Adv Physiol Educ 40: 17–25, 2016;

doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015. Best Practices

Learning theories 101: application to everyday teaching and scholarship

Denise Kay and Jonathan Kibble
Medical Education, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
Submitted 4 September 2015; accepted in final form 22 December 2015

Kay D, Kibble J. Learning theories 101: application to everyday theories is needed to design research studies or to evaluate
teaching and scholarship. Adv Physiol Educ 40: 17–25, 2016; educational programs.
doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015.—Shifts in educational research, in Changes in educational research have also increased the
how scholarship in higher education is defined, and in how funding is need for faculty members to be able to understand and apply
appropriated suggest that educators within basic science fields can
benefit from increased understanding of learning theory and how it
learning theories and conceptual frameworks to research and
applies to classroom practice. This article uses a mock curriculum practice. At the start of this century, there was a broad accep-
design scenario as a framework for the introduction of five major tance that the definition of scholarship in higher education
learning theories. Foundational constructs and principles from each should be expanded to include the scholarship of teaching (16,
theory and how they apply to the proposed curriculum designs are 20). At around this time, the outgoing Editor-in-Chief of
described. A summative table that includes basic principles, con- Advances in Physiology Education, Penelope Hansen, rightly
structs, and classroom applications as well as the role of the teacher reflected on a notable increase in sophistication of educational
and learner is also provided for each theory. research in physiology and the greater incorporation of formal
learning theory; curriculum design; instructional design; behaviorism; research methods (22). While that trend has certainly contin-
social learning theory; social cognitive theory; constructivism; social ued, Bordage has since made a strong case that the design of
constructivism; cognitive learning theory our educational studies should include a foundation in concep-
tual frameworks (13). Faculty members aiming to secure ex-
ternal funding for education research are likely to benefit from
IN WRITING THIS ARTICLE about theories of learning, we are casting their ideas within theoretical frames of reference. Our
reminded of the tongue-in-cheek opening remarks in an essay hope, in this short review, is to introduce major learning
by Ernest Bayles in 1966 (9): theories as a frame of reference for faculty members to reflect
It has long been the plaint of teachers that the theoretical has on how to best help learners succeed as well as to inform their
no value for them because it seems to have no connection with own teaching practice and research efforts.
matters they must attend to from day to day. They do not have
time for things that are irrelevant. Their time and energy must Scenario: Approaches to Designing a New Undergraduate
be given to that which makes a difference. Human Physiology Laboratory Course
Like Bayles, our own bias is that successful outcomes in the
classroom are more likely when our teaching practice is un- The setting is a Southeastern state university with ⬎1,000
derpinned by an appreciation of why things work. To address prehealth undergraduate students who are producing a high
concerns for relevancy, we present a mock case study of a new demand for courses in human anatomy and physiology. There
undergraduate human physiology laboratory class where dif- is currently only one upper-division course in human physiol-
ferent course proposals are reviewed through the lens of ogy. It is a 3-credit hour, one-semester course. The class
learning theories. Our intention is to make this narrative provides a foundation in premedical human physiology, with
accessible to faculty members who are subject matter experts an emphasis on knowledge and understanding of physiological
in physiology but who do not have prior training in educational mechanisms. It is delivered face to face by traditional lectures.
theory as well as to provide a high-yield bibliography for It is assessed by two midterm multiple-choice exams and a
further study. cumulative final exam that also includes essay questions. The
The traditional pathway to becoming a distinguished educa- curriculum committee discusses a preliminary idea to develop
tor involves a long apprenticeship of observing and emulating a new laboratory class in human physiology that would extend
colleagues as well as a process of trial and error (24). Wilker- the current class to a 6-credit, two-semester course. The inten-
son and Irby (40) described a career development arc that tion is to provide students the opportunity to obtain and
begins with the acquisition of basic teaching skills, such as interpret data as well as to deepen their understanding of
presentation and facilitation, giving feedback, and grading. As human physiology. The curriculum committee is favorable to
teaching faculty members gain mastery over basic teaching the general concept and solicits course proposals.
skills, their focus on performance shifts away from their own The following mock proposals represent submissions from
implementation to more of a focus on identifying connections different groups of faculty members who adopted different
between their performance as a teacher and their students’ theoretical frameworks in their proposal designs. Basic tenets
learning outcomes. A subset of these more expert teachers will of their adopted learning theory and the specific components of
evolve into teacher-scholars and likely into positions of edu- the proposal that align with that theory are presented.
cational leadership, where a stronger foundation in educational
Curriculum Design Proposals

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: D. Kay, College of

Curriculum design proposal 1. Learning theory: behaviorism.
Medicine, Univ. of Central Florida, 6850 Lake Nona Boulevard, Orlando, FL Before each laboratory session, students will attend a 15- to
32827 (e-mail: Denise.Kay@ucf.edu). 30-min lecture about the goal of the laboratory and major
1043-4046/16 Copyright © 2016 The American Physiological Society 17
Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
Best Practices
18 LEARNING THEORIES 101

points of the protocol. Students will be provided with a detailed response cards or classroom response systems, and daily and
protocol and data sheet for that laboratory session. For credit, weekly assessments influence students’ assessment scores
clicker questions are included in each lecture to ensure that and/or course grades, participation, and perceptions (15, 18,
students pay attention and can recall key elements of the 30).
protocol. COMMENTARY: HOW DOES CURRICULUM DESIGN PROPOSAL 1 EX-
Once in the laboratory, students perform the experiments EMPLIFY BEHAVIORISM? In this design, students are provided
alone, following the written protocol and completing the ques- with clear protocols and the sequential steps needed to com-
tion prompts provided on the data sheet. Points are assigned for plete the experiments. Their task is to understand and success-
the completeness and accuracy of data recorded in the data fully deploy the instructions. A key element here is feedback.
sheet tables. Feedback is provided each week to point out For example, the clicker questions provide immediate feedback
omissions and improve accuracy in making measurements. about understanding of the protocol, and feedback on the data
Additional points can be deducted from the final score if sheets indicates how successfully the instructions were fol-
mistakes made in early practicals are repeated in later practi- lowed. Positive reinforcement and punishment are used to
cals. progressively shape behavior to achieve the final target behav-
The instructor provides a 15- to 30-min lecture at the end of ior of making accurate measurements, correctly reported. The
each laboratory class, discussing key findings and the under- summative points available at several times in the exercise
lying physiological mechanisms. The final assessment includes serve as a positive reinforcer, with incentives for higher per-
a written laboratory report requiring students to express their formance provided using a grading scale of A, B, C, D, and F.
understanding of the method and rationale for the data. Bonus The possibility of losing points represents a punishment that
points are awarded if all laboratory reports are completed on serves to decrease mistakes. Having students work alone is a
time and all sections are filled out. The exercises are all graded strong behaviorist element since individual demonstrations of
on a scale of A, B, C, D, and F. behavior are at the center of the learning experience.
COMMENTARY: WHAT IS BEHAVIORISM? Behaviorism was the Curriculum design proposal 2. Learning theory: social cog-
first learning theory to scientifically explain both animal and nitive theory. Students will be provided with detailed proto-
human learning. A behaviorist focuses on measurable changes cols for a series of prescribed weekly laboratory classes.
(increase, decrease, or maintenance) in behavior that result Before each laboratory session, a faculty member will dem-
from an organism’s interactions with the environment. Educa- onstrate the protocol, emphasizing the skills needed to
tors adopting a behaviorist approach are concerned with what obtain accurate measurements (e.g., blood pressure). Stu-
students do (responses) as a result of environmental cues dents will also receive a course handbook that includes
(antecedents or stimuli) and environmental consequences. For templates for how their final reports for the laboratory
a true behaviorist, there is no concern for what or how students sessions should look as well as examples of good and bad
think or feel (12, 41). reports.
Behavioral research contributed to our understanding of how In the laboratory, students work in pairs and give each other
to shape both animal and human behavior through the use of feedback on how well the experiment is conducted. Each week,
conditioning strategies, such as positive reinforcement, nega- students fill out a self-assessment rating how well they exe-
tive reinforcement, and punishment (41). Behaviorism is cuted the protocols and their degree of confidence in perform-
teacher centered (12); the teacher’s role is to control the ing the required skills. Graduate student teaching assistants
environment, design environmental cues or stimuli, and iden- (TAs) observe the performance of each student pair. The TA
tify the appropriate reward structures to reinforce desired assigns two scores per student pair each week. One score
behaviors and decrease undesired behaviors or responses (36). reflects the student pairs’ ability to accurately perform the
For a staunch behaviorist, the student is seen as an unreflective required protocol; the other score reflects the degree of im-
responder and highly amenable to environmental controls. The provement during the course. The TA debriefs the students to
student’s primary task is to respond appropriately to environ- calibrate their levels of perceived confidence with their ob-
mental cues and stimuli; in short, to do what they are supposed served performance.
to do when they are supposed to do it and subsequently reap the The instructor provides a 15- to 30-min lecture at the end of
intentional or unintentional rewards (12, 41). Theorists associ- each laboratory class, discussing key findings and the under-
ated with behaviorism include Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, and lying physiological mechanisms. Periodic short summative
Watson (9, 41). quizzes are administered throughout the semester. Student
Despite much controversy over behavioral approaches to pairs are asked to hand in a completed report for any 5 of the
teaching, the theory has made significant contributions to 15 weekly laboratory classes in the course. Reports are sub-
pedagogy, including direct teaching, contingency contracts, the mitted on a flexible basis, so long as all reports are handed in
role of incentives and reward structures (36), the role of before the end of the course.
repetition and feedback (9), the importance of clarifying learn- COMMENTARY: WHAT IS SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY? Social
ing objectives, and the introduction of behavior management cognitive theory is derived from the extensive work of Albert
strategies, such as functional behavior assessment and positive Bandura. While Bandura acknowledged the role of environ-
behavioral supports (42). While several new theoretical ap- mental reinforcement in shaping behavior, he recognized the
proaches have been adopted for classroom practice, educa- limitations of behaviorism in fully explaining behavior change
tional researchers continue to explore how principles of behav- (41). His research demonstrated that behavior change could be
iorism are relevant to today’s learning environments. For induced through observational learning, wherein an individual
example, educators in postsecondary settings have explored behaves in a given way as a result of a vicarious observation of
how the use of active student response systems, such as the positive or negative consequences experienced by someone

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 Best Practices
LEARNING THEORIES 101 19

else displaying similar behavior. Bandura argued that these and achievement in mathematics, reading, and writing (6, 11,
observations and experiences were symbolically represented in 45). Bandura believed that, through activation of forethought
the mind and subsequently accessed to inform future behavior (anticipatory thoughts), anticipatory beliefs about the potential
(8). According to Bandura, learners engage these cognitive for success (efficacy), and self-regulation, people implement
representations when they anticipate the consequences of a and sustain courses of action to achieve desired outcomes (5).
given response. As such, he was one of the first to consider As such, optimal instruction uses personal agency, as well as
how cognition mediates behavior (6). His original theory, social and environmental variables, to shape appropriate be-
termed social learning theory, was expanded to incorporate the havior and to build both content knowledge and underdevel-
role of cognition in explaining behavior and is now commonly oped self-regulatory skills (6).
referred to as social cognitive theory. COMMENTARY: HOW DOES CURRICULUM DESIGN 2 EXEMPLIFY
Bandura also established the critical role of models, model- SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY? This design includes several ele-
ing, and observational learning in the learning process. He ments of modeling and imitation. For example, the instructor
described modeling as a “psychological matching process” that spends time demonstrating necessary skills and provides report
had broader effects than mere behavior imitation (7). templates and samples to guide students’ performance. The
According to Bandura, observational learning includes four four elements of observational learning are also represented:
processes: the attention element is assumed with the lecture and demon-
1. Attention. This process determines what is observed and stration, the retention element is assured by the regular inclu-
extracted from modeled events. sion of summative quizzes, the reproduction element is trig-
2. Retention. This process includes retaining knowledge gered with the student pair activity and the submission of the
about the modeled event, which is important as learners can’t required five reports, and the motivation element comprises the
repeat or be informed by events they can’t remember. quizzes, required reports, TA observations and score given for
3. (Re)Production. This process requires learners to convert improvement over time. Self-regulation is encouraged as stu-
memories related to an event into appropriate actions. dents work in pairs to independently complete the laboratory
4. Motivation. This process relates to the incentive (or lack protocols, determine which laboratory reports to complete, and
of) to demonstrate learned behavior. Learners may have accu- then work together to complete and submit them. Including the
rate memories of the modeled event and be able to successfully confidence ratings in the students’ self-assessment of perfor-
translate those to behavior. However, their willingness to do so mance allows the TA to regulate gaps between students’
is frequently associated with the observed benefits or conse- performance and their reported level of confidence.
quences of that behavior when performed by others (7). Curriculum design proposal 3. Learning theory: cognitive
Bandura’s theory challenged previous theories that attributed learning theory. The faculty member designs a series of labo-
behavior change to unidirectional forces wherein either the ratories for each body system that steadily build in complexity
environment fully impacted the individual or the individual in terms of the underlying physiology. As an example, in the
fully impacted the environment. Instead, Bandura proposed cardiovascular laboratory sequence, the first class demonstrates
that observable behaviors resulted from what he termed “tri- Ohm’s law relating pressure, flow, and resistance using a series
adic reciprocal causation” or shifting bidirectional interactions of fluid chambers set at different heights connected by tubing
among behavior, personal (internal), and environmental fac- of different diameters. Later in the sequence, students are
tors. From this perspective, “People are both products and challenged to measure blood pressure and then to apply con-
producers of their environment” (41). cepts to postural changes, exercise, etc.
Bandura was also among the first to explore the relationship Mastery learning goals are used in this design. Before each
of personal factors, such as self-regulation, self-efficacy, and body system laboratory set, there is a pretest based on knowl-
personal agency to learning and performance. Personal agency edge that should have been retained from the lecture course
represents an individual’s capacity to make and subsequently that students completed the previous semester. Students can
act on choices that can make a difference in his/her life (31). take the pretest as many times as needed to demonstrate
Although easily confused, agency differs from self-efficacy. mastery (get all items correct) of the prior material. After each
The latter refers to one’s belief about personal ability “to laboratory, there is a cumulative quiz that includes questions
organize and execute courses of action required to attain from both current and prior laboratory sessions. Similar to the
designated types of performances” (7). Collective research has pretest, students must demonstrate mastery of all items to
established the critical role of self-efficacy for explaining proceed to the next, more difficult laboratory exercise. The
learning and performance in a variety of settings (34). Simi- final and most complex laboratory in each sequence is assessed
larly, research has established the critical role of self-regulation by requiring each student to develop a concept map demon-
in relationship to academic achievement (11, 45). strating his or her understanding of the underlying physiology.
Bandura is one of the most widely cited researchers in The concept maps are scored by two faculty members and
psychological and educational literature. His model of obser- comprise the largest component of the final grade. Points are
vational learning is highly useful when the learning goals are awarded for the number of concepts, selection of critical
best achieved via instructional modeling, demonstration, and concepts, accuracy of links between concepts, and overall
imitation (44). The roles of self-efficacy and self-regulation complexity of understanding depicted in the map.
and the benefits of teaching self-regulation strategies to stu- COMMENTARY: WHAT IS COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY? As op-
dents have been the focus of extensive research on human posed to behavioral theories that focus on changes in behavior,
learning, performance, and motivation (34). His creation of cognitive theories of learning focus on how knowledge is
self-directed learning programs built on proximal learning acquired (35), constructed, and represented in the mind and
goals have been associated with enhanced self-efficacy beliefs subsequently remembered. Behavioral and cognitive theories

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
Best Practices
20 LEARNING THEORIES 101

also differ in their perspectives of the role of the learner. In their contents. Anderson referred to this process as “spreading
behaviorism, learners are passive responders to environmental activation” and suggested that the speed and effectiveness of
stimuli. In the cognitive perspective, learners are active agents memory retrieval are based on the strength of the connections
in the learning process. Each learner comes to the learning between what is being processed in working memory and the
experience with different levels of prior knowledge, skills, and schema activated in long-term memory (2).
motivation that influence learning outcomes (42). One method for enhancing memory storage and recall is
One focus of cognitive science has been on how information organization (41). Since well-organized information already
is mentally processed and stored. A popular information pro- presents within a structure or network, it is easier to store.
cessing framework divides memory into three components: However, one of the most potent methods for increasing
sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. memory is to have students elaborate on the to-be-remembered
At any given moment, learners are bombarded with stimuli via material (2). In elaboration, students purposefully connect new
their senses. The sensory register is the stimulus receiver, information to information they already know (41). Another
sort of the mind’s satellite dish. Here, information is coded powerful approach, meaningful learning, uses both processes
and held briefly (1–3 s). If this information is not attended of organization and elaboration and presents the critical con-
to, it is quickly lost. However, if a learner pays attention to cepts and principles of the content first (2).
the stimulus, that information is transferred to the next A variety of pedagogical tools have been derived from these
memory component: short-term memory (often called work- information processing methods. For example, providing stu-
ing memory) (3). dents with advanced organizers before the presentation of new
Consider short-term memory the mind’s desktop. It is lim- material focuses student’s attention on what is important.
ited in the amount of information that it can process at any Advanced organizers can also trigger spreading activation
given time (7⫹ or ⫺2 bits of information) (32). It is also processes and serve as the framework for organizing new
limited in the amount of time (⬃30 s) that information is material, allowing new content to be linked to previously
stored. Information in short-term memory is quickly lost if a learned material (4). Another learning tool, concept mapping,
learner doesn’t do something with the information. The dura- is the most recent method to be used among educators. Concept
tion and effectiveness of information storage in short-term maps are graphical depictions of concepts connected by links
memory can be expanded by chunking, by repetition and that represent the relationship(s) between concepts. One way
rehearsal practices, and by managing cognitive load, referred to concept maps are used is to have students work individually or
as all the mental resources activated or required when com- in small groups to build concept maps that depict their percep-
pleting a task. If the appropriate techniques are applied in tions of the material. If used appropriately, concept maps can
working memory, the information is transferred to long-term differentiate between students’ knowledge (concepts) and un-
memory (3). derstanding (nature and accuracy of the links between con-
Consider long-term memory the storehouse of all personal cepts) (23).
data that have been consciously (and unconsciously) stored COMMENTARY: HOW DOES CURRICULUM DESIGN 3 EXEMPLIFY
throughout an individual’s life and experience. The storage COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY? This curriculum design includes
appears unlimited. However, due to clear incidences of an pretests that require mastery of concepts learned in the physi-
inability to retrieve stored data (forgetting), the duration of ology lecture course that all students completed the previous
storage is unclear. The ability to access information that hasn’t semester. The pretest both triggers and strengthens the spread-
been regularly retrieved will decay over time if the need to ing activation processes that access students’ prior knowledge.
retrieve or the need to practice retrieving diminishes. Effective The subsequent learning goal is for students to build traces that
retrieval practices also diminish in cases when the presence of connect new material to material learned in the previous
other information distracts from efforts to retrieve stored in- course(s). The basic concepts of new material are always
formation. presented first with more complex material progressively
Cognitive science has also provided a language for under- added to the basic conceptual structure. The use of cumulative
standing how knowledge is stored. For example, concepts posttests after each laboratory enhances long-term memory
represent the most fundamental constructs in theories of the storage through the spreading activation process that accesses
mind (28). Concepts serve as the building blocks for how students’ newly formed traces. The mastery learning approach
learners determine what belongs together (categorization) (43). ensures that students won’t be exposed to more complex
Concepts and categories are subsumed into larger data struc- content until they’ve demonstrated progressive mastery over
tures that represent the generic concepts stored in memory. the fundamental knowledge needed to grasp more complex
According to schema theory, all data representing all concepts concepts and their relationships to each other.
are represented in the mind as schemata (26). In short, knowl- The most overt leverage of cognitive learning theory in this
edge and experiences, if stored in long-term memory, are design is the capstone assessment using concept maps. The
stored within a deeply connected network (schema or sche- concept maps represent student’s conceptualization (schema)
mata) that includes categories and concepts. These have also of the content so the teacher (and others) can see how the
been referred to as propositions, units, and elements (2). student has organized the knowledge in his or her own thinking
Anderson (2) refers to the encoding process as a trace, about the content. Students’ concept maps allow faculty mem-
wherein information processed in working memory becomes a bers to assess the strength and complexity of the connection of
permanent memory structure in long-term memory. New in- concepts in students’ long-term memory.
formation and experiences processed within working memory Curriculum design proposal 4. Learning theory:
activate previously stored traces in long-term memory. As a constructivism. Students are provided with a series of questions
result, working memory and long-term memory overlap in that should be answered during the semester, the range of

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 Best Practices
LEARNING THEORIES 101 21

equipment and consumables they can use, and training on how used to respond and/or plan instruction to address students’
to use them. For example, in one case, students are given pulse remaining knowledge gaps or misconceptions (14, 41).
oximeters, spirometers, Douglas bags, peak flowmeters, and Discovery and experiential learning as well as inquiry-based
belts to record respiratory chest excursions and are challenged and problem-based learning approaches, if implemented cor-
to discover the factors that determine the length of a breath rectly, are representative of constructivist teaching approaches
hold. Students present an experimental hypothesis and design (27). While the benefits of students’ active engagement in the
about which the faculty member provides feedback, perhaps learning process have been recorded (19, 21), these approaches
suggesting some refinements. Students then perform their ex- are not without controversy (27). Still, the underlying princi-
periments and develop a written report. Students are graded on ples of constructivism, that students construct knowledge via
the process of experimental design, execution of the plan, active engagement in their environment, allow for the use of
physiological and conceptual interpretations of their results, creative instructional approaches. For example, Prakash (34)
and discussion about limitations of their design. reported results of an instructional approach wherein students
COMMENTARY: WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM? Compared with pre- were presented with logical questions as they progressed
vious theories of learning, a grasp of constructivist theory through the traditional lectures. Students who were exposed to
requires a substantial paradigm shift in beliefs about what this approach (experimental group) did better on the posttest
constitutes knowledge, what reality is, what learning is, and than students who were not exposed to this approach (control
how learning takes place. Before the constructivist movement, group). While the differences in students’ scores were the same
theorists assumed that there was a single external reality, a after 4 mo, the knowledge level of the experimental group had
privileged point of view. The mind was viewed as a blank slate remained the same. In contrast, the control group had to close
that passively copied what was presented. “Learning” and what the knowledge gap in the 4-mo period (33).
COMMENTARY: HOW DOES CURRICULUM DESIGN 4 EXEMPLIFY
constituted “knowledge” equated to the level at which individ-
CONSTRUCTIVISM? In this proposed laboratory curriculum, there
uals accurately acquired this “reality” (12). In contrast, what
constitutes reality from a constructivist perspective is depen- is a major shift in the roles of teacher and learner. The teacher
dent on the “eye of the beholder.” Knowledge is subjective and has provided a broad framework, set a problem to be explored,
actively constructed as learners engage with, and make mean- and made resources available for students to construct knowl-
ing of, their lived experience (12, 17). edge as they interact within an authentic environment. The
The shift in what constitutes knowledge, learning, the nature learner has opportunities to try different approaches and make
personal meaning of the results. Learning is goal driven as
of the mind, and how the mind works is largely due to Jean
students try to solve, in this case, the imposed problem.
Piaget’s research on children’s cognitive development. Ac-
Importantly, the learner is not just reacting to the fairly strin-
cording to Piaget, humans are inherently driven to organize
gent guidelines and templates in previous models but is now
thinking processes into psychological structures or “schemes.”
interacting with the problem and environment. The keystones
Exposure to new information and experience requires new
of constructivism are assimilation and accommodation. The
schemes to be constructed and/or simple schemes are com- development of initial hypotheses requires students to activate
bined into more complex, more effective schemes. Piaget prior knowledge based on their existing schemes. As new
posited that cognitive development was the result of two information is obtained through experimentation, there will be
processes, assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation pro- a need for reevaluation and reformulation of prior schemes to
cesses are active when learners interpret new experiences accommodate new information.
based on existing schemes or use existing schemes in knowl- Curriculum design proposal 5. Learning theory: social
edge construction. Accommodation processes are activated constructivism. Students are organized in teams of five to six
when learners are exposed to new information or experi- students. In team formation, careful attention is paid to all
ences that don’t fit with existing schemes. In such cases, aspects of diversity, including level of prior experience, sex,
learners must redesign current schemes or construct new age, racial and ethnic backgrounds, etc. Each student group is
schemes. As such, in a constructivist perspective, activation challenged to reflect on the everyday experience of their own
of prior knowledge is critical to the learning process, since physiology and to prioritize three questions they would like to
learners interpret their current experiences based on what address during the semester. Groups are expected to meet
they already know (10, 41). outside of formal class time and to clarify roles. Several
The paradigm shift in beliefs about knowledge and how milestones are defined by faculty members to monitor the
students learn introduced a subsequent shift in beliefs about progress of the group toward the completion of the project and
teacher and student roles in the learning process. Previous to provide feedback on goals and experimental designs and
instructional strategies wherein the teacher was the most active developing interpretations of the data. The student group per-
agent in the learning process shifted to student-centered in- forms their experiments and is graded based on a collaborative
struction designed to actively engage the student in construct- writing project for the report and a group oral presentation. The
ing personal knowledge. Constructivist teachers design instruc- products are graded on the process of experimental design,
tion to encourage student ownership of the learning process. As execution of the plan, physiological interpretation of their
often as possible, lessons are designed to take place in authen- results, and discussion about limitations of their design. Ten
tic environments where students are presented with complex, percent of the grade is based on a self- and peer evaluation
ill-solved problems. Lessons typically introduce experiences about teamwork, professionalism, and quality of feedback to
that challenge students’ current suppositions. Teachers in- teammates.
teract with students to discern their current level of under- COMMENTARY: WHAT IS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM? Lev Vy-
standing and point of view. This knowledge is subsequently gotsky’s work is most frequently associated with sociocultural

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
Best Practices
22 LEARNING THEORIES 101

theory and the social constructivism movement (29). Vygotsky students are provided opportunities to use appropriate cul-
viewed learning and development as a social process wherein tural tools and language (1, 39).
learners “grow into the intellectual life of those around them” COMMENTARY: HOW DOES CURRICULUM DESIGN 5 EXEMPLIFY
(38). As such, learning is a process of enculturation or appro- SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM? This learning context is set within an
priation, wherein learners gradually “internalize or take for authentic environment wherein students are encouraged to
themselves knowledge and skills they developed in their inter- answer real-life questions that they have identified based on
actions with others and with cultural tools” (41). their own experiences. The assigned exercise provides students
From Vygotsky’s perspective, knowledge exists on two with opportunities to use and gain experience with the cultural
levels: the interpersonal (external level) and the intrapersonal tools (semiotic tools) typical to the discipline. The use of
(internal level). Learners cannot gain the latter (internal) with- heterogeneous student groups insures diversity of thought,
out reasonable exposure to the former (external) (38). Accord- ability, prior knowledge, and experience, allowing students to
ing to Vygotsky, “semiotic mechanisms mediate social and provide expertise to the group in areas reflecting their
individual functioning and connect the external and the inter- strengths. The milestones serve as informal assessments that
nal, the social and the individual.” Semiotic mechanisms can allow faculty members to determine the students’ accuracy of
include any number of cultural tools, language, symbol sys- understanding, misconceptions, or dysfunctional group pro-
tems, calendars, processes, art, maps, writing, writing utensils, cesses. With this information, faculty members determine the
technology, and machinery; essentially any tool, tangible or group’s optimal ZPD and scaffold next-step instruction to meet
symbolic, that humans use to adapt and thrive within the the particular learning needs of each student group. Depending
context of their environment. Through exposure to and contin- on what the group needs to move to the next level of compe-
ued use of the cultural tools, real experience becomes symbol- tence or understanding, faculty members may serve as the
ically represented in the mind and the external is internalized; “more knowledgeable other,” use other students within or
appropriation takes place (25). across groups, supplemental readings, or web-based resources
According to Vygotsky, the only “good learning” is learning
to provide developmentally appropriate support for each group.
that advances development. Vygotsky described two levels of
development deemed essential for understanding the learning
process: the “actual developmental level,” best understood Conclusions
within the context of what learners understand or can do This discussion was organized historically to present the
without assistance from someone with more knowledge or theories and research that served to inform our current under-
expertise; and the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD), or standing of learning and to shape educational practice for more
what the learner grasps or can do with guidance from a more than half a century. Educators may be attracted to one theo-
knowledgeable other (38). Although Vygotsky likely identified retical approach based on their own experience as learners, and
the more knowledgeable other as a teacher or a peer, with the that approach may align well with the learning goals of their
easy access to information afforded today’s students, text, courses and curriculum. In this instance, a more comprehensive
audio, and video can also support student learning. More
understanding of the principles and practices related to their
knowledgeable others provide support and scaffold the knowl-
theoretical approach allows for the strategic selection of ped-
edge or skill acquisition process for the learner. With adequate
agogical and assessment methods to enhance the efficiency and
support provided at the ZPD, the learner eventually internalizes
effectiveness of a learning encounter. However, with the recent
the target knowledge and skills and gains autonomy in his or
initiatives to engage students in higher-order thinking and to
her ability to understand and use the semiotic mechanisms
(tools) of the culture. build problem-solving and/or critical-thinking skills, there is
Some of the recent reforms in education are a result of often misalignment between an educator’s preferred theoretical
educators’ attempts to implement principles of learning and approach and course or curriculum learning goals. In this
development as presented in Vygotsky’s work. For example, instance, educators are encouraged to review the various the-
educators have implemented differentiated instruction models ories and to use an approach that suggests strong alignment
as one approach for dealing with the increasingly diverse with the target learning goals.
student population in the typical classroom. Similar to princi- More recent theories of instructional design related to edu-
ples of ZPD, differentiated instruction approaches consider and cational technology have not been included in this brief review
accommodate students’ backgrounds, languages, readiness lev- as those warrant a discussion of their own. This omission has
els, interests, and learning profiles. Teachers serve as mentors little to do with importance, since the growing influx of virtual
who use appropriate techniques to help each student realize his learning spaces and the use of educational technology will
or her learning potential. Students strive to become indepen- make them critical to future educators. The impact of the
dent and self-sufficient in content related skills, abilities, and interphase between technology, what previous generations of
ideas (37). The introduction of various forms of peer and learners perceived as “real,” and how the space between “real”
collaborative learning, as well as situated learning, are addi- and “virtual” is likely to merge for Millennials and the learners
tional examples of instructional strategies that are based on who come behind them is also likely to have significant impact
social constructivist principles (41). In summary, social on education. This, matched with the increasing speed of
constructivist approaches to instruction focus on student access to knowledge in most any discipline via technology,
learning rather than performance, support coconstruction of suggests that training in different skill sets may be needed in
knowledge that is guided by more knowledgeable others, the work force of the future. While our understanding of
scaffold instruction to expand students’ current understand- learning and teaching may expand as the goals of education
ing or skills, and are situated in authentic contexts wherein shift and new research and theories are presented, there is value

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 Best Practices
LEARNING THEORIES 101 23

Table 1. Summary of majory learning theories

Behavioral Cognitive Constructivist

Behaviorism Social cognitive theory Cognitive learning theory Constructivism Social constructivism

How learning is defined Learning is defined by observable Learning is defined by observable Learning is an internal mental Learning is an individual Learning is the internalization
increases, decreases, or increases, decreases, or process that includes construction process. Learners and adoption of external
maintenance of identified maintenance of identified receiving, decoding, construct knowledge as they experience.
behaviors. behaviors. storing, and recalling interact with their environment.
information.
Principles Behavior is understood based on Principles of behaviorism apply. The mind is an information Learners construct new knowledge All learning is socially
the relationship between the However, they are expanded to processor. Individuals form as they observe and interact mediated. Learners
stimulus and response. include the role of mental representations with their environment. Most develop knowledge and
Behaviors can be influenced observational and vicarious (schema or semantic learners have prior knowledge skills by their interactions
by controlling the stimulus and learning. In other words, a networks) of lived or experiences they use to with the tools, signs,
responses. There is no learner doesn’t have to be experience (information, organize or make meaning of symbols, and language in
consideration of cognitive or directly reinforced in order to knowledge, episodes, new information or their environment. Optimal
affective components. The demonstrate a behavior. relationships, and experiences. Learning is goal learning takes place within
focus is purely on observable Instead, a learner will or will interactions). Experts have driven, even if the goals are a learner’s zone of
behaviors that are amenable to not demonstrate (imitate) a more complex semantic implicit and related to proximal development, or
the stimulus-response behavior because he/she saw networks. Some learning surviving or thriving in a given the gap wherein a task
relationship. or heard what happened when experiences are more environment, satisfying natural represents an appropriate
someone else demonstrated the effective than others in curiosity, or solving a real or level of challenge given
behavior. This theory also insuring retention. imposed problem. In its purest the learners’ current skills,
expanded to consider cognitive Repetition and rote form, learning in this approach knowledge, and ability.
elements: learning represent effective is nearly insidious. Knowledge Learners ⬙learn⬙ from any
• Extrinsic (but not intrinsic) mo- means for storing and skills are developed due to source that represents a
tivation. declarative knowledge frequent interactions and useful, viable, and relevant
• The role of retention, or remem- when recall requirements opportunities to experiment, try source of information or
bering the required behavior and are short term in nature. different approaches, organize support to meet the
consequence. Learning experiences that concepts, make personal challenge. As such, any
• A learner’s beliefs about their use higher order thinking meaning, or integrate/synthesize person or resource can
ability to perform the behavior skills and connect new concepts. serve as a ⬙more
(self-efficacy). knowledge with prior knowledgeable other.⬙ This
• A learner’s self-regulation. knowledge structures ⬙other⬙ scaffolds the
(meaningful learning) have learning process, providing
been associated with a just the information or
deeper understanding of support needed to assist
content and longer-term the learner with moving to
retention. Most all the next level of
knowledge/learning is understanding or skill. The
subject to decay and ultimate learning goal is
forgetting if not used with that the learner
some frequency. appropriates and
internalizes the new
information, tools,
language, and skills.
Role of the teacher The teacher plays a highly active The teacher still plays an active The teacher plays a highly While the teacher is still highly The teacher adopting this
role. The primary goal is to role. There is still extensive active role to ensure that active in designing and perspective understands
control the stimulus-response focus on the environment, information is presented in facilitating learning encounters, that all learning is social
relationship in the ensuring that both appropriate an organized, well- the student is the most visibly and uses both
environment. From obeying role models are used and structured manner and in active during the learning formal/informal resources
socially appropriate rules, to stimulus-response mechanisms chunks that can be encounter. Since learning is a to expand students’ current
acting professionally, to are reinforced. The primary appropriately digested by personal construction process, level of knowledge, skill,
achieving a passable score on role is the strategic use of the learner in the time the teacher focuses on and development. Learning
an exam, the teacher adopting imitation and control of the allowed. The defining providing the necessary tools encounters are designed so
a behaviorist perspective will stimulus, response, and concepts that are critical to and opportunities for learners that learners face a
focus on identifying the types reinforcement relationships. deeper knowledge, to accurately construct challenge that aligns with
and schedules of reinforcement The teacher optimizes the use understanding, and content knowledge or skills. their zone of proximal
needed to insure the desired of observational and vicarious related expertise are development and
demonstration of the target learning. The teacher selects mastered before moving on appropriate supports (more
behavior by the student at the behaviors that learners can to more complex, knowledgeable others,
desired time. successfully perform. The differentiated, or resources, and tools) are
teacher ensures that students sophisticated content. available to assist learners
are paying attention and see or Information is organized with meeting the challenge
hear about the consequences based on defining and and moving to the next
of desirable/undesirable discriminating features, level of understanding or
behavior. The teacher provides with exemplars and skill development. While
both opportunities and nonexemplars provided so the teacher may be the
adequate motivation for that learners can clearly expert, his/her expertise,
students to perform the desired differentiate examples and due to the level of
behavior or to stop nonexamples. There is sophistication or
demonstrating undesirable adequate repetition in complexity, may not be
behavior. increasingly sophisticated the best source of learning
formats, from rote recall to and development for the
utilization of higher order student.
thinking (application,
integration, and synthesis).
The teacher builds
semantic and conceptual
networks through attention,
repetition, or engagement
of higher order cognitive
tasks. Higher order
cognitive tasks should
require recall and
deliberate practice,
increase automaticity, and
build complexity of
cognitive knowledge
structures.
Continued

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
Best Practices
24 LEARNING THEORIES 101

Table 1.—Continued

Behavioral Cognitive Constructivist

Behaviorism Social cognitive theory Cognitive learning theory Constructivism Social constructivism

Role of the learner The learner is a respondent: The learner becomes more active Learners become more active The learner still responds to the The learner uses the tools,
responds to the environmental in the learning process, as they must pay attention environment but the response is signs, symbols, language,
stimulus. although the concept of the and attempt to retain and perceived in a different way. and more knowledgeable
learner is still one of a natural reproduce target The response to the others to master the next
response to environmental knowledge and skills. environment now is one of level of understanding,
stimuli. The learner pays interaction versus reaction. The knowledge, and/or skill. In
attention to demonstrations learner behaves in ways that some cases, learners can
(formal or spontaneous) of achieve the desired outcomes, serve as the more
desirable or undesirable manipulates concrete and knowledgeable other who
behavior. The learner abstract concepts to make can assist peers with
remembers the meaning, understands and learning goals.
desired/undesired behaviors. solves problems, or achieves
The learniner reproduces goals.
desired behaviors and
decreases or stops undesirable
behaviors.
Learning applications From a practical perspective, Social cognitive theory is useful Cognitive learning theory is The impact of constructivism on The impact of social
behaviorism manifests in in understanding classroom useful for learning well- education has been constructivism and
educational environments management, socialization, and organized constructs and considerable. It shifted the role sociocultural theory has
through awards for high recognizing how strategic use principles that have clear of the teacher from being the also been considerable in
performance, such as attention, of interactions with one exemplars and ⬙sage on the stage⬙ to being the the last decade. The most
praise, good grades, learner can influence the nonexemplars. ⬙guide on the side.⬙ The role of obvious demonstration of
recognition, achievement behavior of other learners. It is Presentations of content the learner shifted as well, from this is in the increase of
awards, and access to also a highly useful theory should build on students’ that of the passive recipient of group work and group-
opportunity; loss of privileges, when teaching a skill, prior knowledge, be well information and behaviors that based learning at all levels
scolding, suspension, especially using the process of organized, move from are modeled back for feedback of education. Authentic
disciplinary measures, or attention, retention, motivation, basic foundational and assessment to a highly learning activities wherein
academic probation when and reproduction. This theory constructs to more active role in constructing students are placed in
students fail to consistently is the first among learning differentiated or complex one’s own knowledge and ⬙real⬙ settings or presented
demonstrate desired behaviors theories to consider cognitive constructs, and be limited developing skills based on with realistic cases,
represent penalties. explanations for learners’ to what learners can experimentation and interaction problems, or projects are
Instructional constructs related behavior. Constructs such as reasonably process in a with the learning environment. another. Other
to behaviorism include: attention, retention, motivation, given period of time. Instructional constructs related manifestations of this
• Direct instruction self-efficacy, and self- Processes like cognitive to constructivism include: perspective include the use
• Computerized instruction regulation highlight the load and attention span are • Active learning of challenges and scaled
• Role of feedback learner’s role in successfully considered in determining • Problem-based learning learning, wherein complex
• Timing of feedback demonstrating a given task. how much content should • The flipped classroom learning goals are broken
• Student motivation (extrinsic) Instructional constructs related be presented to learners in • Inquiry-based learning into stages, from basic or
• Classroom management to social cognitive theory one sitting. Content is • Reflection simple to more complex
include: presented in ways that use and sophisticated. Students
• Role modeling and imitation memory aids and/or master lower levels before
• Demonstration engage multiple senses being able to move up to
• Goal setting (sight, sound, and touch) higher levels of mastery.
• Opportunities for practice to enhance likelihood of Instructional constructs
• Strategic use of reinforcement memory storage. Adequate related to social
time is provided to constructivism include:
learners to store • Group projects
information, and learners • Group learning
are given frequent • Zigzag methods
opportunities for recall • Scaffolded learning goals
practice. Learning complex • Peer tutoring and learning
cognitive concepts and • Differentiated Instruction
long-term retention are
enhanced when students
are provided with
opportunities to
meaningfully connect new
knowledge to their existing
knowledge structures.
Instructional constructs
related to cognitive
learning theory include:
• Memory aids
• Advanced organizers
• Meaningful learning
• Individual and social oppor-
tunities to actively engage
concepts and constructs

in understanding the theoretical tools currently available to riences are coded, retained, and recalled in human memory.
educators and how they can be applied to questions of today. Constructivism highlighted the active role of the learner in
One final observation to consider–the basic principles of constructing their idiosyncratic reality based on their experi-
social constructivism, that all learning is socially mediated, is ences; all of these principles are embedded within the specific
a result of interactions with cultural tools, and is shaped context of “culture.” All require interactions with the cultural
through guidance of more knowledgeable others–is evident in norms, signs, symbols, and tools, and all require access to more
the previous theories (although not explicitly identified at the expertise than the learner currently possesses. Therefore, to an
time). In behaviorism, culture determines what behaviors are extent, social constructivism subsumes earlier theories, and we
sanctioned or unsanctioned as well as what reinforcing and regard it as the prevailing learning theory at the present time.
punishing responses will shape the behavior. Bandura recog- Physiology is a discipline. It has a culture of its own, with its
nized the social aspect of learning via observational learning own tools, language, symbols, processes, and assumptions.
and noted that these stored experiences subsequently guided Faculty members who teach within this discipline represent the
anticipatory behaviors in future interactions. Cognitive learn- more knowledgeable other in terms of knowledge about phys-
ing theory helped to explain how social knowledge and expe- iology. The purpose of this work is to provide physiology

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 Best Practices
LEARNING THEORIES 101 25

educators the opportunity to gain additional expertise in their science, engineering, and mathematics. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:
role as physiology educators and to have a theoretical starting 8410 – 8415, 2014.
21. Glassick CE. Boyer’s expanded definitions of scholarship, the standards
place for informing their classroom practice, instructional de- for assessing scholarship, and the elusiveness of the scholarship of teach-
signs, and future research. The theoretically grounded physi- ing. Acad Med 75: 877– 880, 2000.
ology educator will find opportunities to leverage particular 22. Hake RR. Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: a six-
aspects of different learning theories to achieve the learning thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics
courses. Am J Phys 66: 64 –74, 1998.
goals of their program and inform their educational scholar- 23. Hansen PA. Sitting in the catbird seat. Adv Physiol Educ 25: 1, 2001.
ship. Table 1 24. Hay D, Kinchin I, Lygo-Baker S. Making learning visible: the role of
concept mapping in higher education. Stud Higher Educ 33: 295–311,
DISCLOSURES 2008.
25. Irby DM. What clinical teachers in medicine need to know. Acad Med 69:
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
333–342, 1994.
26. John-Steiner V, Mahn H. Sociocultural approaches to learning and
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS development: a Vygotskian framework. Educ Psychol 31: 191, 1996.
Author contributions: D.K. and J.D.K. conception and design of research; 27. Kessen W, Ortony A, Craik F. Memories, Thoughts, and Emotions:
D.K. and J.D.K. drafted manuscript; D.K. and J.D.K. edited and revised Essays in Honor of George Mandler. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991.
manuscript; D.K. and J.D.K. approved final version of manuscript. 28. Kirschner PA, Sweller J, Clark RE. Why minimal guidance during
instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist,
REFERENCES discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educ
Psych 41: 75– 86, 2006.
1. Adams P. Exploring social constructivism: theories and practicalities. 29. Laurence S, Margolis E. Concepts and cognitive science. In: Concepts:
Education 34: 243–257, 2006. Core Readings, edited by Margolis E, Laurence S. Cambridge, MA: MIT
2. Anderson JR. A spreading activation theory of memory. J Verb Learn Press, 1999, p. 3– 81.
Verb Behav 22: 261–295, 1983. 30. Liu CH, Matthews R. Vygotsky’s philosophy: constructivism and its
3. Atkinson RC, Shiffrin RM. Human memory: a proposed system and its criticisms examined. Int Educ J 6: 386 –399, 2005.
control processes. In: The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, edited 31. Malanga PR, Sweeney WJ. Increasing active student responding in a
by Spence KW, Spence JT. New York: Academic, 1968, vol. 2, p. 89 –195. university applied behavior analysis course: the effect of daily assessment
4. Ausubel DP. Use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of and response card on end of week quiz scores. J Behav Educ 17: 187–199,
meaningful verbal material. J Educ Psychol 51: 267–272, 1960. 2008.
5. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: the Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. 32. Martin J. Self-regulated learning, social cognitive theory, and agency.
Freeman, 1997. Educ Psychol 39: 135–145, 2004.
6. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. 33. Miller GA. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on
Psychol Rev 84: 191–215, 1977. our capacity for processing information. Psychol Rev 101: 343–352, 1994.
7. Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: a Social Cogni- 34. Prakash ES. Explicit constructivism: a missing link in ineffective lec-
tive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986, p. 391. tures? Adv Physiol Educ 34: 93–96, 2010.
8. Bandura A. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- 35. Schunk DH. Self-efficacy and achievement behaviors. Educ Psychol Rev
Hall, 1977, p. 391. 1: 173–208, 1989.
9. Bandura A. Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organ Behav Hum 36. Shuell TJ. Cognitive conceptions of learning. Rev Educ Res 56: 411– 436,
50: 248 –287, 1991. 1986.
10. Bayles EE. Theories of learning and classroom methods. Theor Pract 5: 37. Stephens TM. Directive teaching in the classroom. Theor Pract 13:
71–76, 1966. 91–96, 1974.
11. Block J. Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality 38. Subban P. Differentiated instruction: a research basis. Int Educ J 7:
development. Child Dev 53: 281–295, 1982. 935–947, 2006.
12. Boekaerts M, Pintrich P, Zeidner ME (editors). Handbook of Self- 39. Vygotsky LS. Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological
Regulation. San Diego, CA: Academic, 2000. Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1978, p. 88 and 192.
13. Boghossian P. Behaviorism, constructivism, and socratic pedagogy. Educ 40. Watson J. Social constructivism in the classroom. Support Learn 16:
Philo Theory 38: 713–722, 2006. 140 –147, 2001.
14. Bordage G. Conceptual frameworks to illuminate and magnify. Med Educ 41. Wood R, Bandura A. Social cognitive theory of organizational manage-
43: 312–319, 2009. ment. Acad Manage Rev 14: 361–384, 1989.
15. Brooks MG, Brook JG. The courage to be constructivist. Educ Leader- 41a.Wilkerson L, Irby DM. Strategies for improving teaching practices: a
ship 57: 18 –24, 1999. comprehensive approach to faculty development. Acad Med 73: 387–396,
16. Clayton MC, Woodard C. The effect of response cards on participation 1998.
and weekly quiz scores of university students in introductory psychology 42. Woolfolk A. Educational Psychology (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson,
courses. J Behav Educ 16: 250 –258, 2007. 2011, p. 377.
17. Fincher RM, Simpson DE, Mennin SP, Rosenfeld GC, Rothman A, 43. Woolfolk Hoy A, Davis HA, Anderman EM. Theories of learning, and
McGrew MC, Hansen PA, Mazmanian PE, Turnbull JM. Scholarship teaching in TIP. Theor Pract 52: 9 –21, 2013.
in teaching: an imperative for the 21st century. Acad Med 75: 887– 894, 44. Zentall TR, Galizio M, Critchfield TS. Categorization, concept learning,
2000. and behavior analysis: an introduction. J Exp Anal Behav 78: 237–248,
18. Flavell JH. Piaget’s legacy. Psychol Sci 7: 200 –203, 1996. 2002
19. Flosason TO, McGee HM, Diener-Ludwig L. Evaluating impact of 45. Zimmerman BJ, Schunk DH. (editors). Albert Bandura: the scholar and
small-group discussion on learning utilizing a classroom response system. his contributions to educational psychology. In: Educational Psychology:
J Behav Educ 24: 317–337, 2015. a Century of Contributions. New York: Erlbaum, 2003, p. 431– 458.
20. Freeman S, Eddy SL, McDonough M, Smith MK, Okoroafor N, Jordt 46. Zimmerman BJ. Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: an
H, Wenderoth MP. Active learning increases student performance in overview. Educ Psychol 25: 3–17, 1990

Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1152/advan.00132.2015 • http://advan.physiology.org

Downloaded from www.physiology.org/journal/advances by ${individualUser.givenNames} ${individualUser.surname} (200.037.227.077) on March 19, 2018.
Copyright © 2016 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.