Arc Model PDF

Evaluation and Simulation of Black-box Arc Models
for High Voltage Circuit-breakers
Niklas Gustavsson
LiTH-ISY-EX-3492-2004
Evaluation and Simulation of Black-
box Arc Models for High Voltage
Circuit-breakers
Examensarbete utfört i Reglerteknik och

Kommunikationssystem vid Linköpings Tekniska Högskola av
Niklas Gustavsson
LiTH-ISY-EX-3492-2004
Handledare: Markus Gerdin

Examinator: Torkel Glad
Linköping, 19 mars 2004

2
Avdelning, Institution Datum
Division, Department Date
2004-04-02
Institutionen för systemteknik

581 83 LINKÖPING
Språk Rapporttyp ISBN

Language Report category
Svenska/Swedish Licentiatavhandling ISRN LITH-ISY-EX-3492-2004
X Engelska/English X Examensarbete
C-uppsats Serietitel och serienummer ISSN
D-uppsats Title of series, numbering
Övrig rapport
____
URL för elektronisk version

http://www.ep.liu.se/exjobb/isy/2004/3492/
Titel Utvärdering och simulering av black-box ljusbågsmodeller för högspänningsbrytare

Title
Evaluation and Simulation of Black-box Arc Models for High-Voltage Circuit-Breakers
Författare Niklas Gustavsson

Author
Sammanfattning
Abstract
The task for this Master thesis was to evaluate different black-box arc models for circuit-breakers
with the purpose of finding criteria for the breaking ability. A black-box model is a model that
requires no knowledge from the user of the underlying physical processes. Black-box arc models
have been used in circuit-breaker development for many years. Arc voltages from tests made in the
High Power Laboratory in Ludvika were used for validation, along with the resistance calculated
at current zero, R0, and 500 ns before current zero, R500.
Three different arc models were evaluated: Cassie-Mayr, KEMA and an arc model based on power
calculations. The third model gave very good results and if the model is developed further, the
breaking ability could easily be estimated.
The arc model based on power calculations could be improved by using better approximations of
the quantities in the model, and by representing the current better. A further suggestion for the
following work is to combine the second arc model tested, the KEMA model, with the model based
on power calculations in order to estimate the KEMA model parameters.
The R0 and R500 values should also be calculated from more tests, in order to find a clear limit of
the breaking ability.
Nyckelord
Keyword
Arc model, ATP, Circuit-breaker, High voltage
4
Abstract
The task for this Master thesis was to evaluate different black-box arc
models for circuit-breakers with the purpose of finding criteria for the
breaking ability. A black-box model is a model that requires no knowledge
from the user of the underlying physical processes. Black-box arc models
have been used in circuit-breaker development for many years. Arc
voltages from tests made in the High Power Laboratory in Ludvika were
used for validation, along with the resistance calculated at current zero, R0,
and 500 ns before current zero, R500.
Three different arc models were evaluated: Cassie-Mayr, KEMA and an arc
model based on power calculations. The third model gave very good results
and if the model is developed further, the breaking ability could easily be
estimated.
The arc model based on power calculations could be improved by using

better approximations of the quantities in the model, and by representing
the current better. A further suggestion for the following work is to
combine the second arc model tested, the KEMA model, with the model
based on power calculations in order to estimate the KEMA model
parameters.
The R0 and R500 values should also be calculated from more tests, in order
to find a clear limit of the breaking ability.
5
6
Acknowledgements
This thesis would have been impossible to accomplish without the help
from some people.
First, I wish to thank my supervisors at ABB, Staffan Jacobsson and

Fredrik Jansson, who answered all my questions patiently and gave me
valuable advice and suggestions during the work.
I would also like to thank my supervisor at the Department of Electrical

Engineering at Linköping University, Markus Gerdin, for valuable
feedback on the report and for helping me with all the practical issues
concerning the thesis.
Niklas Gustavsson - Ludvika, March 2004
7
8
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................11
1.1 THE ABB GROUP .................................................................................11
1.1.1 Power Technologies .......................................................................11
1.1.2 Automation Technologies ...............................................................11
1.1.3 Oil, Gas and Petrochemicals..........................................................11
1.1.4 High Voltage Products unit ............................................................11
1.2 CIRCUIT-BREAKERS..............................................................................12
1.3 TESTING IN THE LABORATORY .............................................................13
1.3.1 Test circuit and method ..................................................................13
1.3.2 Measurements.................................................................................13
1.4 BLACK-BOX MODELS............................................................................15
2 PROBLEM FORMULATION...................................................................16
2.1 TASK ....................................................................................................16
2.2 PREREQUISITES ....................................................................................16
3 VALIDATION AND CRITERIA FOR THE BREAKING ABILITY ...17
3.1 VALIDATION DATA ...............................................................................17
3.2 BREAKING ABILITY ..............................................................................18
3.2.1 Calculations of the arc resistance ..................................................19
3.2.2 Arc resistance from the validation data..........................................20
4 SOFTWARE................................................................................................22
4.1 ATP AND ATPDRAW ...........................................................................22
4.2 POSTPROCESSORS.................................................................................23
4.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CIRCUIT-BREAKER MODEL...........................23
4.3.1 Model of the circuit-breaker and the arc........................................23
4.3.2 The test circuit ................................................................................24
5 CASSIE-MAYR ARC MODEL.................................................................26
5.1 MODEL EQUATIONS ..............................................................................26
5.2 IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................28
5.2.1 Transformation into discrete form..................................................28
5.2.2 Calculation of the resistance in the arc model ...............................28
5.3 MODEL PARAMETERS ...........................................................................29
5.4 MODEL VALIDATION ............................................................................30
5.4.1 Arc voltage......................................................................................30
5.4.2 Resistance .......................................................................................31
5.5 CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS............................................................32
6 KEMA ARC MODEL ................................................................................33
6.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................33
6.2 IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................34
6.3 MODEL PARAMETERS ...........................................................................34
6.3.1 Circuit-breaker parameters ............................................................35
6.3.2 Free parameters .............................................................................35
9
6.4.1 Arc voltage......................................................................................36
6.4.2 Resistance .......................................................................................38
6.4.3 Comments .......................................................................................39
6.5 NEW DERIVATIVE APPROXIMATION ......................................................39
6.6.1 Arc voltage......................................................................................40
6.6.2 Resistance .......................................................................................42
7 ARC MODEL USING POWER CALCULATIONS ...............................43
7.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................43
7.2 SIMPLIFICATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION ............................................44
7.2.1 Speed, length, volume and temperature..........................................44
7.2.2 Area and radius ..............................................................................44
7.2.3 Pressure..........................................................................................46
7.2.4 Density............................................................................................48
7.2.5 Specific enthalpy.............................................................................49
7.2.6 Mass flows ......................................................................................50
7.3 MODEL EQUATIONS ..............................................................................51
7.4.1 Arc voltage......................................................................................54
7.4.2 Resistance .......................................................................................56
8 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...............60
8.1 COMPARISON OF THE ARC MODELS ......................................................60
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................60
9 REFERENCES............................................................................................62
10 APPENDIX..................................................................................................63
10.1 CASSIE-MAYR MODEL PARAMETERS ....................................................63
10.2 KEMA MODEL PARAMETERS ...............................................................63
10.3 CONSTANTS FOR MODEL USING POWER CALCULATIONS .......................64
10
Introduction
1 Introduction
This Master thesis has been performed at ABB Power Technologies, High
Voltage Products, in Ludvika. The thesis concerns evaluation and
simulation of different arc models for high voltage circuit-breakers.
In this section, ABB will be presented along with some background of

circuit-breakers and the testing procedure. Secondly, the problem definition
is described. The third section is about validation of the models, and in the
fourth, the software used will be presented. Then, in the following sections,
the arc models are presented along with the conclusions made. Finally,
overall conclusions and discussions are made and a reference list is given.
1.1 The ABB group

ABB, Asea Brown Boveri, is a multinational group consisting of the
divisions Power Technologies, Automation Technologies and Oil, Gas and
Petrochemicals. The group is located in about 100 countries and has
approximately 140 000 employees. In Sweden, ABB has about 10 500
employees. The major localities are Västerås with over 5 000 employees
and Ludvika with around 2 400. [1]
1.1.1 Power Technologies

Power Technologies serves customers, with industrial and commercial
applications, with products and solutions for power transmission and
distribution. Power Technologies consists of several units, such as High
Voltage Products (see section 1.1.4), Power Systems and Power
Transformers.
1.1.2 Automation Technologies

Automation Technologies deliver solutions for control, motion, protection,
and plant integration for process and utility industries.
1.1.3 Oil, Gas and Petrochemicals

Oil, Gas and Petrochemicals supply products, systems and services to the
oil- and gas industries.
1.1.4 High Voltage Products unit

High Voltage Products develop, manufacture and sell high voltage products
for HVAC1- and HVDC2 systems. The unit exports up to 90 % of the
production to almost 100 countries. High Voltage Products are divided into
five units: surge arresters, circuit-breakers, instrument transformers,
1
High Voltage Alternating Current
2
High Voltage Direct Current
11
Introduction
capacitors and cooling systems, where the first four are located in Ludvika
and the last in Landskrona.
High Voltage Products also have one of the most modern high power
laboratories in the world for testing of the products, the High Power
Laboratory, located in Ludvika.
1.2 Circuit-breakers
Circuit-breakers are used in power networks to interrupt the current of the
network if a fault appears, e.g. short circuits. They are also used to connect
or disconnect parts of the network. Figure 1-1 shows an 80 kA HPL420
circuit-breaker.
Figure 1-1: HPL420 80 kA circuit-breaker. Picture taken from [1]
In simple terms, circuit-breakers consist of a plug that is in connection with

a contact when the breaker is closed. The current then flows right through
the breaker. To interrupt the current, the plug and the contact is separated
with rather high speed, resulting in an electric arc in the contact gap
between the plug and the contact. This is illustrated in Figure 1-2.
Figure 1-2: Simplification of the contact gap
12
Introduction
The arc period is defined as the time from contact separation to

interruption. During the arc period, very high conductivity is desired in the
breaker. That is equal to a low power development. When the current
reaches zero, the breaker must change from being a good conductor to a
good insulator in very short time. If this transition is fast enough, the arc is
extinguished and the current will be interrupted and only a small current
will flow in the breaker. Otherwise, the arc will re-ignite. As a quenching
medium, SF6 gas is used. [2]
1.3 Testing in the laboratory

Here the testing procedure and the measurements in the High Power
Laboratory will be explained.
1.3.1 Test circuit and method

Because circuit-breakers must be able to handle large powers, in the
gigawatt area, the breakers can not be tested directly. Some sort of
synthetic testing must therefore be used. The High Power Laboratory in
Ludvika uses the current injection method, which is a widely accepted
synthetic test method [2].
The test circuit consists of a current circuit, in which a regular power

generator is used to produce full test current through an auxiliary breaker
and the test breaker under reduced voltage, and a voltage circuit which
includes a charged capacitor bank. The capacitor bank is charged with the
test voltage.
Because an alternating current flows in the circuit-breaker, the interruption

has to take place at a zero crossing. This zero crossing is called current
zero. Right before current zero, the voltage circuit is connected using a
spark gap. The capacitor bank is then unloaded and a current pulse is
injected and added to the current through the test breaker. This makes the
total power very large. The current through the auxiliary breaker is forced
to zero and thereby interrupts the current circuit. At the end of the injected
current the test breaker has a current zero and a possibility to interrupt the
current. By a suitable choice of circuit parameters, a result will be obtained
that fully corresponds to the effect from real usage.
1.3.2 Measurements
The electrical quantities that are measured in the laboratory are the current
source voltage, the voltage across the test circuit-breaker, the current
through the test circuit-breaker and the injected current. The motion in the
breaker along with gas pressures in different parts of the circuit-breaker are
also measured.
13
Introduction
The most interesting quantities are the voltage across the test circuit-
breaker, which is equal to the arc voltage, and the current through this
breaker. The injected current is useful for determining if a test is a success
or failure. For a successful test, the injected current is just a half-period
long, because it has the same current zero as the current from the current
circuit. For a failure the injected current is longer. See Figure 1-3 and
Figure 1-4 for examples of this.
Figure 1-3: Successful interruption
Figure 1-4: Failed interruption
14
Introduction
1.4 Black-box models

In [3], black-box models are defined as a model where only the relation
between input and output signals is described, without considering the
underlying physical processes. In this thesis, knowledge of the physical
processes is required when evaluating and developing the arc models.
When used, however, the arc models will be considered black-box models,
without requiring any knowledge of the underlying physics.
Black-box models have been used in circuit-breaker development for many

years, even before the use of computers. They have proved to be very
useful even though they consist of relatively simple relations. By
calculating e.g. the conductance or resistance in the contact gap, it is
possible to predict
• The circuit-breaker’s influence on the power network.
• The test circuit’s influence on the breaking ability, i.e. the influence on
the test results by the laboratory used.
• The breaking ability for different breaking cases.
It is very difficult to calculate the state of a contact gap under the influence
of an arc even when using the most advanced calculating tools. Different
arc models have been implemented and give good results, but a desire is to
simulate the circuit-breaker together with a model of the test circuit used in
the laboratory. Therefore, an arc model must be implemented together with
the test circuit in a suitable program.
15
Problem formulation
2 Problem formulation
This thesis is meant to give a detailed study of different black-box models
with the purpose to evaluate, combine, improve and apply to already
existing circuit-breakers. In this section, the task will be defined and the
prerequisites will be given.
2.1 Task
• Evaluating known black-box models
During what part of the breaking period are they applicable?
How are they constructed?
On which relations and assumptions are they based?
• Combining the most promising models for the large- and small current
phases to receive a model for the entire breaking period.
Can the degree of simplifications be decreased?
Can the energy and mass equations from the existing ”physical”
models be used?
• Applying one or more of the following cases
Choose a circuit-breaker and a breaking case and make criteria of
tests already made.
Estimate the effect of different test circuits for a test case.
Estimate the performance of the circuit-breaker in a real network
(same test case as above).
The work will be based on evaluating known arc models and comparing
them to validation data. The best model will be compared to criteria for the
breaking ability.
2.2 Prerequisites
The arc models are to be implemented using a software package called
ATP. An existing arc model implemented in ATP was available, see [4].
The arc model was the Cassie-Mayr model presented in section 5. Also
some test circuits without any arc models were implemented [5]. This
combination served as a starting point for the continuing work.
16
Validation and criteria for the breaking ability
3 Validation and criteria for the breaking ability

Here the validation data used will be presented together with a discussion
of the breaking ability.
3.1 Validation data

Data from tests made at the High Power Laboratory in Ludvika were used
as validation data. The tests were made on the same test circuit and with the
same circuit-breaker. The breaker is a 145 kV, 40 kA, 60 Hz circuit-
breaker. The test circuit is called 1346-1 [6]. A drawback with this data is
that the circuit-breaker used in the tests mostly managed to interrupt the
current, resulting in few examples of failed tests. Nine test shots were
available, and in only one of these the breaker failed to interrupt. The test
shots are numbered from 670551 to 670559. All were successful
interruptions except the last, 670559, which was a failure.
The quantities measured in these tests are described in section 1.3.2. The
most useful for validation is the arc voltage. By comparing it to the
calculations made using the arc model, the calculated voltage could be
calibrated to fit the measured one, and be used as a measure of the quality
of the arc models.
The tests were made under Short Line Fault conditions. Short Line Fault is
a type of fault that appears for instance when a tree has fallen over the line
some kilometres from the circuit-breaker, and is one of the breaking cases
that the breaker must be able to handle.
The current through the circuit-breaker will be used as input parameters to

all the arc models. It is therefore important to represent it well. In Figure
3-1 and Figure 3-2, the current is plotted for two of the test shots used as
validation data. The injected current is shown as a small bump at current
zero for a successful interruption, and with a bump also on the negative
side for the failed interruption.
The amplitude and phase of the current differs between the test shots, but
current zero occurs at the point t = 25 ms for all test shots. Because the arc
models will only be evaluated during the arc period, good agreement for the
calculations is only required up to this point.
17
Figure 3-1: Measured current, successful interruption
Figure 3-2: Measured current, failed interruption
3.2 Breaking ability

The breaking ability depends on many factors. It has been investigated [7]
that the conductance of the arc at current zero is a good electrical parameter
for determination of the ability of the circuit-breaker to interrupt the
current. The reason for this is that large power loss increases the chance for
interruption. Large power loss is equal to small conductance. Because the
resistance is the inverse of the conductance, the resistance at current zero is
an equally good parameter.
The arc models in this thesis calculate the resistance of the arc. If the
resistance exceeds a certain value, depending on the input parameters, the
arc is extinguished and the current is interrupted. Otherwise, re-ignition
18
takes place. A major task will be to make accurate calculations of the

resistance at current zero for different test cases.
3.2.1 Calculations of the arc resistance

Generally, a resistance can be calculated using Ohm’s law. That is
u
u = R ⋅i ⇔ R =
i
A time derivation of this formula results in the following expression
u′
u′ = R ⋅ i′ ⇔ R =
i′
The arc resistance at current zero, R0, can therefore be calculated as
d 
lim  u arc (t ) 
u (t )  dt
t →CZ

R0 = Rarc (t CZ ) = arc CZ =
i (t CZ ) d 
lim  i (t ) 
t →CZ dt
 
where uarc is the arc voltage, and i is the current through the circuit-breaker.
CZ stands for current zero. The derivatives can be re-written in a shorter
form:
d  du arc
lim  u arc (t )  =&
t →CZ dt dt
 
d  di
lim  i (t )  =&
t →CZ dt dt
 
where du arc dt is the voltage steepness at current zero and di dt is the
steepness of the current.
It can be difficult determining the voltage steepness because of rapid

changes at current zero. The resistance 500 ns before current zero, R500, is
an equally good measure of the breaking ability as the current zero
resistance. It has been found in earlier studies that there is a clear limit of
the R0 and R500 values between successful and failed interruptions.
R500 is calculated as a division of the arc voltage and current steepness prior
to current zero by using the following formula:
(u arc (t CZ − 500ns) − u arc (t CZ ) ) 500ns
R500 =
(i(t CZ − 20µs) − i(t CZ ) ) 20µs
19
The area around current zero of the arc voltage and current are plotted in
Figure 3-3. These plots show the reason for calculating the voltage
steepness in a very short time interval. It is also shown that the peak of the
arc voltage has a deep impact on the breaking ability. The current behaves
almost linearly around current zero, so a longer time interval can be used
for calculating the current steepness.
Figure 3-3: Measured current and arc voltage at current zero
3.2.2 Arc resistance from the validation data

Both the arc resistance at current zero, R0, and 500 ns before, R500, has been
calculated from the validation data. These values are found in Table 1 and
are also plotted in Figure 3-4 and Figure 3-5. There are no major
differences between the R0 and R500 values, which means both are equally
good for validation.
It is almost impossible finding a clear limit between successful and failed

interruptions from these values, but a tendency is shown. There should not
be a clear limit between test shots from the same test series either, because
the shots are rather similar to each other. To get a fair view of the breaking
limit, a lot more values must be calculated from test series with as many
failed as successful interruptions.
20
Table 1: Calculated value of R0 and R500 from the validation data

Test shot R0 [Ω] R500 [Ω]
670551 332.66 341.06
670552 352.61 346.68
670553 347.87 323.46
670554 347.30 355.82
670555 358.01 368.01
670556 336.22 328.86
670557 320.99 345.73
670558 339.18 373.18
670559 (failure) 327.93 336.14
Figure 3-4: Arc resistance at current zero
Figure 3-5: Arc resistance 500 ns before current zero
21
Software
4 Software
In this section, there is a short description of the software used. The
implementation of the arc models and the test circuit will also be described.
4.1 ATP and ATPDraw

ATP, Alternative Transients Program, is a universal program for digital
simulation of electric power systems. ATP was developed in 1984 out of
the Electromagnetic Transients Program, EMTP. EMTP was at first a
public domain software, but when it was to be released commercially, ATP
was developed as a free version of EMTP. ATP requires a license, but
licensing is free of all charge.
ATPDraw is a graphical preprocessor to ATP. Using the mouse, the user

can construct a model of the circuit to be simulated. This is shown in
Figure 4-1. ATPDraw then creates the input file to ATP for simulation. The
output files from ATP are either binary .pl4 files or ASCII-text.
Figure 4-1: ATPDraw
ATPDraw is very easy to work with, even for new users. Standard
components can be selected and connected together to form a circuit. The
circuits are easy to understand because the components have common
22
Software
looks. The user can also create own components by using so called
MODELS-objects with its code written as a text file. [8], [9]
The major drawback with ATP is that it is not possible handling variable
timesteps. It can sometimes be useful having a longer timestep for static
parts of the simulation and a smaller timestep for more dynamic parts.
Instead, a small timestep must be used for the whole simulation resulting in
very large output files, or a longer timestep can be used with the risk of
simulating an incorrect behaviour. Mostly, a compromise must be made.
Another drawback is that it is difficult to handle derivatives in the

MODELS-code. Regular time-derivatives can easily be calculated, and
linear time-dependent differential equations can also be solved. More
general derivatives must, however, be implemented manually by re-writing
into recursive form using some derivative approximations.
4.2 Postprocessors
A postprocessor is a software used to present the calculated data in a
suitable way, e.g. as a plot. Different programs were used as
postprocessors, depending on the purpose. PlotXY works well with the .pl4
output files from ATP. It is fast and has a good zoom function. To be able
to compare calculated data with measured, ADAMS Postprocessor was
used. It can import ascii-data from different files and plot in the same
window to make easy comparisons between calculations and
measurements. The program can also make rather advanced calculations
with the imported data.
4.3 Implementation of the circuit-breaker model

In this section, there is a description of the ATPDraw implementation of
the circuit-breaker and the test circuit. These implementations were already
available at the beginning of the thesis. The circuit-breaker implementation
is the same for all arc models, only the arc model differs. The test circuit
implementation is also the same for all arc models.
4.3.1 Model of the circuit-breaker and the arc

An existing model of the circuit-breaker in ATPDraw was used, shown in
Figure 4-2. The different arc models are implemented as MODELS objects.
When using different arc models, different MODELS-objects are used
together with some model parameters that are depending on the present
model and test shot.
Input signals can be the current through the circuit-breaker, the voltage
over the circuit-breaker and the positions of the circuit-breaker switch and
23
Software
the one representing the spark gap. The calculated resistance of the arc,
placed parallel to the switch, is the output signal.
Figure 4-2: ATP breaker
When the switch is closed, the current flows right through it, and the
MODELS-code is not used. The circuit-breaker is then symbolised by a
very small resistance, about 10-5 Ω. When the switch is opened, the current
flows through the MODELS-controlled resistance, which represents the
arc. The size of the resistance is calculated by the model equations and
gives rise to an arc voltage. The opening time is chosen so that the expected
arcing time is obtained. After successful interruption the resistance
becomes very large, which symbolises that the arc is extinguished.
4.3.2 The test circuit

The arc model is used in an ATPDraw-model of the synthetic circuit used
in the High Power Laboratory. The ATP model of the test circuit is shown
in Figure 4-3. The breaker to be tested is represented by the ATP breaker
model. A time-controlled switch represents the spark gap in the voltage
circuit. The values of the components in the circuit were obtained from [6].
24
Software
Figure 4-3: Test circuit in ATP
As shown in Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2 in the previous section, the current
from real tests is not always symmetrically sinus-shaped. Therefore an
exponential current source component was added to the circuit to represent
the DC-part of the current. In Figure 4-4, the calculated current is plotted
together with the measured for one of the test shots.
Figure 4-4: Measured and calculated currents
25
Cassie-Mayr arc model
5 Cassie-Mayr arc model

In this section, the Cassie-Mayr arc model will be explained. This model
was already implemented, but some work has been done on the model
parameters. First, a brief background of the model is given and then the
implementation, model parameters and results are presented. Finally, some
conclusions are made.
5.1 Model equations

The model is based on two equations for calculation of the conductance in
an arc, derived by Cassie and Mayr around 1950. A brief description of the
derivation of these equations is found in [2] and will be outlined in this
section to show the assumptions that the model is based on.
The power of the arc can be calculated as
dQ
P = u ⋅ i = Ploss +
dt
where u is the arc voltage, i is the current through the breaker, Ploss is the
power loss of the arc and Q is the heat content. Further, the conductance G
is a function of Q:
G = G (Q ) = G (∫ (P − P loss )dt )
After differentiation the following expression is obtained:
dG dG (Q) dQ dG (Q) ′
= ⋅ = (P − Ploss ) ⇔ 1 dG = G (Q) (P − Ploss )
dt dQ dt dQ G dt G (Q)
To solve this equation, Ploss and G(Q) must be known. Cassie and Mayr
proposed models for solving the equation.
Some simple relations using Ohm’s law will be used in the derivation of
the models:
P =U ⋅I
U = R⋅I
1
G=
R
P = U 2 ⋅G
26
Cassie assumed that only convection3 causes the power losses, which
means that the temperature in the arc is constant. This implies that the
cross-section area of the arc, A, is proportional to the current and that the
voltage over the arc is constant. Using these assumptions, a linear relation
between G and Q is obtained. Further, Ploss = U c2 ⋅ G , where Uc is the arc
voltage. If these relations are inserted in the equation above, with
P = u 2 ⋅ G , the following equation is obtained:
1 dG U c2 ⋅ G  u 2  1  u2 
=  2 − 1 =  2 − 1
G dt Q Uc  τc Uc 
τc is the time-constant of the conductance because of change in cross-
section of the arc. By multiplying both sides of the equation with G, the
final expression is obtained, where index c stands for Cassie:
dGc 1  i ⋅u 
=  2 − Gc 
dt τc Uc 
Mayr assumed power losses are caused by thermal conduction at small
currents. This means that the conductance is strongly temperature-
dependent but fairly independent of the cross-section area of the arc. The
area is therefore assumed constant. For constant specific heat capacity,
Q = const. ⋅ T , where T is the temperature. The electrical conductivity, σ,
Q
can be expressed as σ = const. ⋅ e T , and G (Q ) = const. ⋅ e 0 . Mayr
Q
further assumed that the relation between current and voltage is constant
and that Ploss = constant = P0. The following equation was then obtained:
1 dG P0 P  1 P 
=  − 1 =  − 1
G dt Q0  P0  τm  P0 
τm is the time-constant because of change in temperature without power
input in the arc. Both sides of the equation are multiplied with G to obtain
the final expression below. Index m stands for Mayr.
dGm 1  i2 
=  − Gm 
dt τ m  P0 
Cassie’s equation gives good results for large currents, while Mayr’s is
better for currents near zero. Therefore, a combination of the equations will
be used to obtain better result [10].
3
Heat transfer from motion of fluid or gas
27
5.2 Implementation
Only Cassie’s equation can be used for large currents and only Mayr’s
around current zero, but that can cause problems at the transition between
the models. Hence it is better to use both equations at the same time and
series-connect the calculated conductances. For large currents almost all
voltage is at the Cassie part and just before current zero the Mayr part takes
over [10]. The total conductance is calculated as:
1 1 1
= +
G G m Gc
5.2.1 Transformation into discrete form

To be able to solve the differential equation numerically, the equations are
re-written into discrete form using the Euler forward approximation.
Gm,n +1 − Gm ,n 1  in2  ∆t in2  ∆t 
=  − Gm,n  ⇔ Gm,n +1 = ⋅ + Gm ,n 1 − 
t n +1 − t n τ m  P0  τ m P0  τm 
Gc ,n +1 − Gc ,n 1  in ⋅ u n  ∆t in ⋅ u n  ∆t 
=  − G  ⇔ Gc ,n +1 = ⋅ + Gc ,n 1 − 
τc  Uc τc Uc  τc 
c , n
t n +1 − t n 2

2
These equations are the basis of the arc model. The resistance of the arc is
then calculated as the inverse of the conductance.
5.2.2 Calculation of the resistance in the arc model

The resistances of the Cassie and Mayr parts of the model are calculated
separately and summed together as seen below:
1
Rc =
Gc + 10 −8
1
Rm =
Gm + 10 −8
Rtot = Rc + Rm
The addition of 10-8 in the denominator is to avoid division by zero. It also
provides a fixed, large value for the resistance when the conductance gets
small enough. A large resistance symbolises that the circuit-breaker is fully
opened and the arc totally extinguished.
28
5.3 Model parameters

Because the Cassie-Mayr model already was implemented in ATPDraw,
there existed some parameters that could be seen as a starting point of the
investigation. Obviously, the parameters vary according to the type of
breaker and test case. It was still possible to get a good understanding of
how the model works.
Using the original values of the time-constants τm and τc gave rather good
results without any significant numerical errors. There were no problems
using a smaller timestep either. Hence, these values were used in all tests
with this model and no further work was made on determining other values
of these parameters.
Uc decides the size of the calculated arc voltage, which is constant when
using the Cassie-Mayr model. This is a major drawback, because the arc
voltage should be calculated by the model, and not set by an input
parameter.
P0 represents the power loss of the arc, and controls the breaking ability.
The breaking ability increases with larger power loss. By gradually
decreasing P0, a limit for the breaking ability can be found. In Figure 5-1,
the smallest possible integer value of P0 before failure is plotted versus
different arcing times. It shows that P0 is virtually independent of the arcing
time. The breaking ability should vary with the arcing time though, so it is
difficult to estimate P0 for different test shots. P0 is therefore not very
suitable as a parameter controlling the breaking ability
.
Figure 5-1: P0 versus arc time
29
5.4 Model validation
5.4.1 Arc voltage

In Figure 5-2 and Figure 5-3, the calculated arc voltage for two of the test
shots, 670551 and 670559, is plotted together with the measured. The
model parameters used for these calculations are found in Table 4 in the
appendix. The value of the parameter P0 has been set to represent a
successful interruption for 670551, and to a failure for 670559.
The arc voltage from the Cassie-Mayr model is constant during the whole
arc period and the model parameter Uc was used to set its level. Because of
this, the same curves were obtained when using a smaller timestep. The
voltage was set as accurate as possible for the final half-period, in order to
obtain good values of the resistance at current zero.
Figure 5-2: Arc voltage for 670551 using the Cassie-Mayr arc model
30
Figure 5-3: Arc voltage for 670559 using the Cassie-Mayr arc model
5.4.2 Resistance
The calculated arc resistance for the test shot 670553 is plotted in Figure
5-4. The resistance looks almost the same for all test shots. It is shown in
the plot that the resistance reaches a constant level, around 108 Ω, after
current zero as described in section 5.2.2. Prior to current zero, the
resistance is rather small, in the order 10-2 Ω. This is a good illustration of
the circuit-breakers transition from a good conductor to a good insulator.
The large peaks after current zero are probably caused by numerical errors.
Because a value of the model parameter P0 that matches the actual test
shots can not be found, it is impossible to make a fair comparison between
the R0 and R500 values from calculations and validation data.
Figure 5-4: Calculated arc resistance using Cassie-Mayr arc model
31
5.5 Conclusions and comments

As shown in Figure 5-2 and Figure 5-3, the Cassie-Mayr arc model
produces fairly accurate arc voltages. A major drawback is, as pointed out
earlier, that the arc voltage is constant and must be set by the user. The R0
and R500 values can not be calculated without good knowledge of the
parameter P0, which makes it difficult finding breaking criteria.
The model is very difficult to use as a black-box model, because knowledge

about actual measurements is required for each test. The goal is to use only
the current and arcing time as input parameters for the model, but the
values of the parameters Uc and P0 must be estimated in order to obtain a
good approximation of an unknown circuit-breaker’s behaviour.
The model could probably be improved significantly by using non-constant

parameters, but the parameters must still be estimated in order to use the
model as a black-box model.
32
KEMA arc model
6 KEMA arc model

To improve the calculations and to get more realistic results, a more
advanced arc model will be implemented, the KEMA arc model. There will
be descriptions of the background of the model, implementation and model
parameters. The results obtained will be presented along with some
conclusions and comments.
6.1 Background
The KEMA model is described in [7], and an outline of that description is
given in this section.
The KEMA arc model is based on the classical equations of Mayr and
Cassie described in section 5. It consists of three modified Mayr models in
series, representing three sections of the arc. The parameters of each
submodel are a time constant Ti [s], a quantity Πi [Aλ-1V3-λ] related to
power loss and a dimensionless model parameter λi.
The model equation is:

dGi 1 1
= Giλi U i2 − Gi i = 1, 2 and 3
dt Π i Ti Ti
where Gi is the conductance and Ui is the arc voltage for the i:th submodel.
If λ = 2, the model equation becomes the classical Mayr model with Π = P0
[W] as the power loss constant. If λ = 1, the equation is the Cassie model
and Π = U02, with U0 [V] as the initial arc voltage.
The current I, voltage U and conductance G are described by the following

equations:
3
1 1
=∑
G i =1 Gi
3
U = ∑U i
i =1
I = U ⋅G
This model contains nine parameters, but six of them are empirical
constants according to the following values and relationships:
λ1 = 1.4
λ 2 = 1.9
λ3 = 2.0
33
KEMA arc model
T2 = T1 k1
T3 = T2 k 2
Π 3 = k3Π 2
The first submodel is chosen to be a Cassie-Mayr type arc, the second
almost a pure Mayr arc, and the third is a pure Mayr arc. The values of λi
remain the same for all tests, while the breaker parameters k1, k2 and k3
depend on the actual circuit-breaker design. They keep their values during
all tests on the same circuit-breaker. T1, Π1 and Π2 are considered as free
parameters, describing the state of the circuit-breaker. These parameters
have a wide range of values and depend on the actual test conditions.
6.2 Implementation
As for the combined Cassie-Mayr arc model, the KEMA model will be re-
written into discrete form using the Euler forward approximation. The arc
voltage for the different arc sections of the model will be calculated as:
ib
Ui =
Gi
where ib is the current flowing through the breaker. Further, the
conductances are calculated for each arc section according to:
∆t  ∆t 
Gi , n = Giλ,ni −1U i2 + 1 − Gi ,n −1
Ti Π i  Ti 
where index n denotes the current time sample and i = 1, 2 and 3 depending
on the submodel used.
The total conductance is then calculated the same way as with the Cassie-
Mayr model:
1 1 1 1
= −8
+ −8
+
G G1 + 10 G2 + 10 G3 + 10 −8
The resistance of the arc is then calculated as the inverse of the
conductance.
6.3 Model parameters

In this section, the different types of model parameters will be explained
along with their influence on the calculations.
34
KEMA arc model
6.3.1 Circuit-breaker parameters

The parameters k1, k2 and k3 describe the circuit-breaker, and they are the
same on all tests with the same breaker. These parameters are used along
with the state parameters to calculate T2, T3 and Π3.
In [7], the breaker parameter values are given for three types of circuit-
breakers: 72 kV, 123 kV and 145 kV. For a 145 kV circuit-breaker, which
is studied in this thesis, the values were
k1 = 5.7
k2 = 10
k3 = 100
These values were used as a start and gave good results. To get different
time constants other values were also used, but there were no significant
improvements of the calculations. Because of the good results obtained
using the values above, these were used in all the following calculations.
6.3.2 Free parameters

The free parameters of the KEMA arc model are T1, Π1 and Π2. T1 is the
time constant of the first arc equation and the other time constants depend
on T1 as shown in section 6.1. In the model equations, the quotient between
the simulation timestep and the time constant is always used. Therefore,
there is a strong dependence between the calculated conductance and this
quotient.
The parameters Π1, Π2 and Π3 are related to power loss. Because submodel
1 is a Cassie-Mayr type model, which works well for large currents, the
parameter Π1 controls the size of the arc voltage. Submodels 2 and 3 are
Mayr type models and are better for small currents. Π2 and Π3 therefore
determine the breaking ability, which increases with larger power loss.
Π3 is calculated directly from Π2, so by gradually decreasing Π2, the limit

of the breaking ability can be obtained. A plot of the smallest possible
value of Π2 before re-ignition versus arcing time is shown in Figure 6-1.
There is not a clear connection between Π2 and arcing time, which means it
is difficult finding a suitable value for an unknown test shot. Since the
values of Π1 are rather large, and the values of Π2 are small, these
parameters do not affect each other that much.
35
KEMA arc model
Figure 6-1: Π2 versus arcing time

There were some difficulties finding a value of T1 that gave good results
without numerical errors like oscillations and other strange behaviour. The
value had to be within a certain interval depending on the simulation
timestep. This is probably because three submodels are used and T1,
together with the circuit-breaker parameters, determines the time-constant
of all of them. The model parameters used for the calculations are found in
Table 5 in the appendix.
6.4.1 Arc voltage

The calculated and measured arc voltages for three of the test shots,
670551, 670553 and 670559, are plotted in Figure 6-2 to Figure 6-4. The
parameter Π1 was used to calibrate the calculated voltage to fit the
measured one for the final half-period. Π2 was set to the limit between
successful and failed interruption. For 670551 and 670553 the parameter
was set to a successful interruption, and for 670559 to a failure.
36
KEMA arc model
Figure 6-2: Arc voltage for 670551 using the KEMA arc model
37
KEMA arc model
As shown in the plots, the KEMA model gives accurate results for the final
half-period when Π1 is given a suitable value. For the earlier parts, the
calculated arc voltage is a bit too high, but it is the final part that
determines the resistance at current zero.
6.4.2 Resistance
The arc resistance for the test shot 670551 is plotted in Figure 6-5. The plot
shows the same behaviour as for the Cassie-Mayr model, with a fast
transition from conductor to insulator at current zero.
Figure 6-5: Arc resistance using the KEMA arc model
The resistance oscillates heavy at current zero for some values of the time
constant T1. This is caused by numerical errors when the current reaches
38
KEMA arc model
zero, and could be solved using a smaller timestep. That requires even more
work on T1 though.
6.4.3 Comments
The advantage with the KEMA model over the combined Cassie-Mayr
model is that the model calculates the arc voltage itself, and is not
depending totally on an input parameter. That implies that the arc voltage is
determined more realistically and the result is a quantity that gives good
agreements with measured values from the laboratory. The arc resistance
also behaves realistically.
Quite a lot of work has to be done with determining proper values for T1,
and the arc resistance calculated by the model oscillates heavily at current
zero even for some otherwise proper values of T1. The oscillations occur
because of numerical errors when the current is approaching zero. A
smaller simulation timestep is therefore preferred. The present arc model
implementation requires even more work on determining the time constants
when using a smaller timestep though.
Even a smaller timestep can cause numerical problems if it brings the

calculations outside the region of stability for the numerical method used.
Hence, a more advanced derivative approximation has to be used.
6.5 New derivative approximation

To be able to handle smaller timesteps easier, another derivative
approximation will be used. The conductances are now calculated using a
fourth-order Runge-Kutta derivative approximation according to the
formulas below:
1
Gi ,n +1 = Gi ,n + (k I + 2k II + 2k III + k IV )
6
∆t ∆t
kI = Giλ,ni U i2 − Gi ,n
Ti Π i Ti
∆t ∆t  k 
k II = Giλ,ni U i2 −  Gi ,n + I 
Ti Π i Ti  2
∆t ∆t  k 
k III = Giλ,ni U i2 −  Gi ,n + II 
Ti Π i Ti  2 
∆t ∆t
k IV = Giλ,ni U i2 − (Gi ,n + k III )
Ti Π i Ti
39
KEMA arc model
Index n denotes the present time sample and i = 1, 2 and 3 depending on

submodel used. The total conductance is calculated as earlier and the
resistance is obtained by taking the inverse of the conductance.

Here, it is easier finding a value of T1 that works well with the test shots. A
smaller timestep was also used here. Parameter settings for these
calculations are found in Table 6 in the appendix. The calculated resistance
is equal as the one calculated using Euler forward as shown in Figure 6-5.
6.6.1 Arc voltage

The calculated arc voltages for three of the test shots are plotted in Figure
6-6 to Figure 6-8 together with the measured.
Figure 6-6: Arc voltage for 670551 using KEMA and Runge-Kutta
40
KEMA arc model
When using the Runge-Kutta method and a smaller timestep with the
KEMA model, the calculated arc voltage is a little less accurate compared
with the Euler forward method. This is illustrated for the shot 670559 in
Figure 6-9. The reason for this is unknown. The calculation time is also
longer when using Runge-Kutta but these disadvantages can be
compensated by the fact that it is easier finding well-functioning values of
T1 .
41
KEMA arc model
Figure 6-9: Arc voltage for 670559, different timesteps
6.6.2 Resistance
The calculated resistance behaves in the same way as when using the Euler
forward method. As for the Cassie-Mayr model, it is very hard finding
values of the model parameter Π2 so the R0 and R500 values from the
calculations matches the values from the actual test shots.

When using the Runge-Kutta method, simulation timesteps of 2⋅10-7 and
smaller can be used, compared to timesteps of 5⋅10-7 when using Euler
forward. The oscillations at current zero of the resistance have disappeared.
It is also rather easy finding a well-functioning value of T1.
Because estimating the values of the model parameters requires a lot of

knowledge of the actual test shots, the KEMA arc model is difficult to use
as a black-box model. To be able to predict the ability of the circuit-breaker
to interrupt the current, i.e. to calculate R0 and R500, the value of Π2 and Π3
must be determined thoroughly depending on the different test shots.
To use this model properly, some more advanced calculations of the

parameters must be implemented. One suggestion is to calculate the
parameters by using a parameter estimation method together with MatLab4.
Another method could be to use time-dependent model parameters, and
calculate their values using physical equations.
4
Software for technical calculations developed by Mathworks
42
Arc model using power calculations
7 Arc model using power calculations

To be able to get even more realistic values of the arc voltage and
resistance, a new and more complex model will be implemented. This
model is based on physical calculations of the power of the arc. Hopefully
this will improve the results without having to put so much work in
determining model constants for each test shot.
7.1 Background
The new model is based on equations from an arc model included in the
Breaker Simulation Toolkit in a software package called ADAMS5. This
model approximates the arc as a cylindrical volume, and takes different
flow areas, mass flow, power losses and gas states into consideration [11].
Only the power equations of that model, with some simplifications, will be
used here.
The total power of the arc is calculated as:

Ptot = q rad + qtur + q ax − q mfl + q net
where qrad is radiative power loss because of particles hitting the walls
inside the breaker and qtur is turbulent power loss from turbulence at the
surface of the arc. qax is power loss carried by axial mass flow and qmfl is
power loss carried by radial mass flow. qnet is the net power of the arc.
In the ADAMS-model, these quantities are calculated as:
q rad = l ⋅ rarc ⋅ Tarc

4
⋅ 2π ⋅ σ B
qtur = (harc − hav ) ⋅ ρ arc ⋅ l ⋅ rarc ⋅ v sound
q ax = m& ax ⋅ harc
q mfl = m& rad ⋅ hav
d
q net = (ρ arc ⋅ Varc ⋅ harc ) − p& arc ⋅ Varc
dt
where
l = arc length
rarc = arc radius
Tarc = arc temperature
σB = Stefan Bolzmann’s constant
harc = specific enthalpy in arc
hav = specific enthalpy in arc volume
5
Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems, by Mechanical Dynamics
Inc.
43
ρarc = mass density in arc

vsound = speed of sound in arc
max = axial mass content
mrad = radial mass content
parc = arc pressure
Varc = arc volume
7.2 Simplifications and implementation

The main idea is to calculate the total power of the arc and, by using Ohm’s
law, calculate the arc resistance according to the equation below:
Ptot
Rarc =
i2
The current through the circuit-breaker will be used as input parameter. In
order to use the equations with ATP, some simplifications have to be made.
Many of the quantities in the model are current dependent, which is a good
reason for using the current as input parameter. To be able to find correct
relations between quantities from the ADAMS model and the ATP model,
ADAMS-calculations from three of the test shots used as validation data
are available for comparison. The shots are 670551, 670553 and 670559.
The goal is to find a model that is as simple as possible, but still gives
better results than the previous black-box models. Most of the numerical
constants used in the model are the same for all test shots. These constants
are found in Table 7 in the appendix. In all plots in this section with
comparison between ADAMS and ATP calculations, the solid curve is
ADAMS calculation and the dashed one is from ATP.
7.2.1 Speed, length, volume and temperature

The calculation of the arc time starts at contact separation and proceeds
with the simulation timestep. Both the speed of sound and the contact speed
are approximated as constant. The length of the arc is then calculated as
l = vcontact ⋅ t arc but limited to a maximum value of 0.068 m, the maximum
arc length allowed. The arc is approximated as a cylinder, which means that
the volume is calculated as the product between length and cross-section
area. The temperature can be seen as constant during the whole arc period.
7.2.2 Area and radius

In Figure 7-1, the cross-section area of the arc is plotted against the
magnitude of the current for the ADAMS calculations. This shows that
there is a linear relation between these two quantities.
44
Figure 7-1: Arc area versus current from ADAMS
Because of the wear in the circuit-breaker, the proportionality constant

changes after each test. Using the ADAMS-calculations, the constant can
be found for three of the test shots. The accumulated energy, i.e. the sum of
the energy of the arc for all the previous shot, can be used as a measure of
the wear. The proportionality constant is plotted against the accumulated
energy in Figure 7-2. By calculating the accumulated energy for each test
shot and comparing to the plot, the value of the proportionality constant,
kA, can be obtained. The values of kA for the test shots are found in Table 8
in the appendix.
Figure 7-2: kA versus accumulated energy
45
The area can now be calculated as Aarc = k A ⋅ i . A comparison of the areas

from ADAMS and ATP are found in Figure 7-3. Because the arc is
cylindrical, the radius of the arc is calculated from the area as
Aarc
rarc = .
π
Figure 7-3: Comparison of area
7.2.3 Pressure
The pressure of the arc is current-dependent, and also depends on the
l
relative length of the arc, . As a first approach, the pressure can
l max
l
therefore be calculated as p arc = p 0 + k p ⋅ i ⋅ .
l max
In Figure 7-4, the pressure is plotted against the product of current and
relative arc length for the ADAMS calculations. It is shown that there is not
a linear relation between these quantities. The last part of the pressure is
−t
descending according to an exponential relation, e τ . There is, however,
not a big difference between calculating the pressure using the current-
dependent equation above all the way and using the exponential relation for
the last part. The model also becomes more complex with the exponential
relation, because it is difficult finding the point when the calculation of the
pressure should change. This point also differs between different test shots.
46
Figure 7-4: Pressure versus current and length from ADAMS
As for the area, the proportionality constant, kp, changes with the wear in
the circuit-breaker. Values of the constant for three of the test shots were
found by comparing to ADAMS-calculations and plotted against the
accumulated energy. The other values of the proportionality constant can be
obtained from Figure 7-5 by calculating the accumulated energy. The
values of kp for the test shots are found in Table 8 in the appendix.
Figure 7-5: kp versus accumulated energy
In Figure 7-6, only the current-dependent equation is used and shows that
there is a fairly good correspondence between the quantities calculated in
ADAMS and ATP. Therefore, this relation will be used in the power
47
calculations as a start. If the results are bad, the more advanced exponential
relation will be used in the calculation.
Figure 7-6: Comparison of pressure
7.2.4 Density
At temperatures over 2000 K, the mass density of the arc is independent of
the temperature. The density is, however, proportional to the magnitude of
the pressure, as shown in Figure 7-7 below where the density has been
plotted against pressure for the ADAMS calculations. The proportionality
constant can be found by comparison of plots. The density is calculated as
ρ arc = k ρ ⋅ p arc . Figure 7-8 shows that this relation gives rather good
agreement between the calculations, and no more work will be made on this
quantity.
48
Figure 7-7: Density versus pressure from ADAMS
Figure 7-8: Comparison of density
7.2.5 Specific enthalpy

The specific enthalpy in the arc volume, hav, can be regarded as constant
during the arc period. The specific enthalpy of the arc, harc, is related to the
pressure, as shown in Figure 7-9, where the ADAMS calculations of the
specific enthalpy is plotted against the pressure. As an approach, a
simplified approximation, a linear relation, will be used. The enthalpy is
therefore calculated as harc = h0 − k h ⋅ p arc , where h0 and kh are constants.
49
Figure 7-9: Enthalpy in arc versus pressure from ADAMS
In Figure 7-10 below, the calculated harc from ADAMS and ATP are
compared. The agreement is not good, but because the total power depends
on many quantities, no more advanced approximations should be needed
for now. The agreement can be improved by, for instance, using a piece-
wise linear relation instead.
Figure 7-10: Comparison of enthalpy
7.2.6 Mass flows

Both the radial and axial mass flows must be calculated. The axial mass
flow can be simplified as m& ax = Aarc ⋅ ρ arc ⋅ v sound . The radial mass flow
& rad = m& arc + m& ax , where marc is the mass
can be calculated according to m
50
content in the arc. marc is then calculated as m arc = ρ arc ⋅ Varc , and the
derivation is performed numerically by ATP.
7.3 Model equations

Using the equations above in the power loss equations, the following model
equations are obtained:
q rad = k rad ⋅ Tarc

4
⋅ rarc ⋅ l
qtur = k tur ⋅ (harc − hav ) ⋅ ρ arc ⋅ l ⋅ rarc ⋅ v sound
q ax = k ax ⋅ Aarc ⋅ ρ arc ⋅ v sound ⋅ harc
d 
q mfl = k mfl ⋅  ( ρ arc ⋅ Aarc ⋅ l ) + Aarc ⋅ ρ arc ⋅ v sound  ⋅ hav
 dt 
d 
q net = k net ⋅ v ⋅  ( ρ arc ⋅ t arc ⋅ Aarc ⋅ harc ) − p& arc ⋅ t arc ⋅ Aarc 
 dt 
where krad, ktur, kax, kmfl and knet are calibration constants. These constants
are used for compensating the simplifications made. The values of these
constants are the same for all test shots and are found in
Table 9 in the appendix. In the following figures, the different power
quantities and the total power are compared to the ones in the ADAMS
model. The solid lines are the ADAMS quantities and the dashed ones are
from ATP. These plots shows that the results obtained using the
simplifications above are very good. There is no need for more complex
calculations of these quantities. Since there are only time-derivatives in
these equations, there is no need for any derivative approximations either.
That is an advantage compared to the previous arc models.
Figure 7-11: Comparison of radiative power loss
51
Figure 7-12: Comparison of turbulent power loss
Figure 7-13: Comparison of power loss from axial power flow
52
Figure 7-14: Comparison of power loss from radial power flow
Figure 7-15: Comparison of net power
53
Figure 7-16: Comparison of total power

As described earlier, different sets of proportionality constants were used
for the different test shots in order to obtain as good correspondence as
possible between measured and calculated quantities. The results are
presented in the following subsections. A drawback is that the model
considers the test shot 670559 as a successful interruption although it
should be a failure.
The arc model is rather easy to use. Only the proportionality constants for
the area and pressure must be estimated before simulation, and it is easily
done. Knowledge of previous test shots is required though, if the wear in
the circuit-breaker is to be taken into account.
7.4.1 Arc voltage

It is shown in the following figures that this model gives accurate results
for the whole arc period. Even for 670559, which is supposed to be a
failure, the calculated arc voltage follows the measured one. This is because
the measured arc voltages behave in the same way until current zero for all
test shots. Therefore, the resistance at current zero should be calculated
equally well as for the other test shots.
54
Figure 7-17: Arc voltage for 670551 using power calculations
55
7.4.2 Resistance
The calculated arc resistance for the test shot 670554 is plotted in Figure
7-20. It is showing a more oscillating behaviour after current zero than for
the other arc models. This is probably because the arc model is a stiff
system, which means all the quantities in the model equations are
calculated directly without any differential equations. If some of the
equations were differentiated, the oscillations could disappear. However,
the transition from a conductor to an insulator is clearly visible.
Figure 7-20: Calculated arc resistance using power calculations
Because the model parameters can easily be calculated, the R0 and R500
values can be calculated and compared to the validation data. This
comparison is shown in Table 2 and Table 3. The values from the arc
56
model are larger than the ones from the measured data, but it means that
these values are on the right side of the breaking limit. The values for the
failed test shot are among the largest, though.
Table 2: Comparison of R0 between arc model and validation data

Test shot R0 from arc model [Ω] R0 from validation data [Ω]
670551 721.58 332.66
670552 722.07 352.61
670553 703.41 347.87
670554 676.06 347.30
670555 682.13 358.01
670556 712.94 336.22
670557 691.99 320.99
670558 688.99 339.18
670559 (failure) 741.06 327.93
Table 3: Comparison of R500 between arc model and validation data

Test shot R500 from arc model [Ω] R500 from validation data [Ω]
670551 655.41 341.06
670552 672.50 346.68
670553 652.82 323.46
670554 621.07 355.82
670555 627.37 368.01
670556 671.00 328.86
670557 624.31 345.73
670558 643.65 373.18
670559 (failure) 652.54 336.14
When plotted against arcing time, the values show almost the same pattern
as for the measurements, which means that the results are realistic. These
plots are found in Figure 7-21 and Figure 7-22.
57
Figure 7-21: Calculated R0
Figure 7-22: Calculated R500
The large values are probably caused by the peak of the arc voltage at
current zero being larger for the calculated data than for the measured. The
calculated current is also steeper than the measured at current zero, because
of a small difference in phase. This is illustrated in Figure 7-23, and could
be a reason for the large peak of the arc voltage.
58
Figure 7-23: Measured and calculated currents at current zero

This arc model calculates the arc voltage accurately and gives realistic
values of R0 and R500. The model parameters are easily determined and
because there are no derivatives that needs to be approximated, there is no
problem changing between different timesteps.
The arc model could be developed further, with more advanced calculations
of the physical properties and more thorough investigations of model
constants. This could improve the results, so the model fails to interrupt the
current for the test shots when it is supposed to fail. The peak of the arc
voltage at current zero could become to fit the validation data better as
well, resulting in better calculations of R0 and R500. A better representation
of the current could also improve these calculations.
59
Overall conclusions and recommendations
8 Overall conclusions and recommendations

Three different arc models have been investigated and presented. The first
two are based on calculations of the conductance in the circuit-breaker,
while the third is based on more physical relations and calculations of the
power.
8.1 Comparison of the arc models

The first arc model, Cassie-Mayr, was easy to implement, but the results
were depending highly on model parameters. The calculated arc voltage is
constant and set by a model parameter, which makes the model difficult to
use without much knowledge of the actual test shots. It was also impossible
to make a fair comparison between the R0 and R500 values from calculations
and measurements.
The second arc model, KEMA, was also rather easy to implement, but it
requires an advanced derivative approximation to avoid numerical errors.
The arc voltage is calculated realistically, but R0 and R500 were impossible
to calculate and compare properly. Quite a lot of work has to be made on
the model parameters and requires knowledge of the test shots. Therefore,
this model is also difficult to use as a black-box model but could be useful
if the parameters were determined properly or calculated during the
simulation.
The third arc model is a more physical model. The implementation was
rather hard, because different physical and geometrical properties had to be
approximated. However, the results are good and realistic values of R0 and
R500 are obtained. The model parameters are easy to calculate if the test
shots are simulated in order. A drawback was that the model considered the
test shot with a failed interruption as a successful. This could be improved
with more advanced approximations of the physical quantities.
The arc model based on power calculations is the best of the ones evaluated
in this thesis. It gives accurate results and can be used as a black-box
model. The KEMA arc model could also be useful but more work on
determining model parameters is needed.
8.2 Recommendations
Here is a list of recommendations and suggestions for following work.
• Investigate the effect of the test circuit on a breaking case and also the
arc models effect on the test circuit. This was one of the possible
problems to solve during the thesis, but there was not enough time for
it.
60
Overall conclusions and recommendations
• Investigate the arc models behaviour after current zero more

thoroughly.
• Develop the power calculation model further so it can handle different
types of circuit-breakers.
• Make a better representation of the current used in the tests.
• Make more advanced approximations of the physical and geometrical
quantities in the power calculation model to improve the breaking
ability.
• Use MatLab and a parameter estimation method to find better values
for the parameters of the KEMA model.
• Combine the power calculation model and the KEMA model to make
calculations of the KEMA model parameters during simulations. The
power loss equations could be used to estimate the parameters.
• Calculate R0 and R500 for more test shots from the laboratory, in order
to find a limit of the breaking ability.
61
References
9 References
[1] ABB intranet, http://inside.abb.com
[2] Berneryd, S., (1972), Högspänningsbrytare, brytprinciper och
utvecklingstrender, ASEA Teknisk rapport.
[3] Ljung, L., Glad, T., (2003), Modellbygge och simulering
[4] Haginomori, E., Arc dynamics – power system analysing with
dynamic arc characteristics
http://thunderbird.kuee.kyoto-u.ac.jp/hseps/sect10/sub0/text.htm
(Acc. 2004-01-26)
[5] Salamurovic, N., (2002), Simulations of circuits in ATPDraw,
PTHVP/BT/R 02-089, ABB Technical Report
[6] Measurement of Synthetic Test Circuit. Circuit Identification No.
1346-1.
[7] Smeets, R.P.P. and Kertész, V., (2000), Evaluation of high-voltage
circuit-breaker performance with a validated arc model, IEE Proc.,
Gener. Transm. Distrib.
[8] Prikler, L., Hoidalen, H.K., (2002), ATPDraw manual, Preliminary
Release No. 1.1
[9] Dube, L., (1996), MODELS in ATP, Language Manual
[10] Bizjak, G., Zunko, P., Povh, D., Circuit-breaker model for digital
simulation based on Mayr’s and Cassie’s differential arc equations
http://leoants.fe.uni-lj.si/CD/data/circubreak.htm (Acc. 2004-01-26)
[11] Jacobsson, S., (1999), Theory of arc model for circuit-breaker
simulations, BT 99-026, ABB/SWG Technical report.
62
Appendix
10 Appendix
10.1 Cassie-Mayr model parameters

Here are the model parameters used for two of the test shots.
Table 4: Model parameters for two of the test shots

670551 670559
P0 136355.35 135412.84
Uc 500 570
τm 1.0⋅10-6 1.0⋅10-6
τc 3.0⋅10-6 3.0⋅10-6
10.2 KEMA model parameters

Model parameters for three of the test shots.
Table 5: Model parameters when using Euler forward

670551 670553 670559
Derivative Euler forward Euler forward Euler forward
approximation
Time step 5.0⋅10-7 5.0⋅10-7 5.0⋅10-7
k1 5.7 5.7 5.7
K2 10 10 10
K3 100 100 100
Π1 1800000 2400000 2100000
Π2 432.46 433.28 428.15
T1 3.5⋅10-5 3.5⋅10-5 3.5⋅10-5
Table 6: Model parameters when using Runge-Kutta

670551 670553 670559
Derivative Runge-Kutta Runge-Kutta Runge-Kutta
approximation
Time step 2.0⋅10-7 2.0⋅10-7 2.0⋅10-7
k1 5.7 5.7 5.7
k2 10 10 10
k3 100 100 100
Π1 1800000 2400000 2100000
Π2 371.75 370.64 371.11
T1 3.5⋅10-4 3.5⋅10-4 3.5⋅10-4
63
Appendix
10.3 Constants for model using power calculations

Table 7: Numerical constants that are equal for all the test shots
Constant Value Description
vc 4.8 Contact speed
vsound 3300 Speed of sound in arc
Tarc 19000 Arc temperature
hav 2.5⋅107 Specific enthalpy in arc
kA 6.23⋅10-9 Proportionality constant, area
p0 6.0⋅105 Zero-level constant, pressure
kp 93.5 Proportionality constant,
pressure
kρ 1.07⋅10-7 Proportionality constant, density
h0 8.425⋅107 Zero-level constant, specific
enthalpy in arc
kh 5.3 Proportionality constant,
specific enthalpy in arc
lmax 0.068 Maximum length of arc
Table 8: Calculated proportionality constants

Test shot kA kp
670551 6.23⋅10-9 93.5
670552 7.20⋅10-9 70
670553 8.00⋅10-9 60
670554 8.50⋅10-9 44
670555 8.80⋅10-9 39
670556 8.90⋅10-9 37
670557 9.02⋅10-9 35
670558 9.04⋅10-9 34.5
670559 9.04⋅10-9 34.5
Table 9: Calibration constants used in power equations

Constant Value
krad 0.68
ktur 0.035
kax 0.33
kmfl 0.35
knet 0.85
64
På svenska
Detta dokument hålls tillgängligt på Internet – eller dess framtida ersättare –

under en längre tid från publiceringsdatum under förutsättning att inga extra-
ordinära omständigheter uppstår.
Tillgång till dokumentet innebär tillstånd för var och en att läsa, ladda ner,
skriva ut enstaka kopior för enskilt bruk och att använda det oförändrat för
ickekommersiell forskning och för undervisning. Överföring av upphovsrätten
vid en senare tidpunkt kan inte upphäva detta tillstånd. All annan användning av
dokumentet kräver upphovsmannens medgivande. För att garantera äktheten,
säkerheten och tillgängligheten finns det lösningar av teknisk och administrativ
art.
Upphovsmannens ideella rätt innefattar rätt att bli nämnd som upphovsman i
den omfattning som god sed kräver vid användning av dokumentet på ovan
beskrivna sätt samt skydd mot att dokumentet ändras eller presenteras i sådan
form eller i sådant sammanhang som är kränkande för upphovsmannens litterära
eller konstnärliga anseende eller egenart.
För ytterligare information om Linköping University Electronic Press se
förlagets hemsida http://www.ep.liu.se/
In English
The publishers will keep this document online on the Internet - or its possible
replacement - for a considerable time from the date of publication barring
exceptional circumstances.
The online availability of the document implies a permanent permission for
anyone to read, to download, to print out single copies for your own use and to
use it unchanged for any non-commercial research and educational purpose.
Subsequent transfers of copyright cannot revoke this permission. All other uses
of the document are conditional on the consent of the copyright owner. The
publisher has taken technical and administrative measures to assure authenticity,
security and accessibility.
According to intellectual property law the author has the right to be
mentioned when his/her work is accessed as described above and to be protected
against infringement.
For additional information about the Linköping University Electronic Press
and its procedures for publication and for assurance of document integrity,
please refer to its WWW home page: http://www.ep.liu.se/
© [Niklas Gustavsson]

Arc Model PDF

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arc Model PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arc Model PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Evaluation and Simulation of Black-box Arc Models

for High Voltage Circuit-breakers

Examensarbete utfört i Reglerteknik och

Handledare: Markus Gerdin

Linköping, 19 mars 2004

Institutionen för systemteknik

Språk Rapporttyp ISBN

URL för elektronisk version

Titel Utvärdering och simulering av black-box ljusbågsmodeller för högspänningsbrytare

Författare Niklas Gustavsson

The arc model based on power calculations could be improved by using

First, I wish to thank my supervisors at ABB, Staffan Jacobsson and

I would also like to thank my supervisor at the Department of Electrical

Niklas Gustavsson - Ludvika, March 2004

In this section, ABB will be presented along with some background of

1.1 The ABB group

1.1.1 Power Technologies

1.1.2 Automation Technologies

1.1.3 Oil, Gas and Petrochemicals

1.1.4 High Voltage Products unit

Figure 1-1: HPL420 80 kA circuit-breaker. Picture taken from [1]

In simple terms, circuit-breakers consist of a plug that is in connection with

Figure 1-2: Simplification of the contact gap

The arc period is defined as the time from contact separation to

1.3 Testing in the laboratory

1.3.1 Test circuit and method

The test circuit consists of a current circuit, in which a regular power

Because an alternating current flows in the circuit-breaker, the interruption

Figure 1-3: Successful interruption

Figure 1-4: Failed interruption

1.4 Black-box models

Black-box models have been used in circuit-breaker development for many

3 Validation and criteria for the breaking ability

3.1 Validation data

The current through the circuit-breaker will be used as input parameters to

Figure 3-1: Measured current, successful interruption

Figure 3-2: Measured current, failed interruption

3.2 Breaking ability

takes place. A major task will be to make accurate calculations of the

3.2.1 Calculations of the arc resistance

It can be difficult determining the voltage steepness because of rapid

Figure 3-3: Measured current and arc voltage at current zero

3.2.2 Arc resistance from the validation data

It is almost impossible finding a clear limit between successful and failed

Table 1: Calculated value of R0 and R500 from the validation data

Figure 3-4: Arc resistance at current zero

Figure 3-5: Arc resistance 500 ns before current zero

4.1 ATP and ATPDraw

ATPDraw is a graphical preprocessor to ATP. Using the mouse, the user

Figure 4-1: ATPDraw

Another drawback is that it is difficult to handle derivatives in the

4.3 Implementation of the circuit-breaker model

4.3.1 Model of the circuit-breaker and the arc

Figure 4-2: ATP breaker

4.3.2 The test circuit

Figure 4-3: Test circuit in ATP

Figure 4-4: Measured and calculated currents