecticide
blotch and flyspeck infections not yet visible at applications. Unlike some crop pests, pests of apples
harvest can develop during storage. can be very elusive, and damage can often occur
without individual pests being seen. To maintain
Control of Summer Diseases healthy, productive trees and fruit, producers should
A combination of annual pruning, adequate fruit recognize what pests to look for, understand pest
thinning, orchard sanitation, and protective fungi- biology, use appropriate preventive measures, and
cides is the key to controlling summer diseases. apply timely controls when needed.

Pruning and Thinning: Pruning systems that open

the tree canopy to light should also improve air
Identifying and Understanding
movement and thereby reduce relative humidity and Major Apple and Pear Pests
the time that leaves and fruit are wet. For example, It is important for growers to recognize all stages of
summer pruning, as opposed to dormant pruning, the insects and mites that attack apples and pears.
reduced the incidence of flyspeck on apple fruit by 50 Proper identification is critical to making the correct
percent in research conducted in Massachusetts. management decisions. In addition, growers should
Keeping the orchard mowed should also promote air develop a basic understanding of the pest. The more
movement, enhance rapid drying, and in turn, reduce you know about the pest, the better equipped you
summer diseases. Thinning of fruit is important to will be to make sound and effective management
improve spray coverage and drying. Clustered fruit decisions. The following literature contains color
often have flyspeck on their inner faces even when an photographs of pests of apples and pears, as well as
adequate fungicide program has been used. information on their biology.

Sanitation: Dead or weakened wood in or near an Common Tree Fruit Pests

orchard can serve as a reservoir for the fungi that Authored by Angus Howitt and published as North
cause summer diseases. Therefore, removal and Central Regional Extension Publication #63 by
destruction of dead and dying plant material, Michigan State University Cooperative Extension
including the current year’s fire blight strikes, is Service. Phone: (517) 355-0240.
necessary to keep the level of summer disease fungi to
a minimum. Removing unwanted vegetation that Mid-Atlantic Orchard Monitoring Guide
might be a reservoir for pathogens, particularly wild Edited by Henry Hogmire and published as NRAES
brambles, should also reduce disease pressure in the 75 by the Northeast Region Agricultural Engineering
orchard. Service, Cooperative Extension Service.
Phone: (607) 255-7654.

31
 Apples and Pears

Codling Moth moth has been captured in the trap. A few moths often
(Cydia pomonella; order Lepidoptera, family Tortricidae) emerge very early in the spring ahead of the rest. Using
the fifth moth as the biofix better represents when the
Damage: Codling moth is a serious pest of apples
majority of the codling moths begin to emerge. This
and pears. Larvae damage apples and pears by usually occurs just after petal fall. Sprays should be
chewing their way into the center of the fruit.
applied when 250 degree-days (50°F threshold) have
“Frass,” or fecal material, is pushed out through the
accumulated after the cumulative capture of five moths
side of the fruit skin or the calyx end. Wounds caused per trap. Typically, 1,000 degree-days are needed to
by codling moth larvae promote the development of
complete each generation. Growers should use an
fruit rots. Most of the damage is caused by second-
action threshold of an average of five or more moths
and third-generation larvae. per week throughout the season. An insecticide
Appearance: The adult moth is about 3/8-inch long application should be made 250 degree-days later if the
and blends in well with the bark. The adult moth’s number of moths exceed this threshold.
forewings are gray-brown crossed with light gray and For one season, a grower will need a minimum of two
white lines and with deep gold or bronze wing tips.
wing traps (two plastic trap tops, two wire hangers),
The larva is white, often tinged with pink, and has a
ten to 25 wing trap bottoms (sticky cardboard), and
brown head. ten pheromone lures. Hang codling moth pheromone
Life Cycle and Habits: The fully traps in the southeast quadrant of the tree, 6 feet off
developed larva is the overwintering the ground. Avoid hanging traps in outside rows.
stage. Pupation occurs in spring beginning Mating Disruption: Isomate C-plus and CheckMate
about the same time as bloom, with adults first
codling moth CM are registered for the control of codling moth.
active in late April or early May. Female moths lay
They dispense the sex attractant of the codling moth
the scale-like eggs singly on developing fruit or and are designed to prevent male moths from
adjacent leaves or stems just after sundown each
locating females for mating. This strategy, termed
night. Upon hatching, the larva enters into the calyx
mating disruption, is most likely to succeed in blocks
end or side of the fruit, then tunnels to the center of at least 5 acres and where initial populations of
where it feeds and develops. Brown frass is often
codling moth are low. If mating disruption is used for
noticed near the calyx end of the developing fruit.
codling moth control in smaller blocks, or where
Larval development is completed in 3 to 5 weeks. infestations are greater, border sprays or at least one
Larvae exit the fruit to pupate in a thick silken
or two cover sprays will also be necessary. Controlling
cocoon on the bark or other protected areas. In the
codling moth by mating disruption will not control
Midwest, there are two generations and sometimes a other insect pests that are controlled by cover sprays
partial third one.
(plum curculio and apple maggots, for example).
Monitoring and Thresholds: Management of codling Isomate C-plus has performed better than
moth in commercial orchards relies on regular CheckMate CM in most studies.
examination of the fruit, pheromone trapping, and the
Chemical Control: Control of codling moth later in
use of degree-day models. Pheromone traps for this
the season is assisted by good control of the first
pest need to be monitored from pink through harvest. generation.
Typically, the first moth catch is at bloom, and two or
three generations should be expected throughout the
year. Traps help determine timing of sprays; sprays
Plum Curculio
(Conotrachelus nenuphar; order Coleoptera, family
should target larvae emerging from eggs. Curculionidae)
The biofix for the codling moth is the starting date of Damage: Plum curculio attacks apples and pears.
the first sustained flight of male moths captured in Surface feeding and egg laying by overwintering
pheromone traps. Generally, this is when the fifth adults can scar or misshape the fruit by harvest, and

32
 Apples and Pears

feeding by larvae may cause some Apple Maggot

premature fruit drop. Newly (Rhagoletis pomonella; order Diptera, family Tephritidae)
emerging adults in the summer
Damage: Apple maggot mainly attacks apples. Egg
feed on apples for a short time, causing round feeding
scars that penetrate the fruit about 1/4-inch. punctures and larval feeding cause fruit to be
plum
curculio dimpled, and if it is soft, the fruit will soon rot.
larva Appearance: The adult is a typical snout beetle,
Appearance: Adult apple maggot flies have dark
1/4-inch long, dark brown with patches of white or
gray. There are four prominent humps on the wing bands on their wings and white bands around the
abdomen. There is a large white spot on the thorax.
covers. The snout is one-quarter the length of the
The larva, when fully grown, is about 1/3-inch long,
body, with mouth parts located at the end. The larva
is a legless, grayish white grub with a brown head. Its cream colored, and legless.
length is about 1/3-inch when fully grown. Life Cycle and Habits: Apple maggot passes winter as
a pupa, and adults emerge from June to September,
Life Cycle and Habits: Plum curculio overwinters as
adults in ground litter or soil, usually outside the with most adults emerging in June and July. They
puncture the skin of an apple and insert an egg into
orchard. Adults migrate into the orchards each
it. The maggots hatch and feed by tunneling through-
spring. Typically, the first signs of damage coincide
with the onset of 60°F nighttime tempera- out the apple flesh, leaving tiny brown trails. Apple
maggots are common in northern Illinois, Indiana,
tures. Eggs are laid on crescent-shaped
and Ohio and absent in the southern parts of these
flaps cut in the skin of young fruit.
Often border rows near woods are the states. They seldom cause damage south of U.S.
Highway 40. There is one generation per year (maybe
first to show injury. Apples and
plum two in southern range). Check with local Extension
curculio pears attacked by plum curculio
adult will drop from the tree early in the personnel for apple maggot incidence in your area.
season, along with poorly pollinated fruit. When Monitoring and Thresholds: Traps are used to
larvae are fully developed, they leave the fruit, drop monitor for apple maggot flies from early June
to the ground, and pupate 1 to 2 inches below the through mid-August. Use yellow sticky traps or red
surface. Adults emerge in midsummer and may feed spheres baited with fruit volatile lures. Place along
on the fruit before leaving the orchard to find edges of blocks nearest an abandoned orchard or
overwintering sites. There is one generation per year. woodlot; if these are not present, then along the
southern edge of blocks. If traps are not used in every
Monitoring and Thresholds: Currently there are no
block, put them in the earliest-maturing variety or
methods to accurately predict when plum curculio
damage will occur. However, plum curculio pyramid blocks closest to abandoned orchards. Place the trap
in the outer part of the midcanopy (eye-height) of the
traps are currently being tested in several midwestern
tree in a relatively exposed spot; prune back any
states.
clusters or shoots within 6 to 12 inches of the trap.
Chemical Control: Plum curculio is usually con-
Compare the appearance of the trapped flies with
trolled with petal-fall and first-cover insecticide sprays
pictures of the apple maggot to be sure you are not apple
directed at the adult before egg laying. Considerable
counting a non-target species; pay particular attention maggot
egg-laying damage can occur over a short period of
to the dark patterns in the wings, which differ in the
time. Where plum curculio has been a problem in the
apple maggot fly and the cherry fruit flies. First trap
past, use preventive sprays at petal fall and first cover
to reduce damage. Cool weather during petal fall may captures usually occur in early to mid-June. Growers
should spray when five apple maggot flies are trapped
delay the immigration of the adults into the orchard.
per ball (note: or one fly per trap if fruit volatile lure is
Under these conditions, a first-cover and possibly a
second-cover spray may be needed to control plum
curculio.

33
 Apples and Pears

not used). Season trapping needs include three red ball appear. Females of the later generations deposit most
traps and three hangers, three fruit volatile lures (note: of the eggs along the leaf midribs. There are three to
not a pheromone), and one tube or can of Tanglefoot. four generations per year.
The fruit volatile lure lasts all season and does not need
to be replaced periodically. Monitoring and Thresholds: Look for adults on
spurs and branches on warm days just before bud
Chemical Control: Control of the apple maggot burst, and on the tender new shoots the remainder of
needs to be directed at the adult flies before egg the season. Eggs in late dormant to bud burst are
laying occurs. Additional sprays may be needed if found singly or in rows on spurs and twigs or around
traps’ catch counts remain above five flies. Often in bud scales. Through the remainder of the season,
commercial orchards, sprays applied to the first look on the undersides of tender new growth for rows
several border rows are sufficient to control apple of eggs along the leaf midribs. Small nymphs are
maggot flies entering the orchard. found from green cluster throughout the season on
tender new growth; larger nymphs are found on
Pear Psylla leaves that are hardening off. Nymphs and adults can
(Cacopsylla pyricola; order Homoptera, family Psyllidae) be monitored with beat cloths and adults with yellow
sticky cards.
Damage: The most troublesome insect pest of pears
is usually the pear psylla. It sucks plant sap and Chemical Control: Pear psylla is difficult to
injects a toxin into leaves as it feeds, causing wilting control and has become resistant to
and leaf drop. It may take the tree several years to many insecticides. A delayed dormant
recover from the reduction in vigor. Psylla oil should be applied as adults are pear psylla
nymph
excretes honeydew on leaves, which can kill leaf emerging, but before egg laying has
tissue and lead to a condition known as psylla occurred. This is green tip in most years, but
scorch. Black sooty mold can grow on honeydew, monitoring will determine more exact timing. The
which can further affect the appearance and vigor of most important times to treat for pear psylla are at
pears. the pre-bloom (white bud) and petal fall stages.

Appearance: The pear psylla is a small insect, only

Leafrollers
1/10-inch when fully grown. The adult has a stout (order Lepidoptera, family Tortricidae)
body with a wide head and thorax, red eyes, and RED-BANDED LEAFROLLER (Argyrotaenia velutinana) fruit-tree
leafroller
wings longer than the body. The clear wings are held OBLIQUE-BANDED LEAFROLLER (Choristoneura rosaceana) larva
roof-like over the sides of the body. It looks like a FRUIT-TREE LEAFROLLER (Archips argyrospila)
miniature cicada. Eggs are yellowish orange and may
Damage: Red-banded leafroller larvae feed on apple
be seen with the aid of a magnifier. Newly hatched
foliage and fruit, with the last generation of the
nymphs are yellowish, 1/80-inch. Late-stage nymphs
season doing the most serious damage. The larva
are hard shelled, and wing pads are apparent.
attaches a leaf to the fruit surface with silk and feeds
Life Cycle and Habits: Adults overwinter on the trees on apple skin and flesh. Some other species of
in bark crevices. Adults emerge, mate, and begin leafrollers that can be found in the Midwest include
laying eggs when temperatures reach 50° to the oblique-banded leafroller and fruit-tree leafroller.
60°F. Eggs are deposited in
Appearance: The red-banded leafroller is brown,
crevices in the bark and near the
about the size of the codling moth, and has broad
pear psylla terminal buds. Most eggs hatch
adult reddish bands on each forewing. Larvae are green and
by petal fall. Nymphs move to
slender with a light brown head; they reach a length
the axils of leaf petioles and
of about 2/3-inch. The oblique-banded leafroller is
young fruit to feed. Five nymphal
brown with three dark bands on the front wings.
stages are passed before the adults
Wing spread is about 1 inch. Larvae are small and

34
 Apples and Pears

green with black heads. The and mid-May for oblique-banded leafroller
fruit-tree leafroller is a and maintained through September. Monitor
brown moth slightly larger for larvae by examining the number of larvae
than the codling moth. per 100 expanding leaf terminals or fruit clusters. Use oblique-banded
Thin light markings appear an average of four larvae per 100 expanding leaf leafroller
in various patterns across the front wings. The larva is terminals or fruit clusters for making management
red-banded
leafroller a slender, pale green worm. The head is black with a decisions.
black spot just behind the head. The larva reach
about 3/4-inch in length. Chemical Control: In the Midwest, cover sprays for
codling moths and other orchard pests usually
Life Cycle and Habits: The red-banded leafroller control leafrollers as well. Egg hatch of the red-
overwinters as a pupa in debris on the ground. Adults banded leafroller often coincides with petal fall, so
emerge in early spring and lay eggs in masses on sprays applied at this time will control it. In some
undersides of larger limbs. Eggs hatch at about areas, the oblique-banded leafroller has become
bloom. Newly hatched larvae fold or roll leaves resistant to organophosphate insecticides, so chemi-
together with webbing and feed on cals with different modes of action may be required.
foliage. There are second, third, and
fourth generations in southern areas Tufted Apple Budmoth
of the Midwest. (Platynota idaeusalis; order Lepidoptera, family Tortricidae)

The fruit-tree leafroller overwinters Damage: Young larvae of tufted apple budmoth feed
fruit tree in the egg stage on twigs. Hatch along midribs of leaves, then bite into the petiole to
leafroller
adult occurs about the time buds begin to make a characteristic notch. Like other leafrollers,
open. Larvae feed on buds, blooms, older larvae of the tufted apple budmoth use webbing
leaves, and fruits. In June, fully to attach a leaf to a fruit, then they chew on the surface
grown larvae pupate inside folded or of the fruit underneath the leaf. Fruit damage is similar
rolled-up leaves. Moths appear 2 to that of red-banded leafroller, but the budmoth-
weeks later, lay their eggs, and die. damaged patches are usually smaller and more
Only one generation occurs each year. separated than the more continuous patches of feeding
damage caused by red-banded leafroller. Characteristic
Overwintering of the oblique-banded leafroller
fruit damage by tufted apple budmoth is the same as
occurs as partially grown larvae inside tightly woven
that of the variegated leafroller (Platynota flavedana),
cases on the host trees. During spring, larvae emerge which is the major leafroller in central Virginia and
and feed until late May. Pupation occurs, and adults
parts of West Virginia. Tufted apple budmoth is the
emerge in June. One or two generations may occur
major leafroller in Pennsylvania and other mid-Atlantic
each year. Damage is done by young larvae mining states. It is present in the Midwest but is not as serious
the leaves, with larger larvae feeding inside rolled-up
a pest as it is in Pennsylvania.
leaves.
Appearance: Fully grown larvae are 3/4-inch long,
Monitoring and Thresholds: Leafroller populations light grayish brown with a dark stripe down the back,
can be sampled by both tree examination and
and they have a chestnut brown head capsule and a
pheromone traps. Because these species have wide
dark brown plate just behind the head. Egg masses
host ranges, pheromone trap catch numbers are of are flat, dime-sized, and contain about 150 eggs; eggs
limited value in determining economic thresholds
are green when freshly laid and bronze when close to
and the need to spray. Pheromone trap catches will
hatching. Adults are small moths that are mottled
indicate when to monitor carefully for the larvae. grayish brown, lighter at the wing base, and darker at
Pheromone traps should be in place by the green tip
wing tips. There are tufts of scales on the top of the
for red-banded leafroller, pink for fruit-tree leafroller,
middle of the forewings.

35
 Apples and Pears

Life Cycle and Habits: Tufted apple budmoth San Jose Scale
overwinters as larvae in rolled leaves beneath fruit (Quadraspidiotus pericosus; order Homoptera, family
trees. Adults emerge in early May and lay eggs on the Diaspididae)
upper surface of leaves. Eggs hatch in 10 to 14 days.
Damage: San Jose scale can infest apples, pears,
First generation eggs hatch in June. Second genera-
peaches, and plums. The young crawlers feed on
tion eggs hatch in August. There are two generations
limbs, leaves, and fruit, causing red, spotted areas.
per year.
Infested leaves usually drop, and limbs lose vigor and
Cultural Control: Remove apple suckers and suppress die. Fruit will have an undesirable finish because of
the groundcover under apple trees to eliminate the the red, spotted appearance caused by scale feeding
early spring habitat of tufted apple budmoth. and the presence of the scale.

Monitoring and Thresholds: A sex pheromone trap Appearance: The yellow female is underneath a gray,
is available to monitor adult males of this species. Use round, and flattened scale-like cap. When mature, the
one trap per block if less than 5 acres, or two traps scale is about 1/20-inch in size. The male is a tiny,
per block if more than 5 acres. Set up traps by the yellow, two-winged, gnat-like insect. The
first of May. Attach the trap to a limb in the outer minute crawlers are orange-yellow and oval,
third of the tree canopy, at a 5- to 6-foot height. Fruit and they have six legs.
damage is usually negligible if there are fewer than 50
Life Cycle and Habits: San Jose scale
moths per trap during the 3-week period after the
overwinters as a nymph under a scale on tree San Jose scale
first moth is caught. If the number of moths per trap
limbs and resumes feeding when sap begins to flow in
during the 3-week period after the first moth is
the tree. In the spring, adult males emerge about
caught is 100, then about 3 percent of fruit is likely
mid-May and seek out wingless females. Mating
to be damaged at harvest; if 200 moths are trapped,
occurs and crawlers emerge about 1 month later.
then about 9 percent fruit damage is predicted at
These tiny yellow insects move around on bark,
harvest.
foliage, and fruit until they locate a suitable site to
Chemical Control: Insecticide is effective if used settle down permanently. Once settled, the crawler
when eggs are hatching and larvae are small, before sticks its mouthparts into the tree and secretes a waxy
they are protected within rolled leaves. The best time shell over its body. There are two or more generations
to spray to control the first brood is when 10 percent per year.
of eggs have hatched, which is 530 degree-days (base
Monitoring and Thresholds: Scale should be
45°F) after the first moth was caught in a pheromone
monitored by two methods: 1) adult traps about 2
trap, and spray again after 60 percent of eggs have
months in early spring and 2) the appearance of the
hatched, which is 805 degree-days after the first moth
crawler stage. Assemble traps and hang in scale-
was trapped. The best time to spray to control the
infested trees by April 1. At least twice per week,
second brood is at 10 percent egg hatch, which is
remove each trap from the tree and examine the
2,280 degree-days (base 45°F) after the first moth
surface with a hand lens (magnifier) for adult scales.
was caught, and spray again after 60 percent egg
Once adult scales have been captured, begin calculat-
hatch, which is 2,665 degree-days after the first moth
ing degree-day accumulation (see “Chemical Con-
was trapped. Control is improved if spray volume is
trol”). Crawlers can be detected easily by wrapping a
at least 100 gallons per acre.
small amount of black electrical tape with the sticky
side out around an infested limb. Pay particular
attention to the edge of the tape. Crawlers also can be
detected with a hand lens and a straight pin to probe
or “flip” over mature scales and look for tiny, orange-
yellow crawlers.

36
 Apples and Pears

The presence of reddish blemishes on fruit at harvest of this insect occur each year. They are often abundant
indicates damaging numbers on the trees. If such on pigweed and other flowering weeds.
damage is noted, inspect bark of trees for scale,
especially 1-year-old wood. During pruning opera- Monitoring and Thresholds: Pay particular attention
tions, look for purplish red halos on young bark that to plant bugs before bloom. Adults are
are indications of scale infestation. Often this very difficult to find in trees and will fly
small insect goes unnoticed until large populations when disturbed. Hold a beat cloth
under a scaffold, and strike the scaffold tarnished
have developed. Growers should be on the lookout plant bug
for scale on the fruit at harvest and evidence of scale sharply once or twice with the mallet. nymph
on new wood during pruning. Sample five scaffold limbs per tree.
Examine 100 fruit clusters for tarnished plant bugs;
Chemical Control: Because this insect spends much the threshold is five nymphs or adults per 100 fruit
of its life cycle under a protective cover or scale, clusters.
timing of insecticide applications is very important.
Sprays should be applied when crawlers are observed Cultural Control: Tarnished plant bugs overwinter
or 400 degree-days (base 51°F) after adults are in, feed on, and may build up in number on ground-
captured. Insecticidal control is most effective cover plants. Cover crop management is important to
when used in conjunction with a well-applied prevent tarnished plant bugs from moving into fruit
dormant oil and a good pruning and training trees. Because tarnished plant bug is attracted to
program. Usually, dormant oil applications are flowering broadleaf weeds, management of annual
more effective against scale than delayed- weeds through regular mowing is an important
dormant applications. practice for this pest.
tarnished plant
bug adult Chemical Control: Control is most effective at the
Tarnished Plant Bug pink stage. This insect also damages young peach
(Lygus lineolaris; order Heteroptera, family Miridae) buds, causing deformed fruit at harvest. Sprays at the
Damage: Their feeding with piercing, sucking pink stage to peaches are effective for its control.
mouthparts on fruit when it is very small causes deep
depressions or dimples in apples and pears that are Spotted Tentiform Leafminer
noticeable at harvest time. Several species of Lygus can (Phyllonorycter blancardella; order Lepidoptera, family
Gracillariidae)
cause similar damage to apples.
Damage: The larva of this moth is a leafminer that
Appearance: Adults are 1/4-inch long, mottled
feeds inside the leaf between the upper and lower
brown insects with wings folded over the abdomen. A
surfaces. At first, the new mines are visible only on
yellow-tipped triangle is present in the middle of
the bottom surface of the leaves as a pale blotch. As
their backs. Nymphs are small and greenish and
the leafminer grows, the mine can be seen on the top
resemble the adult without wings. Both nymphs and
of the leaf; it looks like a circle of speckles about
adults have a beak used for sucking plant juices. They
1/2-inch in diameter. High populations can cause
move rapidly when disturbed.
severe defoliation, leading to reduced fruit and
Life Cycle and Habits: Adult tarnished plant bugs terminal growth, early leaf drop, and reduced fruit set spotted
the following season. tentiform
overwinter under bark, in leaf litter, and in other such leafminer
protected places. The adult feeds on opening buds or young
Appearance: Adults are 1/8-inch long, golden brown larva
flowers in early spring, and later on developing fruit.
moths with white spots or bands. The eggs are small,
They lay eggs in the plant tissue of their many hosts.
flat, elliptical, and laid singly on the undersides of
Nymphs emerge about 1 week later and feed for about
leaves. Eggs are transparent early, but soon turn
3 weeks before reaching adulthood. Several generations
creamy to yellow. Small larvae are extremely flat and

37
 Apples and Pears

spotted legless; they live in the small space between leaf Scout in early to midsummer for early mines of the
tentiform surfaces. Larger larvae have visible legs and a head second generation of spotted tentiform leafminer.
leafminer
adult capsule and thus more closely resemble caterpillars The ideal time to scout can be determined by using a
than the small larvae. pheromone trap and degree-day counts; scouting
should be done 500 to 700 degree-days, base 43°F,
Life Cycle and Habits: This insect overwinters as (about 3 weeks) after the number of leafminer moths
pupae in leaf litter. Small eggs are laid singly on the begins to sharply increase in pheromone traps. To
undersides of leaves. Small larvae begin to appear scout in midsummer, examine five mature terminal
around bloom. These larvae feed in a “U” shape leaves per tree from at least five trees, and count the
pattern which delineates the area that will be the number of new mines on the undersides of these
mine. This is normally only visible from the under- leaves. If 2 1/2 or more new mines per leaf are
side of the leaf. Larger, tissue-feeding larvae feed on detected, apply an insecticide effective against sap-
both the upper and lower leaf surfaces. After about a feeding leafminer larvae.
month of feeding, larvae pupate within the mine, and
adults begin to appear in about another month. This Chemical Control: If leafminers have been a persis-
insect has three generations per year. tent problem in previous years, apply an insecticide
spray targeted at adults at peak emergence. If
Monitoring and Thresholds: Pheromone leafminer has not been a persistent problem, then do
traps can be used to monitor adult activity not spray for adults, but scout for eggs at pink and
from green tip through harvest. The first for young larvae at petal fall and in July.
spotted
tentiform catch usually occurs at green tip with the first
leafminer generation peak at early pink and the second This insect has developed resistance to Guthion,
larva
generation peak in late June. Scout for eggs at Imidan, and other commonly used cover sprays.
pink or for larvae at petal fall and in July. Grower experience has shown that Provado or Agri-
Mek applied at petal fall provides satisfactory season-
Scout for eggs of spotted tentiform leafminer at pink long control and does not harm beneficial mites and
stage. Use a hand lens to see the small, round, insects. A pyrethroid (Asana, Ambush, Pounce) or
translucent eggs. Examine three fruit clusters each carbamate (Lannate) can be used, but these may lead
from at least three trees, and count the number of to mite outbreaks later in the season due to their
eggs on the undersides of the second, third, and toxicity to predatory mites.
fourth leaves in each cluster (start counting leaves
from the bottom of the bud). If an average of nine or
more eggs per fruit cluster is detected at pink, then
White Apple, Rose, and Potato
use an insecticide for leafminer larvae at petal fall. If
Leafhoppers
(order Homoptera, family Cicadellidae)
fewer than nine eggs per fruit cluster are detected at WHITE APPLE LEAFHOPPER (Typhlocyba pomaria)
pink, then an insecticide for leafminer larvae will ROSE LEAFHOPPER (Edwardsiana rosae)
probably not be needed at petal fall, but scout for POTATO LEAFHOPPER (Empoasca fabae)
early mines at petal fall to help make the final
decision. Damage: Whitish spots or stippling on upper leaf
surface are evidence of white apple leafhopper and
Scout at petal fall for early mines of the first genera- rose leafhopper feeding. Sticky honeydew secretions
tion. Early mines are visible only on the underside of from leafhopper feeding frequently cover lower fruits
the leaf, not on the top. Examine three fruit clusters and are called “tar spotting.” Damage is caused by
from each of at least three trees, and count the number nymphs and adults removing chlorophyll and sap
of early mines on the undersides of the second, third, from the lower leaf surface which can affect fruit
and fourth leaves in each cluster. If four or more new development and bud formation. Adults can be a
mines per fruit cluster are detected, then use an nuisance if they are abundant at harvest as they can
insecticide for leafminer larvae at petal fall. be inhaled by pickers. The potential for rose leafhop-

38
 Apples and Pears

per is largely dependent on the density and proximity Potato leafhopper develops throughout the year in
to orchards of the primary overwintering host, the southern United States near the Gulf of Mexico
floribunda rose. and migrates northward each growing season rather
than overwintering in northern states. The appear-
Damage by potato leafhopper is less common and is ance of potato leafhopper is therefore less predictable
characterized by yellowing and necrotic leaf margins. because its migration depends on the jet stream and
While these damaged areas are typically V-shaped, weather patterns.
intense feeding can cause the entire leaf margin to be
affected. The bronzed, dried appearance of leaf tips is Monitoring and Thresholds: Scout from bloom
referred to as “hopper burn.” Leaf margins on injured through petal fall for nymphs of the white apple
leaves often curl downward. While white apple leafhopper. Examine a leaf from the middle of a fruit
leafhopper is found on cluster leaves and not on cluster on 25 clusters on each of five trees. If an
actively growing terminal shoots, potato leafhopper is average of three or more nymphs per leaf is detected,
more of a threat to young, nonbearing fruit trees and then use an insecticide specifically targeted for
young, tender foliage. leafhopper in addition to your cover spray insecticide
at petal fall. With the rose leafhopper, and the second
Appearance: White apple leafhopper and rose generation of white apple leafhopper, examine 25
leafhopper adults are very similar in appearance. The leaves per tree and treat with an insecticide if there is
long, slender adults are wedge-shaped, with a convex an average of three or more nymphs per leaf.
back. The body is a light yellow, and the head is
slightly darker. Juveniles are generally pale white and Growers should monitor young apple plantings for
wingless; they scurry around when disturbed. While potato leafhopper and initial signs of damage.
white apple leafhopper nymphs are without Consider treatment of young blocks when potato
noticeable markings, older rose leafhopper leafhoppers first appear, particularly where they have
nymphs have a few small black spots on the been a problem in the past.
back of the thorax and wingpads.
Chemical Control: The white apple leafhopper
Potato leafhopper is light green. White apple has become resistant to commonly used cover
leafhopper can be distinguished from potato spray insecticides, such as Guthion and white apple
leafhopper by the tendency of white apple leafhop- Imidan. Provado is very effective leafhopper
white apple nymph
per to walk forward and backward, while potato against this insect, and it is less
leafhopper
adult leafhopper walks sideways as well as forward and disruptive on mite management. In
backward. orchards where leafhoppers have become
troublesome, it is important to include an effective
Life Cycle and Habit: White apple leafhopper leafhopper control in the first cover spray. Young
overwintering eggs begin hatching at pink, and leafhoppers are easier to control than adults. The
hatching is usually complete by petal fall. The first brood is an easier target than the second brood
nymphs move to the undersides of the leaves to feed. because the hatch is more synchronous.
First-generation adults begin to appear in June. There
are two generations of white apple leafhopper per
year. The second generation adults are often notice-
European Red Mite
(Panonychus ulmi; order Acari, family Tetranychidae)
able during harvest.
Damage: European red mites feed by withdrawing
Rose leafhopper overwinters as eggs on wild roses and juices and chlorophyll from leaves and can build up
brambles. Nymphs emerge in the spring and feed on
to the point where leaf bronzing is visible by mid- to
the wild hosts. In June, adults disperse and move to
late July. Under such conditions, mites can cause
apples. The second and third generations feed on serious injury to the current year’s crop. Injury will be
apples.
expressed on fruit as poor color or a reduction in size

39
 Apples and Pears

and quality. If damage is both heavy and early trees until you reach a decision. The maximum
enough in early to midsummer, the next year’s crop number of leaves to examine is 100 per block.
can be affected by a reduction in the number of fruit
buds. The earlier mites build up in the growing Biological Control: European red mite is rarely a
season, the more serious the potential injury. serious pest in backyard and unmanaged orchards.
Predatory mites, lady beetles, and the banded thrips
Appearance: This mite is red, with newly emerging help to maintain European red mite at below
females being bright velvety red, changing with time damaging levels. This mite is considered a secondary
to brick red. There are often noticeable white spots at pest; it typically builds to damaging levels only after
the base of six to eight hairs on its back. Males are its natural enemies have been depleted by insecticide
dull green to yellowish brown. Females are more applications used to control codling moth or other
globular shaped; males are narrower with a more pests. Minimizing insecticide usage and selecting
pointed abdomen. Eggs are of two forms. Overwin- insecticides that are least toxic to beneficial organ-
tering eggs are red-orange and globular and some- isms—in particular, avoiding the use of pyrethroid
what flattened (onion shaped) with a slender stalk on insecticides—will help to minimize problems with
top. Eggs produced during the growing season are this mite.
European yellowish orange and spherical without the stalk. The
red mite first mite stage (instar) has six legs and Control with Oil: Over the years, a superior
female oil application applied close to the time mites
succeeding instars have eight legs.
hatch has proven to be one of the best control
Life Cycle and Habits: Overwintering occurs as practices. The oil coats the eggshell, thereby
eggs laid in roughened bark around the bases of suffocating the developing mite embryo European
buds and spurs. Egg hatch in the spring begins by blocking respiration. In recent years, a red mite
male
around tight cluster stage. Newly hatched mite larvae number of orchards had mites that
crawl onto the unfolding leaves and begin feeding. The showed various degrees of resistance
life stages are egg, larva, protonymph, duetonymph, to miticides. Because of this problem,
and adult, with a resting stage between each active a good oil application becomes even
stage. Development from egg to adult may take from 1 more important during the dormant to delayed
to 3 weeks and is very temperature dependent. There dormant period.
can be six to eight overlapping generations per season.
Summer eggs are laid on the undersides of leaves, Chemical Control: Recent work has shown that tight
unlike winter eggs that are laid on twigs and branches. cluster (Apollo), pink (Savey), or petal-fall miticide
(Agri-Mek) sprays significantly help season-long mite
Monitoring and Thresholds: Scout for European red control, provided mite predators are conserved. The
mite each week from petal fall to August. Start by use of early miticides will often delay mite buildup,
taking four leaves from each of five trees, examine so that by late June or early July, very low populations
them for the presence or absence of mites (do not are present in the field. Because this coincides with
count the number of mites per leaf, just rate each as the establishment of mite predators, early control
infested or not infested). Then refer to the mite measures often increase the likelihood of good
sampling charts (Figure 6) that correspond to the predator-to-prey ratios, permitting the predator to
appropriate time: early season, mid-season, or late- keep mites below treatment levels.
season. On the chart, plot a point that shows how
many infested leaves you found in your 20-leaf Growers routinely using early-season mite sprays on
sample. The point will fall in one of three decision their mite-prone varieties should develop a plan to
zones: treat with a miticide, do not treat, or take manage the development of mite resistance to these
additional samples. If the point on the chart falls in a sprays. Apollo and Savey have very similar modes of
“continue” zone, then collect leaves from additional action. Because of this, alternating Apollo and Savey
is a poor resistance management strategy.

40
 Apples and Pears

Figure 6. European red mite sampling charts. During midsummer, Carzol, Pyramite, Kelthane, and
summer oils are rescue treatments that may be used
Procedure: Collect four leaves from each of five trees, examine them
for presence or absence of mites, then plot the number on the chart. against established mite populations. Carzol,
If the point falls in the continue zone, then collect leaves from
additional trees until a decision is reached. Kelthane, and Pyramite are highly toxic to mite
predators. In the summer, it may be necessary to
make two summer oil applications 7 to 10 days apart
Early-season Chart
based on a threshold of 2.5 mites per leaf to reduce established populations. Carzol provides
65
60 control of adults only and would have to be applied
55 repeatedly to reduce mite populations. Kelthane gives
Total leaves with mites

50 Stop sampling and treat NG

45 PLI some control of mites in cool and warm tempera-
AM
40 ES No treatment,
INU
resample in 6-10 days
35 T tures, but it should only be applied as a back-to-back
30 C ON
25 application to the same generation of mites to
PLING
20 INU E SAM prevent the buildup of resistance. Vendex provides a
15 CONT
10 No treatment, resample in 11-16 days
long-residual control, but control is poor to fair.
5
0 Pyramite is most effective against immature motile
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
stages.
Number of leaves examined

Aphids
Mid-season Chart (order Homoptera, family Aphididae)
based on a threshold of 5 mites per leaf
90 ROSY APPLE APHID (Dysaphis plantaginea)
80 GREEN APPLE APHID (Aphis pomi)
APPLE GRAIN APHID (Rhopalosiphum fitchii)
Total leaves with mites

70
Stop sampling and treat
G WOOLLY APPLE APHID (Eriosoma lanigerum)
60 LIN No treatment,
SA MP resample in 6-10 days
50 UE
IN
40 NT Damage: Generally three species of aphids, the green
CO LING apple
30 UE SAMP apple aphid, rosy apple aphid, and apple grain aphid,
CO NTIN grain
20 attack apple foliage in the Midwest. However, the aphid
No treatment, resample in 11-16 days
10
rosy apple aphid causes the most severe damage and
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 is the most difficult of the three to control. Large
Number of leaves examined
numbers of any type of aphid can stunt new growth
and cause sooty mold to develop on fruit and leaves,
Late-season Chart
but the rosy apple aphid injects a toxin with its saliva
90
based on a threshold of 7.5 mites per leaf that causes the leaf to curl and the fruit to abort or to
80 be small or distorted. Relatively low numbers of rosy
apple aphids can cause considerable damage. Prob-
Total leaves with mites

70
NG No treatment,
PLI
Stop sampling and treat
60 AM resample in 6-10 days lems usually begin to appear at pink and into early
ES
50 T INU summer before the aphids move to alternate hosts.
ON G
40 C PLIN
INU E SAM Feeding by the woolly apple aphid on roots results in
30 CONT
20
knots and stubby, gnarled root growth. Young trees
10
No treatment, resample in 11-16 days are often severely injured by this pest. Although
0 woolly apple aphids feed above ground, the feeding
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Number of leaves examined on the roots produces the greatest damage.

Source: Cornell Cooperative Extension Service, 1992 Pest Management

Appearance: Apple aphids are small pear- to teardrop-
Recommendations for Commercial Tree-Fruit Production. shaped insects. Color varies from purple to gray to rosy
for rosy apple aphid, and to light green for green apple
aphid and apple grain aphid. Generally a pair of pro-

41
 Apples and Pears

jections (cornicles) will be present on the Cultural Control: Although all apple varieties green apple
fifth or sixth segment. Mouthparts are pierc- are attacked by rosy apple aphid, ‘Cortland,’ aphid

ing-sucking. ‘Ida Red,’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ are particu-

larly susceptible. Rootstocks vary in susceptibility
Woolly apple aphid colonies appear as a to woolly apple aphid injury. Use MM.111 or
cottony mass clustered in wounds of the MM.106 if woolly apple aphid is a serious problem.
trunk and branches of the tree. The aphids them-
selves are purplish, but are covered with waxy white Monitoring and Thresholds: Apple growers should
threads. monitor their trees carefully at pink for rosy apple
aphids. A few colonies can rapidly infest the entire
Life Cycle and Habits: The life cycle of these aphids tree. Examine ten fruit clusters from the inner canopy
begins with the overwintering egg stage. Overwinter- of each of ten trees. If any rosy apple aphids are
ing eggs are found on twigs, around buds, or in found in this sample, then use an insecticide for
crevices in the bark. Eggs begin hatching in early aphid control at pink. If rosy aphid is not detected at
spring about green-tip stage. The first generation of pink, do not use an insecticide at pink unless
nymphs are all wingless females, called stem mothers. the block has a history of economic
These females give birth to live young, and a genera- injury from plant bugs. After petal
tion is completed about every 14 days. In early fall, treat for rosy apple aphid if 5
summer, some winged young are produced; these fly percent of the terminals or fruit
to new host plants and start new colonies. During clusters have live colonies. A number of rosy apple
late summer and early fall, both male and female predators often control rosy apple aphid, so distorted aphid
forms are produced, which mate and lay overwinter- leaves should be opened to determine if the aphids or
ing eggs. These eggs are green when first laid, but predators are still present before making control
soon turn shiny black as they mature. decisions.
The woolly apple aphid passes the winter in two Monitor for green apple aphid from petal fall until
forms, the egg and the immature nymph. Nymphs new growth hardens off (usually by mid-July).
hibernate underground on roots of apple trees. Examine five terminals on each of five trees. Look for
Wherever apples and elms are close together, over- aphids and natural enemies, particularly the gall
wintering eggs are deposited in cracks or protected midge larva (an orange maggot) that commonly preys
places on the elm. During spring, eggs hatch into on apple aphids. Treatment is suggested if 30 percent
wingless nymphs which feed on elm buds and leaves. of the terminals are infested and natural enemies are
In early June, a winged form is produced which not present.
migrates to apples and other hosts. These
individuals feed on wounds in the Careful examination of woolly apple aphid colonies is
branches and trunk, and many work necessary to determine if live aphids or predators are
their way down to the roots and trunk present. Predators can completely destroy an aphid
below ground surface. During the colony, but leave the waxy residue.
summer, repeated generations of wingless
individuals will be produced. In the fall, Chemical Control: Because rosy apple aphid
winged individuals are produced which fly infestations will curl the leaves, early control is
back to the elm and lay overwintering eggs, while important. Once the leaves are tightly curled,
some wingless forms remain on the apple tree on adequate spray coverage and control are more
woolly apple
aphid both aboveground and belowground parts through- difficult. For that reason, rosy apple aphids are best
out the winter. Now that elms are relatively uncom- controlled at the pink stage of bud development
mon, this aphid generally spends its entire life cycle while they are still exposed and before the serious leaf
only on apples. curl has occurred. The cover sprays for codling moth
may control light infestations of woolly apple aphid.

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 Apples and Pears

Dogwood Borer Cicadas

(Synanthedon scitula; order Lepidoptera, family Sesiidae) (order Homoptera, family Cicadidae)
PERIODICAL CICADA (Magicicada septendecim)
Damage: On young apple trees, dogwood borer can ANNUAL CICADA (several species)
cause serious damage, possibly girdling trees. The
larvae feed primarily in burrknot tissue on clonal Damage: While periodical
rootstocks. All commercial dwarfing and cicadas emerge at 13- or
17-year intervals, annual periodical
semi-dwarfing rootstocks have a tendency to develop cicada
burrknots. As the burrknot tissue is consumed, the cicadas may be seen each year. The worst damage adult
larvae move outward and begin to feed on the results from egg laying when females slit the bark on
cambium adjacent to the burrknot. twigs and lay their eggs in the wounds. These small
branches can turn brown and die, sometimes
Appearance: The adult dogwood borer is a wasp-like, breaking off. On young fruit trees, newly developed
black and yellow, clearwing moth. With a wing span trunk or scaffold branches can be so severely damaged
of 3/4-inch, it is smaller than the peach borers. The that new branches must be grown. Damage can be
female has a wide yellow band on the fourth abdomi- severe in newly planted orchards or new plantings of
nal segment; the male has a narrow yellow band on shade trees or shrubs. Juvenile feeding on roots causes
the same segment. The larvae are white to pink, have the most long-term damage. Once nymphs have
a brown head capsule, and are 1/2-inch when fully burrowed into the ground and reached the roots, no
grown. control method is available. During years one
through five of an infestation, damage probably will
Life Cycle and Habits: The dogwood borer lays eggs not be noticeable. However, for years 6 to 13 (or 17),
in burrknot tissue or in graft unions on clonal juvenile cicadas may be extremely destructive to
rootstocks such as M.7, M.26, etc., or interstems; the plants. Serious damage by annual cicadas is uncom-
larvae tunnel throughout the burrknot tissue and mon, and their activity in orchards is generally
adjacent cambial tissue. There is one generation per limited to feeding.
year.
Appearance: The periodical cicada and the annual
Monitoring and Thresholds: Pheromone traps can cicada are confused because of superficial similarities.
be used from petal fall through harvest to monitor for The periodical cicada is 1 1/2-inches long, with red
adult dogwood borers. The first trap catch usually eyes, a black body, and clearwings with orange veins;
occurs in late May or early June and peaks in early it appears from April to June. In contrast, the annual
July. Control by trunk application at peak egg hatch, cicada is 2- to 2 1/2-inches long, with green eyes, a
8 to 9 days after peak flight. green to black body, and light green
wings with dark green veins; it periodical
Cultural Control: White latex paint brushed on the cicada
appears from July to September.
exposed portion of the rootstock before egg laying nymph
begins can prevent new infestations and also protect Life Cycle and Habits: After emergence and mating
against southwest injury to the bark. Minimize the in late April through June, female periodical cicadas
use of plastic trunk guards, which create humid lay eggs in rows in pockets they cut in small branches
conditions on the trunk that are favorable to borer and twigs of trees with their knifelike egg layers.
development. Females prefer grapevines and oak, hickory, apple,
pear, and peach trees for egg laying. Eggs hatch in 6
Chemical Control: Infestations of dogwood borer are
uncommon, and routine trunk sprays are not to 8 weeks. Nymphs fall to the ground and burrow
down to the root system where they stay for the next
recommended. But in orchards where dogwood borer
13 (or 17) years. Damage occurs as they use their
is a problem, new infestations can be controlled by
applying an insecticide to the trunk at the time of piercing-sucking mouthparts to feed on the roots.
peak egg hatch.

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 Apples and Pears

Cultural Control: Small trees can be covered with a Life Cycle and Habits: Japanese beetles overwinter
protective netting like cheesecloth secured at the underground in the grub stage and pupate near the
bottom around the trunk. This covering will need to soil surface in the spring. Grubs spend 10 months in
stay on for 4 to 6 weeks or until egg laying is the soil where they feed on roots of grasses and can be
complete. Since the trees are growing rapidly at this serious pests of turf. Adults emerge from the ground
time, care must be taken to keep the netting from and begin feeding on various plants in June. Activity
deforming the scaffold branches. With older trees, is most intense over a 4- to 6-week period beginning
damaged branches can be removed during winter in late June. By mid-July, numbers of beetles gradu-
pruning operations. ally diminish. Individual beetles live about 30 to 45
days. There is a single generation per year. Orchard
Chemical Control: Trees can also be sprayed. trees that may be severely attacked include apple,
Orchards under a routine spray schedule may adjust cherry, black cherry, peach, and plum.
this schedule to coincide with the time when large
numbers of cicadas are present. Spray requirements Monitoring and Thresholds: There are few threshold
will vary depending on the severity of the outbreak. guidelines relative to when apples need to be treated
for Japanese beetles. However, the first Japanese
Japanese Beetle beetle colonizers in the early summer will attract
(Popillia japonica; order Coleoptera, family Scarabaeidae) others into the orchard, so early control can reduce
later infestations.
Damage: The adult beetles feed on leaves of a wide
variety of trees and shrubs. Adults feed on the upper Japanese beetle traps are available that lure both male
surface of foliage, chewing tissue between the veins and female beetles into the trap. This trap is so
and leaving a lace-like skeleton of the leaf. They effective at attracting beetles that it can actually
usually feed in groups, starting at the top of a plant increase both the number of beetles in the vicinity of
and working downward. The beetles are most active the trap and the damage they cause. Despite the bad
on warm, sunny days and prefer plants that are in reputation the trap has earned because of its super-
direct sunlight. A single beetle does not eat much; it attractiveness, the trap is still effectively used if it is
is group feeding by many beetles that results in severe placed at some distance away from the orchard.
damage. Trees that have been severely injured appear
to have been scorched by fire. Japanese beetles will Chemical Control: Carbaryl is the most effective
insecticide used in managing Japanese beetles.
Japanese
feed on fruits that have been damaged by other
However, because carbaryl can greatly increase
beetle insects.
problems with European red mites, other insecticides
Appearance: Adult Japanese beetles are are recommended to manage low to moderate
3/8-inch-long, metallic green beetles Japanese beetle populations in apples. Repeated
with copper-brown wing covers. A row insecticide applications may be necessary at 7- to 10-
of white tufts of hair project from day intervals to prevent reinfestation during the adult
under the wing covers on each side flight period or after heavy rains. Use of a spreader/
of the body. sticker in the spray mix can increase the duration of
effectiveness.

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 Apples and Pears

Summary of Insect and Mite Pest Management

Procedures on Apples and Pears
Cultural controls when establishing a new orchard: monitor for apple maggot and maintain them
• Choose a planting site with suitable soil and good through mid-August.
water drainage. • Use degree-day forecasting to time spray applica-
• Remove alternate hosts for codling moth and tions for San Jose scale and codling moth, in
plum curculio. conjunction with pheromone traps.
• Remove alternate hosts, especially brambles for
Disease prediction
flyspeck and sooty blotch, and cedars for rust.
• Use a commercial scab predictor or temperature
• Purchase certified virus-free stock from a reputable
and leaf wetness measurements to monitor scab
nursery.
infection periods.
• Avoid rootstocks that are highly susceptible to
• Use the MARYBLYT computer program to
woolly apple aphid.
monitor development of fire blight and predict the
• Avoid cultivars that are highly susceptible to rosy
onset of symptoms.
apple aphid.
• Avoid fire blight-susceptible rootstock/cultivar Scouting
combinations. • Pruning: look for scale injury to new wood.
• Tight cluster through pink: look for plant bugs
Cultural controls while maintaining an orchard: and rosy apple aphid.
• Prune trees to ensure adequate spray coverage in • Tight cluster through first cover: look for aphids.
all parts of the trees. • Petal fall through second cover: look for plum
• Provide adequate but not excessive nitrogen curculio damage and leafhoppers.
fertilizer, especially to fire blight-susceptible trees • Early June: begin looking for European red mite
and to avoid flushes of growth attractive to aphids. and Japanese beetle.
• Destroy fruit that falls in early to midsummer. • Harvest: evaluate for San Jose scale, codling moth,
• Prune to ensure good air circulation and adequate plum curculio, and leafroller control. Also,
spray coverage in all parts of the trees and to examine leaves, especially the undersides, for late-
remove fire blight infections. season scab.
• Keep broadleaf groundcover under trees to
Applying insecticides and miticides:
enhance predatory mites.
• To minimize the emergence of pests that are
• Keep orchard mowed to discourage tarnished resistant to pesticides, avoid repeated application
plant bug.
or season-long use of pesticides with the same
Monitoring for pests: mode of action.
Insect traps • Use a delayed dormant oil application to control
• Hang pheromone traps for leafrollers and spotted European red mite and San Jose scale.
tentiform leafminers in trees at green tip and • Use broad-spectrum insecticide only against
examine twice per week. codling moth, plum curculio, and leafrollers.
• Hang pheromone traps for San Jose scale at pink • Use narrow-spectrum insecticides if problems are
and examine twice per week through May, or use detected with aphids, leafhoppers, leafminers, and
sticky tape to monitor for crawlers from mid-May San Jose scale.
through early June. • Avoid using products known to be highly toxic to
• Hang pheromone traps for codling moth at pink predatory mites or predaceous insects.
and examine twice a week through harvest. Consider using mating disruption for codling moth
• In the northern Midwest, hang canary-yellow
management.
sticky traps and red spheres in early June to

45
 Apples and Pears

Apple Orchard Management Calendar

Half -inch green

Summer cover
Second cover
Tight cluster

Third cover

September
Pre-season

November
First cover

December
Green tip
Dormant
Silver tip

Petal fall

October
Harvest
August
Bloom
Pink

July
Dormant Pruning, Brush Removal,
Leaf Chopping
Ridomil for Collar Rot
Fertilization
Pre-emergence Herbicides
San Jose Scale
European Red Mites
Spotted Tentiform Leafminer
Scab Infection
Rosy Apple Aphid
Green Apple Aphid
Powdery Mildew
Rust Infections
Tarnished Plant Bug
Foliar Boron and Nitrogen
Fire Blight Infections
Codling Moth
Plum Curculio
Red-banded Leafroller
Chemical Thinning
White Apple Leafhopper
Fruit Rots
Blister Spot
Cork Spot and Bitter Pit
Flyspeck and Sooty Blotch
Apple Maggot
Oblique Banded Leafrollers
Japanese Beetle
Post-emergence Herbicides
Irrigation
Watersprout and Sucker Removal
Foliar Analysis
Put out Rodent Bait.
Trunk Borers
Put pheromone traps in place or begin taking environmental data. for pest prediction

46